Engineering Encyclopedia: Compressor Performance Characteristics

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Compressor Performance Characteristics
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Content Page
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ... 1

Thermodynamics of Compression ............................................................................. 1
Isothermal Process......................................................................................... 4
Isentropic Process.......................................................................................... 5
Polytropic Process ......................................................................................... 7
Compressibility ............................................................................................10
Properties of Gas Mixtures.......................................................................................17
Dry Gas Mixtures .........................................................................................17
Wet Gas Mixtures.........................................................................................21
Volumetric Flow ......................................................................................................26
Mollier Diagrams .....................................................................................................29
Dynamic Compressor Characteristics .......................................................................32
Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles) ..................................32
Performance Curves .....................................................................................35
Performance Curve Limits............................................................................36
Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different Speeds.................................40
DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS.........................................................................................................46
Isentropic Process ....................................................................................................46
Pressure Volume Cycle ............................................................................................46
Clearance Volume....................................................................................................48
Pressure Effect on Volume.......................................................................................49
WORK AID 1: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR DETERMINING
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS..............................50
Work Aid 1A: Calculation Procedure......................................................................50
Work Aid 1B: Charts for Determining Compressor Performance Characteristics.....52
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS...................55
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................57

Table of Figures Page
Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic

Efficiency Based on an Ideal Gas............................................................10
Figure 2. Critical Constants of Gases.......................................................................13
Figure 3. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures ..................................15
Figure 4. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a Sales Gas/Fuel
Gas Mixture............................................................................................18
Figure 5. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures..........................................24
Figure 6. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft3 at Various Relative
Humidities ..............................................................................................25
Figure 7. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft3 at Various
Temperatures and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity.....................26
Figure 8. Mollier Diagram for Propane....................................................................31
Figure 9. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve............................................33
Figure 10. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram ...........................34
Figure 11. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency..........................35
Figure 12. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line ...........................................................38
Figure 13. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall.............................................................39
Figure 14. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on
Compressor Head Versus Flow Curves ...................................................40
Figure 15. Typical Head Curve................................................................................44
Figure 16. Typical Horsepower Curve.....................................................................45
Figure 17. Pressure Volume Cycle ..........................................................................48
Figure 18. Critical Constants of Gases.....................................................................52
Figure 19. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure..................................53
Figure 20. Efficiency Chart .....................................................................................54

DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The major performance characteristics of a dynamic compressor are flow, head, and efficiency.
To determine these performance characteristics, the Mechanical Engineer must understand the
following subjects:
Thermodynamics of Compression
Properties of Gas Mixtures
Volumetric Flow
Mollier Diagrams
Dynamic Compressor Characteristics
Thermodynamics of Compression
No gas exactly conforms to the Ideal Gas Law, which show the relationship between the volume,
the absolute pressure, and the absolute temperature of an ideal gas. Most gases, however,
conform to these laws with sufficient accuracy to yield sound engineering answers relevant to
engineering problems. To understand and to calculate the thermodynamics of compression, the
Mechanical Engineer uses the following fundamental laws:
Boyle’s Law
Charles’ Law
Dalton’s Law
Avogadros’ Law
As explained below, these gas laws combine to form the Ideal Gas Law.
Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature of a gas is kept constant, the volume of an
enclosed mass of gas is inversely proportional to varying pressure upon the gas. Another way to
state Boyle’s Law is that the product of the pressure multiplied by the volume remains constant
at a constant temperature. The relationship between pressure and volume can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 ; when temperature is constant
Where: V = Volume
P = Pressure
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Although Boyle’s Law assumes the condition of constant temperature; constant temperature is
seldom the case in actual industrial situations. Temperature continually changes, and such
changes in temperature affect the volume of a given mass of gas.
Charles’ Law states that, if constant pressure is maintained, the volume of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature. The relationship between volume and absolute
temperature can be conveniently expressed as the following equation:
V2 T2
= when pressure is constant
V1 T1
Where: V = Volume
T = Temperature
Dalton’s Law states that, in a mixture of gases, the summation of partial pressures is equal to the
total pressure of the mixture. A partial pressure is defined as the pressure that a specific gas in a
gas mixture would exert if the gas alone occupied the total volume occupied by the mixture at
the mixture temperature. The relationship between partial pressures can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:
PT = ∑ PP = PP1 + PP 2 + PP 3 . . . . PPn
Where: PT = Total pressure

PP = Partial pressure
Σ = Summation
n = Number of component gases
Avogadros’ Law states that all gases have the same number of moles in the same volume and at
the same pressure and temperature. This relationship can be stated through the following
equation:
PV
= Constant
T
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature

As pointed out above, Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Dalton’s Law, and Avogadros’ Law combine
to form the Ideal Gas Law, which shows the relationship between the volume, the absolute
pressure, and the absolute temperature of an ideal gas. The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with
either of the two following formulas:
RT
υ =
P
or
P
ρ =
RT
Where: υ = Specific volume (ft3/lbm)

ρ = Density (lbm/ ft3)
R = Gas constant =Runiv/MW
= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-°R/MW
Runiv = Universal Gas constant
= 1.98587 Btu/lbm-Mol-°R
= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-°R
= 8.3143 Joules/gm-Mol-°R
= 10.73 psia-ft3/ lbm-Mol-°R
MW = Gas molecular weight (lbm/mole)
P = Absolute pressure (lbf/in2)
T = Absolute temperature (°R), where °R = °F + 460
The General Gas Law derives from simplification of the Ideal Gas Law applied to a fixed mass.
The General Gas Law relates the properties of an ideal gas in response to varying temperatures
and volumes, with pressure held constant:
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Where: V = Volume
P = Pressure
T = Temperature
Variation in temperature is a function of the specific heat (C) of a gas, or the amount of energy
that is required to raise the temperature of one pound of gas one degree Fahrenheit. If the
volume of the gas is kept constant while the heat is added, all of the heat is used to increase the
temperature of the gas. The specific heat at a constant volume is denoted CV. If the pressure is
kept constant and if the volume is allowed to vary while the heat is added, an increased amount
of heat will be required. The increased amount of heat is required because, in addition to
increasing the temperature, the gas expands and thus performs external work. The specific heat
at constant pressure is denoted CP.

The external work that is done when a unit mass of gas is heated at constant pressure is equal to
the gas constant (R). The external work can be shown by the following formula:
R
CP − CV =
J
Where: CP = Specific heat at constant pressure (Btu/°F/lb)
CV = Specific heat at constant volume (Btu/°F/lb)
R = Specific gas constant (ftlb/°R)
J = Joule’s constant, a ratio of the mechanical work done to the heat
that is produced (equal to 778 ft-lb/Btu)
The following reversible (Ideal) compression processes can be applied to compressors:
Isothermal Process
Isentropic Process
Polytropic Process
Although they describe ideal gases and are not commercially attainable, these processes are used
as a basis for calculations and comparisons. The variance of a gas from laws and processes for
an ideal gas is referred to as compressibility. The reversible (ideal) compression processes and
compressibility are discussed below. The discussions will focus on head and efficiency in the
ideal compression processes and in the actual compression process.
Isothermal Process
The isothermal compression process is compression that takes place at a constant temperature.
Because large amounts of heat transfer area must be supplied to keep the temperature constant,
isothermal compression is not common in the actual operation of machinery.
The equation for isothermal efficiency is as follows:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume

Isentropic Process
The isentropic compression process follows a path of constant entropy. In the isentropic process,
heat is neither added to nor removed from the gas during compression. The fact that heat is
neither added nor removed does not mean that the temperature is constant. Because of the work
of compression that is performed on the gas, temperature increases as the pressure increases. In
compressor theory, the terms “isentropic” (constant entropy) and “adiabatic” (no heat transfer)
are interchangeably used. This interchangeability is valid for the context in which the terms are
used. The actual definition of an isentropic process is an adiabatic, reversible process.
The following equation shows the relationship between pressure and volume for isentropic
compression:
PV k = Constant
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
k = Isentropic exponent
The isentropic exponent (k) is the ratio of the specific heat at a constant pressure (CP) to the
specific heat at constant volume (CV). The isentropic exponent is equal to CP/CV.
The following equations are used to calculate the total work (Workisen) that is done on a unit
mass of gas in the isentropic compression process:
Workisen = C P ( Tf − Ti )
 ( k − 1/k ) 
 k   Pf 
= Vi Pi     − 1
 k − 1   Pi  
 
or
 ( k −1/k ) 
 k   Pf 
Workisen = RTi     − 1
 k − 1   Pi  

Where: CP = Specific heat at constant temperature

Tf = Final temperature (°R)
Ti = Initial temperature (°R)
Vi = Initial volume (ft3)
Pf = Final pressure (psia)
Pi = Initial pressure (psia)
R = Gas constant

As listed above, for all gases, the gas constant (R) is equal to the universal gas constant (Runiv)
divided by the gas molecular weight (MW), or 1545.32/MW. By definition, the air has a
uniform molecular weight of 28.966; therefore, the specific gravity (sg) of any gas, relative to
air, of molecular weight MW is equal to MW/28.966. The gas constant (R) for any gas can now
be defined as 1545.32/MW, or 53.34/sg.
The energy (lbf) of the compression of a gas can be thought of as lifting a given weight of gas
(lbm) at inlet pressure and temperature to a height (feet) at which the gas is discharged at the
same pressure and temperature. The unit for head is as follows:
 ft − lbf 
F oot pound force per pound mass  
 lbm 
Head (Hp) is frequently expressed as “feet,” which relates to the height of the gas column at
which the gas is discharged at the same pressure and temperature as the inlet gas.
Head (Hp) is a fundamental property of a compressor. Head is a function of the compressor

design and of the compressor speed. Head is not affected by the nature of the compressed gas,
the thermodynamic properties of the gas, or the addition or subtraction of heat as the gas flows
through the compressor. The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of molecular
weight:
 ( k − 1/k ) 
1545.32Ti  k   Pf 
Head isen =     − 1
MW  k − 1   Pi  
 
Where: Head = ft-lbf/lbm

T = °R
P = psia
The efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the theoretical energy output of the system to the
actual energy input of the system. For an isentropic process, the theoretical energy output is the
isentropic work output. To determine the efficiency in the isentropic process ( η ), the isentropic
process must be understood. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, the ideal adiabatic
compression occurs at a constant entropy. Efficiency in isentropic compression, as shown in the
following equation, can then be defined as the ratio of isentropic work to actual work:
Isentropic Work
η=
Actual Work
The overall efficiency in isentropic compression (also referred to as isentropic efficiency) is used
as a measure of the overall performance of a compressor.

A variation of the isentropic process occurs when compression with intercooling is used. Multi-
stage compressors may use intercoolers between stages to lower the gas temperature.
Compression with intercooling results in an isothermal approximation of an isentropic process.
When intercooling is used, the compressor head can be approximated through use of the
following isothermal head equation:
RTi
H iso = ln (P2 / P1 )
MW
Where: Hiso = Isothermal head

R = Gas constant (1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm - Mol - °R)
Ti = Initial temperature in °R
ln = Log to base e
MW = Gas molecular weight
P1 = Initial pressure in psia
P2 = Final pressure in psia
Polytropic Process
Polytropic compression is the compression path that closely follows the compression path in a
real centrifugal compressor. Centrifugal compression is not an ideal thermodynamic process.
The inefficiency of the compression process results in excess heat input to the process gas, which
causes the temperature to increase faster than it would in isentropic compression. Because of the
temperature increase, the volume at the end of polytropic compression is larger than the volume
at the end of isentropic compression.
The following equation shows the relationship between pressure and volume for polytropic
compression:
PV n = Constant
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
n = Polytropic exponent
In terms of required energy, all compressors operate closest to the polytropic process. In any gas
compression, the actual work input is greater than the polytropic work input. In a polytropic
process, the temperature rise occurs at a faster rate than it does in an isentropic process. The
faster rise in temperature is accounted for mathematically by the substitution of the polytropic
exponent (n) for the isentropic exponent (k) in the following polytropic head equation:
 ( n −1/n ) 
 n   Pf 
Head poly = RTi     − 1
 n − 1   Pi  
 

The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of molecular weight:
( n − 1/n )
1545.32Ti  n   Pf  
Head poly =     − 1
MW  n − 1   Pi  
 
The following equation shows the relationship between the polytropic exponent (n) and the
isentropic exponent (k):
n −1 k −1 1
= ×
n k ηp
Where: ηp = Polytropic efficiency
The equation that shows the relationship between the polytropic exponent (n) and the isentropic
n−1 k−1
exponent (k) indicates that when η p is equal to 100%, = and the process becomes
n k
isentropic (adiabatic). As mentioned in compressor theory, the terms “isentropic” (no heat
transfer) and “adiabatic” (no entropy change) are used interchangeably.
If the proper mathematical substitution is performed, the following equation for polytropic
efficiency results:
n
n−1
ηp =
k
k−1
The polytropic exponent for Ideal Gases can be obtained independent of polytropic efficiency by
the following equation, which relates suction and discharge temperature and pressure:
 T2 
Ln  
n−1  T1 
=
n P 
Ln  2 
 P1 
Polytropic efficiency is a characteristic of each compressor. Polytropic efficiency is equal to the

reversible work divided by the total work applied to the gas. Because of the various losses that
are caused by the gas as it passes through the impellers and diffusers at high velocity, reversible
work and total work are different. For centrifugal compressors, the polytropic efficiency is
usually between 60% and 85%. For axial compressors, efficiencies can be as high as 92%.

The polytropic exponent (n) is always larger than the isentropic exponent (k). For the same
actual performance, the value of the polytropic efficiency will be higher than the value of the
isentropic efficiency.
The ratio of any reversible (Ideal) process, isothermal, isentropic, or polytropic, is equal to the
actual work (energy) as illustrated in the following equation:
Head iso Head isen Head poly

Actual Work = = =
η iso η isen η poly
The relationship between isentropic efficiency and polytropic efficiency (based on a perfect gas)
is shown in Figure 1. If the inlet and outlet pressure of the compressor are known, Figure 1 can
be used to convert isentropic efficiency to polytropic efficiency, or polytropic efficiency to
isentropic efficiency. To convert known efficiency to the unknown efficiency, a temperature rise
factor (X) must be calculated. The following equation is used to calculate the temperature rise
factor (X):
 P  ( k − 1/ k ) 
X =  2  − 1
 P1  
Where: X = Temperature rise factor

P2 = Discharge pressure
P1 = Inlet pressure
Once the temperature rise factor (X) has been calculated, the line that corresponds to the
temperature rise factor (X) is used to convert the known efficiency to unknown efficiency. The
point on the unknown efficiency axis that corresponds to the intersection of the known efficiency
and the temperature rise factor (X) is the unknown efficiency. This point is called equivalent
efficiency.

Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic Efficiency Based on

an Ideal Gas
Compressibility
The relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature for an ideal gas can be defined
by the equation (P)(υ) = (R)(T). However, most gases that are encountered in industrial
compression do not exactly obey the Ideal Gas Law equation. Deviation from the ideal gas law
is referred to as “compressibility.” Compressibility is specifically defined as the degree to which
any given gas varies from the Ideal Gas Law.

Compressibility is stated as a ratio of actual gas volume at a given pressure and temperature to
the volume that is calculated by theoretical law. The compressibility modifies the equation for
relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature for an ideal gas from Pυ = RT to:
(P)(υ) = (Z)(R )(T )
Where: Z = Compressibility factor

P = Pressure
υ = Specific volume
R = Gas constant
T = Temperature
The compressibility factor (Z) is a dimensionless factor that is independent of the quantity of gas.
The compressibility factor (Z) is determined by the type, the temperature, and the pressure of the
gas. The compressibility factor (Z) can be derived from the rule of corresponding states through
the use of reduced temperature and pressure. The reduced values of temperature and pressure are
ratios of actual conditions to critical constants as shown in the following formulas:
T
Tr =
Tc
Where: Tr = Reduced temperature in °R

Tc = Critical temperature in °R
T = Temperature actual in °R
P
Pr =
Pc
Where: Pr = Reduced pressure in lbf/in2

Pc = Critical pressure in lbf/in2
P = Actual pressure in lbf/in2
Values of the critical constants, Tc and Pc, for individual gases are given in Figure 2. The
following example shows how to determine the compressibility factor of propane gas with
pressure (P) of 300 psia and temperature (T) of 140°F. Figure 2 is used to determine the
following critical constants of propane:
Pc = 617.4 psia
Tc = 666.2° R

To calculate the reduced temperature (Tr), the temperature of the propane (140°F) must be
converted to degrees Rankine as follows:
T = T + 460°R
= 140 + 460
= 600°R
The reduced temperature (Tr) is calculated by dividing the temperature (T) of the propane
(600°R) by the critical temperature constant (Tc) for propane (666.2°R).
T
Tr =
Tc
600
=
666.2
= 0.9006
The reduced pressure (Pr) is calculated by dividing the pressure (P) of the propane (300 psia) by
the critical pressure constant (Pc) for the propane (617.4 psia).
P
Pr =
Pc
300
=
617.4
= 0.4859

Cp and Cp/Cr
at 14.7 psia and
60°°F Critical Constants
Mol. Wt. Pressure Temp. Mcp Mcp Mcp
Compound Formula M Cp Cp/Cr psia Pc °R Tc at 60°F at 100°F at 200°F
Acetylene C2H2 26.036 0.3966 1.238 905.0 557.4 10.33 10.69 11.53
Air N+O2 28.966 0.2470 1.395 547.0 238.7 6.96 6.96 6.99
Ammonia NH3 17.032 0.5232 1.310 1,657.0 731.4 8.91 8.57 9.02
Benzene C6H6 78.108 0.2404 1.118 714.0 1,013.0 18.78 20.47 24.46
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 (0.3458) (1.120) 653.0 799.0 18.70
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 (0.3412) 1.120 628.0 766.0 18.45
N-Butane C4H10 58.120 0.3970 1.094 550.7 765.6 23.07 24.51 26.16
Isobutane C4H10 58.120 0.3872 1.097 529.1 734.9 22.50 23.96 27.62
N-Butene C4H6 56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.77 22.09 25.18
Isobutene C4H6 56.104 0.3701 1.106 579.8 752.5 20.76
Butylene C4H6 56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.78 21.94 24.86
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 0.1991 1.300 1,073.0 548.0 8.76 9.00 9.35
Carbon monoxide CO 28.010 0.2484 1.403 510.0 242.0 6.96 6.96 6.98
Chlorine Cl2 70.914 0.1149 1.366 1,120.0 751.0 8.15
Ethane C2H4 30.068 0.4097 1.193 708.3 550.1 12.32 12.96 14.68
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.069 0.3070 1.130 927.0 629.6 14.14
Ethylene C2H4 28.052 0.3622 1.243 742.1 509.8 10.16 10.68 12.08
N-Hexane C6H14 86.172 0.3984 (1.062) 439.7 914.5 34.33 36.23 41.08
Helium He 4.003 1.2480 1.6598 480.0 510.0 5.00
Hydrogen H2 2.016 3.408 1.408 188.0 60.2 6.87 6.90 6.95
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.076 0.254 1.323 1,306 672.7 8.66 8.18 8.36
Methane CH4 16.042 0.5271 1.311 673.1 343.5 8.46 8.65 9.30
Methyl alcohol CH3OH 32.042 0.2700 1.203 1,157.0 924.0 8.65
Nitrogen N2 28.016 0.2482 1.402 492.0 227.2 6.95 6.96 6.963
N-Octane C8H18 114.224 0.3998 (1.046) 362.1 1,025.2 45.67
Oxygen O2 32.00 0.2188 1.401 730 278.2 7.00 7.03 7.120
N-Pentane C5H12 72.146 0.3972 1.074 489.5 845.9 28.66 30.30 34.41
Isopentane C5H12 72.146 0.3880 1.075 483.0 830.0 27.99 29.90 34.44
Propane C3H8 44.094 0.3885 1.136 617.4 666.2 17.13 18.21 20.90
Propylene C3H6 42.078 0.3541 1.154 667 657.4 14.90 15.77 17.88
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.060 0.1470 1.246 1.142 775.0 9.42
Toluene C7H8 92.134 0.2599 1.091 611 1,069.5 23.95
Water H2O 18.016 0.4446 1.335 3,206 1,165.4 8.01 8.03 8.12
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 0.1939 1.410 1,199.2 584.5 7.07
Figure 2. Critical Constants of Gases

The compressibility factor curves are graphs of reduced pressure (Pr) versus compressibility
factor (Z) for various reduced temperatures (Tr). The compressibility factor (Z) shown in Figure
3 is for low reduced pressure. As shown in Figure 3, a compressibility factor curve is used in
conjunction with the calculated reduced temperature (Tr) and reduced pressure (Pr) to determine
the compressibility factor (2) determined by locating the point at which the reduced temperature
(Tr = 0.9006) and the reduced pressure (Pr = 0.4859) intersect and, then, by reading horizontally
to find the compressibility factor (Z = 0.675).

Figure 3. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures

In previous discussion of the isentropic process and the polytropic process, the equations for
work or head were only true for the Ideal Gas Law equation. The compressibility factor is used
to account for the deviation of a gas from the Ideal Gas Law equations. To correct for deviation
from Ideal Gas Law, the compressibility factor must be used in the work or head equations.
The compressibility factor will vary from compressor inlet conditions to compressor outlet
conditions. In most cases, the compressibility factor remains fairly constant over the range of
compression, and an average value for the compressibility factor can be used. The average
compressibility factor can be determined through use of the following calculation:
Z2 − Z1
Z avg =
2
Where:
Zavg = Average compressibility factor

Z2 = Compressibility factor at discharge conditions
Z1 = Compressibility factor at inlet conditions
If the proper mathematical substitutions are made to the isentropic and polytropic head
equations, the following isentropic and polytropic head equations would result:
Isentropic:
( k −1/ k )
 k   Pf  
Head isen = Z avg RTi     − 1
 k − 1  Pi  

( k −1/ k )
1545.32 Z avg Ti  k   Pf  
=  
   − 1
MW  k − 1  Pi  

Polytropic:
( n − 1/ n )
 n   Pf  
Head poly = Zavg R / Ti  
   − 1
 n − 1  Pi  

( n − 1/ n )
1545.32 Zavg Ti  n   Pf  
=     − 1
MW  n − 1  Pi  


Properties of Gas Mixtures
Many of the gases that are involved in engineering systems are physical mixtures of either the
permanent gases or one or more of these gases with superheated or saturated vapors. For
example, atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen with traces of other gases, with
superheated or saturated water vapor or, at times, with saturated vapor and liquid. This section
discusses the properties of the following gas mixtures:
Dry Gas Mixtures

Wet Gas Mixtures
Dry Gas Mixtures
The procedures that are required to individually consider the properties of each constituent of a
dry gas mixture are very complex. Experience has demonstrated that a mixture of dry gases may
be regarded as an equivalent gas. The properties of the equivalent gas depend upon the types of
gases and the proportion of each of the gases that make up the equivalent gas.
If the chemical composition of a dry gas mixture is known, it is possible to determine the gas
characteristics that are necessary to perform compressor calculations. The following are the
properties of a dry gas mixture that are required for adiabatic compressor calculations:
Gas constant (dependent on molecular mass MW)

k, specific heat ratio and adiabatic exponent
P1, T1, V1, and P2
Critical pressure , PC
Critical temperature, TC
Compressibility factor, Z
Of the above properties, MW, CP, CV, PC, and TC are calculated by addition of the products of
the individual mol fraction of each of the constituents of the gas mixture multiplied by the
specific properties of the individual gas. An application of the individual mol fraction
calculations is shown in Figure 4, which presents the computation of the physical characteristics
of a typical sales gas/fuel gas mixture. The composition is known on the volumetric basis.

Mol Molecular Critical Critical

Gas Fraction Weight (y)x MCP at (y) x MCP Pressure Temperature
Component (y) (MW) (MW) 100°F at 100°F Pc (y) x Pc Tc (y) x Tc
Methane 0.922 16.04 14.78 8.65 7.975 673.1 620.6 343.5 316.7
Ethane 0.048 30.07 1.44 12.96 0.622 708.3 34.0 550.1 26.4
Propane 0.019 44.09 0.84 18.21 0.346 617.4 11.7 666.2 12.7
i-Butane 0.004 58.12 0.23 23.96 0.096 529.1 2.1 734.9 2.9
N-butane 0.006 58.12 0.35 24.51 0.147 550.7 3.3 765.6 4.6
i-pentane 0.001 72.15 0.07 29.90 0.030 483.0 0.5 830.0 0.8
Total 1.00 MW = 17.71 Mcp = 9.216 Pcmix = 672.2 Tcmix = 364.1
MCv = MCP - 1.986 = 7.230 k = MCP/MCv = 9.216/7.230 = 1.27
Figure 4. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture
Several individual equations are used to calculate the individual properties of a dry gas mixture.
The molecular weight of a gas mixture is determined from the following equation:
MW = ∑( X i )( MWi )
Where: Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component of the mixture

MWi = Molecular weight of the individual component of the mixture
MW = Molecular weight of the mixture
∑ = Sum
The premise for the calculation of MW is the following equation:
R univ
R=
MW
Where: Runiv = Universal gas constant

R = Gas constant of mixture
Given that MW = ∑( X i )( MWi ) , it follows that:
R univ
R=
∑( X i )( MWi )

The k value of a gas mixture is determined from the following equation:
k=
( )
∑( M i ) c pi
∑( M )(c ) − 1986
i pi .
For metric values (Cpi in kJ/Kmol°K), the k value of a mixture is determined from the following
equation:
k=
( )
∑(M i ) c pi
∑(M )(c ) − 8. 32
i pi
Where: Mi = Molecular weight of the individual component of the mixture

Cpi = Specific heat at constant pressure of the individual component of the
mixture
The pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the following equation:
P = ∑( X i )( Pi )
Where: P = Pressure of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component
Pi = Pressure of the individual component
The temperature of a gas mixture can be calculated from the following equation:
T = ∑( X i )(Ti )
Where: T = Temperature of the mixture

Ti = Temperature of the individual component
The specific volume of a gas mixture can be calculated from the following equation:
υmix = Σ(Xi)(υi)
Where: υmix = Specific volume of the mixture

υi = Specific volume of the individual component
The critical pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the following equation:
Pc mix = ∑( X i )( Pci )

Where: Pcmix = Critical pressure of the mixture

Pci = Critical pressure of the individual component
The critical temperature of a mixture can be calculated from the following equation:
Tc mix = ∑(X i )( Tci )
Where: Tcmix = Critical temperature of the mixture

Tci = Critical temperature of the individual component
The compressibility factor (Z) of the mixture is determined by the calculation of the reduced
temperature (Tr) and the reduced pressure (Pr) through the use of the following equations:
T
Tr =
Tcmix
P
Pr =
Pcmix
Where: Tr = Reduced temperature of the gas mixture

Tcmix = Critical temperature of the mixture
Pr = Reduced pressure of the gas mixture
Pcmix = Critical pressure of the mixture
T = Temperature of the gas in °R
P = Pressure of the gas in psia
The compressibility factor for the inlet condition (Z1) is determined through the use of inlet
pressure (P1) and temperature (T1). The compressibility factor for the outlet condition (Z2) is
determined through the use of outlet pressure (P2) and temperature (T2).
The calculated values of reduced pressure and reduced temperature for the gas mixture are then
used with the curves of compressibility factors at low reduced pressure that were previously
shown in Figure 3 to determine the compressibility factor (Z) of the gas mixture.

Wet Gas Mixtures
Compressor performance is affected by compressing wet gas (gases that contain water vapor).
As the gas pressure is increased during compression, the gas reaches the water vapor saturation
point. The weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard temperature and pressure and when entering
the compressor will be more than the weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard temperature and
pressure and when leaving the compressor. Compressor inlet flow rate is typically rated for dry
air conditions. The compressor inlet flow rate must be corrected to reflect the capacity at wet gas
conditions. Gas density and the polytropic exponent (n) must also be adjusted for the effect of
water vapor.
The amount of water vapor that is contained in the air is measured in two ways: specific
humidity and relative humidity. Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor present
in a gas to mass of dry gas. Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor that is
actually present in the gas to the amount of water vapor that would be present if the air were
saturated.
Specific humidity is also known as absolute humidity, or the humidity ratio. Specific humidity
can be expressed by the following equation:
mv
ωs =
ma
Where: ωs = Specific humidity

mv = Mass of water vapor in kg or lbm
ma = Mass of dry air in kg or lbm
The specific humidity can also be expressed by the following equations:
Pv V Pv
mv R vT R v R a Pv
ωs = = = =
ma Pa V Pa R v Pa
RaT Ra
or
R a Pv
ωs =
R v ( P − Pv )

Where: ωs = Specific humidity

Pv = Partial pressure of the water vapor
Pa = Partial pressure of the dry gas
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture
Rv = Gas constant of the gas-water vapor mixture
Ra = Gas constant for the dry gas
T = Absolute temperature
Relative humidity can be determined from the following equation:
Pv V
mv R v T Pv
φ= = =
m g Pg V Pg
R vT
Where: φ = Relative humidity as a decimal fraction

Pv = Partial pressure of the water vapor
Pg = The saturation pressure at the gas temperature
Rv = Gas constant of the gas-water vapor mixture
T = Absolute temperature
The effect of humidity on compressor flow rate can be shown by the following scenario for an
air compressor:
Compressor design conditions:
Dry air inlet capacity at 60°F: 62,000 cfm

Molecular weight of air: 28.95
Inlet temperature: 80°F
Inlet pressure: 14.7 psia
Relative humidity: 48%
Discharge pressure: 250 psig
Saturation pressure at 80°F: 0.507 psia
Partial pressure of the water vapor at 48% RH: 0.48 x 0.507 = 0.243 psia
Partial pressure of air: 14.7 - 0.243 = 14.56 psia

The weight flow of dry air at the inlet can be calculated by the following equation:
QP1 × 144
Weight Flow of Dry Air (W) =
RaT
62,000 × 14.7 × 144
=
533. × 520
= 4735 lbm / min
The volume flow rate of air and water vapor at the inlet conditions can be calculated by the
following equation:
WRTi
Qi =
Pa × 144
4735 × 533. × 520
=
14.56 × 144
= 62,593 cfm
The example shows the effect of humidity on the air compressor flow rate.
The specific humidity of process gases can be determined by sampling and analyzing the gas
stream at the compressor suction. The relative humidity for air compressors can be determined
by using a sling psychrometer.
The sling psychrometer consists of two identical thermometers that are mounted on a light frame.
One thermometer, which is called the wet bulb (WB), is covered with a wick that is saturated
with water before a reading is taken. The other thermometer, which is called the dry bulb (DB),
has no wick. The sling psychrometer is whirled or “slung” through the air. As the sling
psychrometer is whirled through the air, the water evaporates from the wick. The amount of
evaporation depends on the degree of vapor saturation of the surrounding air with water vapor.
The evaporation cools the bulb of the wet-bulb thermometer and causes its temperature reading
to fall below the temperature reading of the dry-bulb thermometer. The difference between the
two temperature readings is called the wet-bulb depression. The wet bulb depression is a
measure of the relative humidity. The cooling effect of the wet bulb depends on the evaporation
rate from the wick, which depends on the degree of saturation in the surrounding air.

The properties of air are normally presented in a graphical form that is called a psychometric
chart. Figure 5 shows a portion of a psychometric chart for normal temperatures. To determine
the relative humidity of the atmosphere with a sling psychrometer, the wet-bulb temperature and
the dry-bulb temperature are determined. For example, the dry-bulb temperature is found to
equal 85°F, and the wet-bulb temperature is found to equal 77°F. The dry-bulb temperature
(85°F) is found on the psychometric chart. A vertical line is followed upward until the line
intersects with the 77°F axis for wet-bulb temperature. This intersection is located on the 70%
relative humidity curve (Point A).
Figure 5. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage of saturation. Air is said to be saturated with

water vapor when the air contains as much water as it can possibly hold at a specific temperature.
At saturation, the relative humidity is 100%, while absolutely dry air has a relative humidity of
0%. Figure 6 lists the water content of air (in gallons per 1000 ft3) at various temperatures (°F)
and relative humidities (%RH)

The temperature has a major effect on the ability of air at a given pressure to hold vapor content.
As the temperature increases, the amount of water vapor that can be mixed with the air before
saturation occurs also increases. For example, at 80°F and with a relative humidity of 100%,
1000 ft3 of air would contain 0.2046 gallons of water. At 120°F and with a relative humidity of
100%, 1000 ft3 of air would contain 0.7460 gallons of water. Conversely, as the air temperature
decreases, the air’s capacity to hold water vapor also decreases.
Temperature, °F
%RH 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
5 .0019 .0024 .0035 .0050 .0071 .0099 .0136 .0186 .0250 .0332
10 .0039 .0047 .0069 .0100 .0142 .0198 .0273 .0372 .0501 .0668
15 .0058 .0071 .0104 .0150 .0213 .0298 .0411 .0561 .0755 .1007
20 .0078 .0095 .0139 .0200 .0284 .0398 .0549 .0750 .1012 .1351
25 .0098 .0119 .0174 .0251 .0356 .0498 .0689 .0940 .1270 .1699
30 .0117 .0143 .0209 .0301 .0427 .0599 .0828 .1132 .1531 .2051
35 .0137 .0166 .0244 .0351 .0499 .0700 .0969 .1325 .1794 .2407
40 .0156 .0190 .0279 .0402 .0571 .0801 .1110 .1519 .2060 .2768
45 .0176 .0214 .0314 .0453 .0644 .0903 .1251 .1715 .2328 .3133
50 .0195 .0238 .0349 .0503 .0716 .1005 .1394 .1912 .2598 .3502
55 .0215 .0262 .0384 .0554 .0789 .1107 .1537 .2110 .2871 .3876
60 .0235 .0286 .0419 .0605 .0861 .1210 .1681 .2310 .3146 .4254
65 .0254 .0310 .0454 .0656 .0934 .1313 .1825 .2511 .3424 .4637
70 .0274 .0334 .0490 0.707 .1007 .1417 .1970 .2713 .3705 .5025
75 .0294 .0358 .0525 .0758 .1081 .1521 .2116 .2917 .3988 .5418
80 .0313 .0382 .0560 .0810 .1154 .1625 .2263 .3122 .4273 .5816
85 .0333 .0406 .0596 .0861 .1228 .1730 .2410 .3328 .4562 .6219
90 .0353 .0430 .0631 .0913 .1302 .1835 .2559 .3536 .4853 .6627
95 .0372 .0454 .0666 .0964 .1376 .1940 .2707 .3745 .5147 .7041
100 .0392 .0478 .0702 .1016 .1450 .2046 .2857 .3956 .5443 .7460
Figure 6. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft3 at Various Relative Humidities
Pressure also has a major effect on the ability of air to hold vapor content. The capacity of air at
a given temperature to hold moisture in vapor form decreases as the air pressure increases.
Figure 7 lists the water content of saturated air (relative humidity of 100 percent) at given
temperatures and pressures. For example, if 1000 ft3 of saturated air is compressed from 0 to
200 psig while the temperature is maintained constant at 100°F, the ability of the air to hold
moisture in vapor form decreases. The moisture would condense. The amount of moisture that
will condense is the difference between the amount of moisture that air can hold at the two
pressures, 0.3956 gallons at 0 psig minus 0.0254 gallons at 200 psig, or 0.3701 gallons.

Temperature, °F
psig 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0 .0392 .0479 .0702 .1016 .1450 .2046 .2857 .3956 .5443 .7460
10 .0233 .0283 .0416 .0600 .0854 .1200 .1667 .2290 .3119 .4217
20 .0165 .0201 .0295 .0426 .0605 .0849 .1176 .1612 .2186 .2939
30 .0128 .0156 .0229 .0330 .0469 .0657 .0909 .1213 .1682 .2256
40 .0165 .0128 .0187 .0269 .0383 .0536 .0741 .1012 .1367 .1830
50 .0089 .0108 .0158 .0228 .0323 .0452 .0625 .0853 .1152 .1540
60 .0077 .0093 .0137 .0197 .0280 .0391 .0540 .0737 .0995 .1329
70 .0068 .0082 .0121 .0174 .0246 .0345 .0476 .0649 .087 .1169
80 .0060 .0074 .0108 .0155 .0220 .0308 .0425 .0580 .078 .1043
90 .0055 .0067 .0098 .0140 .0199 .0279 .0385 .0524 .0706 .0942
100 .0050 .0061 .0089 .0128 .0182 .0254 .0351 .0478 .0644 .0858
110 .0046 .0056 .0082 .0118 .0167 .0234 .0323 .0439 .0592 .0789
120 .0043 .0052 .0076 .0109 .0155 .0216 .0298 .0407 .0548 .0729
130 .0040 .0048 .0071 .0102 .0144 .0201 .0278 .0378 .0509 .0678
140 .0037 .0045 .0066 .0095 .0135 .0188 .0260 .0354 .0476 .0634
150 .0035 .0042 .0062 .0089 .0126 .0177 .0244 .0332 .0447 .0595
160 .0033 .0040 .0058 .0084 .0119 .0167 .0230 .0313 .0421 .0561
170 .0031 .0038 .0055 .0080 .0113 .0158 .0217 .0296 .0398 .0530
180 .0029 .0036 .0052 .0075 .0107 .0149 .0206 .0281 .0378 .0503
190 .0028 .0034 .0050 .0072 .0102 .0142 .0196 .0267 .0359 .0478
200 .0027 .0032 .0048 .0068 .0097 .0136 .0187 .0254 .0342 .0455
Figure 7. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft3 at Various Temperatures
and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity
Volumetric Flow
A compressor is typically specified by the required volumetric flow. Volumetric flow is the gas
flow rate through the compressor at specified conditions. Standard cubic feet per minute
(SCFM) is a common method of describing the capacity of a compressor; however, the specified
“standard” conditions that define volumetric flow may vary. For example, one source defines
SCFM conditions as 14.7 psia at 60°F (15.5°C) and 0% relative humidity, while another source
defines SCFM conditions as 14.7 psia at 68°F (20°C) and 36% relative humidity. The metric
standard for volumetric flow conditions, standard cubic meter per hour (SCMH), is defined as 1
atmosphere at 0°C (32°F) and 0% relative humidity. Compressor manufacturers frequently
define the volumetric flow of a compressor by the actual volume used to obtain the actual gas
velocity. Inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM) or inlet cubic meter per hour (ICMH) indicates the
actual volumetric flow of gas entering the compressor at the expected operating conditions. The
inlet cubic feet per minute is also referred to as the actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM).
Likewise, the inlet cubic meter per hour is also referred to as the actual cubic meter per hour
(ACMH).

The manufacturer’s curves for the performance of a compressor are based on the actual
volumetric flow at the inlet of the compressor (ACFM). As the following equation shows,
calculations of the value of actual volumetric flow can be determined from the standard flow
(SCFM).
Pstd T
Actual Volumetric Flow = Standard Volumetric Flow × × 1 × Z1
P1 Tstd
Where:
Actual Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in actual cubic feet per minute for English
units or actual cubic meter per hour for metric units
Standard Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in standard cubic feet per minute for
English units or standard cubic meter per hour for metric
units
P1 = Inlet pressure, psia
Pstd = 14.7 psia in English units, 1 atmosphere in metric units
T1 = Inlet temperature, °R
Tstd = Standard temperature, 520°R
Z1 = Inlet compressibility factor
The following example shows how to use this equation to calculate the inlet flow of a centrifugal
compressor that delivers 5000 SCFM of natural gas. The inlet pressure (P1 ) is 25 psia, the inlet
temperature (T1 ) is 560°R, and the inlet compressibility factor (Z1 ) is 0.95. The inlet
compressibility factor would normally need to be calculated as previously discussed in this
module.
 14.7   560 
Actual Volumetric Flow at Inlet , in ACFM = 5000 SCFM ×   ×  × 0.95
 25   520 
= 3008 ACFM
Mechanical Engineers should note that, for this example calculation, the inlet temperature was
given in degrees Rankine (°R) and that the inlet pressure was given in pounds per square inch
absolute (psia). In actual field calculations, these values must be obtained from installed
instrumentation, which normally indicates the inlet temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and
the inlet pressure in pounds per square inch gauge (psig). The suction temperature (in °F) and
the inlet pressure pounds per square inch gauge (psig) must be converted to °R and psia before
they can be used in the ACFM calculation of actual volumetric flow at the inlet. The following
equation is used to convert temperatures in °F to temperature in °R:
°R = °F + 460

The following equation is used to convert pressures in psig to pressure in psia:
PSIA = PSIG + 14.7
Actual volumetric flow can also be determined from mass flow through the use of the following
equation:
ACFM = W x V
Where:
W = Weight flow in lb/min (kg/min)

V = Inlet specific volume in ft3/lb (m3/lb)
Inlet specific volume may be determined through the use of the following equation:
Z 1 RT1
V=
144 P1
Where:
V = Inlet specific volume in ft3/lb

Z1 = Compressibility factor at inlet conditions
R univ 154532
.
R = Gas constant from =
MW Molecular Weight
T1 = Temperature at inlet conditions, °R
P1 = Pressure at inlet conditions, psia
For metric calculations:
Joules
R = 8.3143
gm − mol −° R
and
144 is replaced with 18.129

Mollier Diagrams
Compressor performance cannot be accurately predicted without detailed knowledge of how a

gas or gases will behave when compressed. The behavior of a wide variety of gases in any
conceivable mixture can be accurately computed, plotted, and offered to the process engineer in
the form of a pressure-enthalpy diagram, which is called a Mollier diagram. A Mollier diagram
is a graphical representation of the relationship between the pressure, the temperature, the
volume, the enthalpy, and the entropy of a gas. Mollier diagrams are readily available for most
pure gases at “conventional” pressures and temperatures, but Mollier diagrams are not readily
available for gas mixtures. Because most of the gases that are used at Saudi Aramco are gas
mixtures, Mollier diagrams are not that widely used in Saudi Aramco. The Saudi Aramco
applications for which Mollier diagrams are useful are the refrigerant gases, namely, propane and
freon.
From the Mollier diagram, enthalpy and specific volume can then be directly determined. The
use of a Mollier diagram enables calculation of head, efficiency, and specific volume (ft3/lbm).
Mollier diagrams display gas properties. The process of gas compression is easy to “visualize”
when plotted on a Mollier diagram. The phase change, the expansion, and the compression
process can be “seen,” and it is easier to comprehend the overall process and the effect of process
changes.
On a Mollier diagram, as shown in Figure 8, the pressure is taken as the ordinate, and enthalpy is
taken as the abscissa. Lines of constant entropy and constant volume slope upward from left to
right. Lines of constant temperature slope downward from left to right. The area on the diagram
that is enclosed by the saturated vapor line represents the liquid-vapor region of the gas. The
critical point represents the top-most part of the saturated vapor line. Above the critical point, a
gas cannot be liquefied.
The following equation is used to calculate isentropic head:
H is = h 2 is − h 1
Where: His = Isentropic head

h2is = Isentropic discharge enthalpy
hi = Inlet enthalpy
The following equation is used to calculate isentropic efficiency:
h 2 is − h 1
η is =
h2 − h1
Where: ηis = Isentropic efficiency

h2 = Discharge enthalpy

The following example illustrates how to use the Mollier diagram that is shown in Figure 8 to
find the inlet and discharge specific volume, the enthalpy, and the isentropic discharge enthalpy.
Figure 8 is a section of the Mollier diagram for propane. The compressor gas inlet pressure is
14.7 psia at a temperature of 40°F. The compressor gas discharge pressure is 310 psia at a
temperature of 315°F.
The inlet pressure, 14.7 psia (P1), is located on the ordinate. A line is horizontally
followed from P1 until it intersects with the temperature line that corresponds to
the given inlet temperature of 40°F (T1). This intersection is labeled point 1.
The specific volume for point 1 (v1) is estimated from the two adjacent constant
volume lines. For this example, v1 is approximately 8.25 cubic feet per pound.
A line is vertically followed from point 1 down to the abscissa. This point on the
abscissa is the inlet enthalpy (hi). For this example, inlet enthalpy is
approximately 128 BTUs per pound.
The given discharge pressure, 310 psia (P2), is located on the ordinate. A line is
horizontally followed from P2 until it intersects with the temperature line that
corresponds to the discharge temperature, 315°F (T2). This intersection point is
labeled point 2.
The specific volume for point 2 (v2) is estimated at 0.57 cubic feet per pound from
the two adjacent constant volume lines.
A line is vertically followed from point 2 up to the abscissa. This point on the
abscissa is the actual discharge enthalpy (h2).
The isentropic discharge enthalpy (h2is) is located by following a constant entropy
line from point 1 to point 2 until the discharge pressure line (P2) is intersected.
This intersection is point 2is. A line is vertically followed from point 2is down to
the abscissa. This point on the abscissa is the isentropic discharge enthalpy (h2is).
For this example, h2is is approximately 206 BTUs per pound.
The isentropic efficiency is the ratio of ideal (isentropic) energy to actual energy.

Figure 8. Mollier Diagram for Propane

Dynamic Compressor Characteristics
This section of the module examines the following areas that Saudi Aramco Engineers must
consider when determining the operation of dynamic compressors:
Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)

Performance Curves
Performance Characteristics
Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different Speeds
Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)
A performance curve is a plot of the expected compressor operating characteristics. For

example, a performance curve can be plotted as compressor head, volumetric flow rate, power,
or efficiency. A performance curve usually sets the volumetric flow rate as the abscissa and
either head, power, or efficiency as the ordinate.
A compressor head versus volumetric flow performance curve provides important compressor
operating information. There are three important aspects of a compressor head versus volumetric
flow performance curve: slope of the curve, surge, and stonewall (also called choke). Figure 9
illustrates a head versus volumetric flow diagram.
The change in compressor head for the change in gas volumetric flow defines the slope of the
performance curve. The slope of the performance curve is defined by the gas velocities at the
compressor impeller. A vector analysis of gas velocity and impeller blade tip speed can be
graphically shown as a compressor velocity triangle.
The impeller design and the inlet design combine to greatly affect the gas velocity distribution in
the impeller. The design of the impeller has a higher impact on the velocity triangle than is the
design of the compressor inlet; therefore, the design of the impeller, such as blade angle, will be
discussed.

Figure 9. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve
As shown in Figure 10, there are three blade profile configurations: forward leaning, radial, and
backward leaning. The impeller blade profile influences the velocity of the gas as it travels
through the impeller and exits at the blade tip. Figure 10 illustrates the shape and impeller-exit
velocity diagrams and the resulting head curves for the three conventional types of blades. The
gas stream moves through the impeller blades with a relative velocity (Vr) while, at the same
time, the impeller rotation imparts a tangential velocity (Vb) to the gas stream. The gas stream
possesses the resultant velocity (V) as it exits the impeller. The resultant velocity is the vector
sum of the relative velocity (Vr) and the tangential velocity (Vb). The length of the vectors and
the magnitude of the exit angle are determined by the design of the impeller blades. The
magnitude of the vectors is determined by the tip speed of the impeller blade and by the gas
velocity relative to the blade.

Figure 10. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram
Forward Leaning Blades - Forward leaning blades produce a significant increase in the
resultant velocity (V) when compared to radial and backward leaning blades. The increase of the
resultant velocity is due to the coordinating vector sum of its components, relative velocity (Vr),
and tangential velocity (Vb). The direction of the relative velocity (Vr) allows all flow changes
to dramatically affect the magnitude of the resultant velocity (V). Forward leaning blades
produce a head versus flow performance curve that does not continuously rise with a decrease in
compressor flow. As a result of the saddle-shaped performance curve, forward leaning blades
produce inconsistent head versus volumetric flow, which results in operational instability. The
operational instability is the reason that forward leaning blades are not used for centrifugal
compressor applications.
Radial Blades - The increase in the resultant velocity (V) in the radial blades due to relative
velocity (Vr) change is so small that the resultant velocity (V) is never appreciably different than
tangential velocity (Vb), which results in nearly horizontal performance curves. Any increase in
head that is required by the process will significantly reduce throughput and could easily surge
the compressor. Some older, open impellers were designed with radial blades because of the
ease in manufacturing.
Backward Leaning Blades - In contrast to forward leaning blades, backward leaning blades
produce the lowest pressure rise for a given impeller tip speed. The direction of the relative
velocity (Vr) of backward leaning blades is such that it decreases the magnitude of the resultant
velocity (V).

The performance curve of a backward leaning blade impeller is a concave curve declining
toward the right side of the plot. Because they produce the stable performance curves with the
highest efficiency, backward leaning bladed impellers are the preferred choice for most
compressor applications. The typical standard for conventional closed impellers is 25 to 35
degrees of backward lean. A good design practice is to have a backward leaning impeller
blade’s exit angle preferably between 15 to 35 degrees. Typically, impellers that use a radial or
near radial blade design should not be used for process gas centrifugal compressors.
Performance Curves
Figure 11 shows the effect of the impeller blade angle on head and efficiency as compressor gas
flow increases.
Figure 11. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency

Because the magnitude of the resultant velocity that exits the impeller produces the
characteristics of the head curve, the forward leaning bladed impeller produces the greatest head
than backward lean or radial blade impellers when all other factors are the same. The forward
leaning blades provide a positive sloping head curve with the maximum head output. Although
the head profile is a positive attribute, the efficiency of the forward lean is the lowest of the
three.
A radial bladed impeller has a theoretically constant head curve because tangential velocity does
not effectively change with flow. The fact that the head is reduced on increasing flow due to a
decrease in efficiency is attributable to higher friction losses. When going from design flow to
minimum flow, the resulting basic slope normally shows a 2% to 3% head rise.
Overall stage efficiency is highest for backward leaning impellers. The characteristics of the
backward leaning blade are such that, for a constant blade speed, the tangential velocity increases
as flow decreases, which is due to a lower relative velocity. These factors result in an increased
head output when flow is decreased. When compared to forward leaning and radial blades, a
backward leaning blade has the greatest head rise, which results in the most stable performance
curve of all blade profiles. The effect of the blade angle is not proportional in regard to head,
and the effect of backward lean on head output is minimized at low flow; therefore, a high
backward leaning impeller will produce almost as much head at minimum flow as a low
backward leaning impeller running at the same tip speed. As design flow is approached,
however, the head difference greatly changes. Because longer angles decrease the slip factor, an
increase in the backward lean angle to about 45 degrees reduces the head that is produced, which
partially cancels out any positive effects of a greater backward lean. Slip is a consequence of the
nonuniform velocity distribution across the impeller channels, boundary-layer accumulation, and
flow separation.
Performance Curve Limits
Operation in some areas of a performance curve may be detrimental to the operation of the
compressor. The design of a compressor is controlled to minimize the likelihood of such
occurrences; however, operation of a compressor outside the design operating region may cause
damage due to the phenomena that are known as surge and stonewall.

Surge - An important characteristic of a dynamic compressor is its surge point or surge limit. At
some point on the operating curves for both centrifugal compressors and axial compressors, as
shown in Figure 12, a condition of minimum flow exists in which the developed head is
insufficient to overcome the head that is required by the system. This point or line is called the
surge point or surge line. When the compressor reaches the surge point, flow separation (stall)
occurs in the compressor blades and/or stationary passages and the gas in the discharge piping
backflows into the compressor. As the required head increases, the flow decreases to produce
enough head to match the system demand. When the highest point on the compressor curve is
reached, the compressor cannot increase the head further. At this point, the head that is required
by the system is higher than the maximum head that is produced by the compressor. The flow in
the impellers becomes unstable and reverses, which causes the discharge pressure to collapse.
The discharge pressure will subsequently rise again, and the cycle repeats. As many as six surge
cycles can occur in one second.
Surge occurs at a predictable flow rate that is shown on the manufacturer’s curve as the surge
point. The surge point on a performance curve is specific to the speed of the compressor. A
surge point can be determined for various compressor speeds. A plot of the surge points for each
performance curve at a given speed provides a parabolic curve called the surge line. A complete
surge line, down to the origin of the plot, is needed to assess the possibility of surge during
compressor startup and shutdown. A control system is used to keep the actual compressor flow
rate above the minimum surge point value.
The following are the most significant damaging effects of surge:
Rapid temperature rise

Increased thrust
Variable pressure
Variable flow
Variable speed
These effects can cause catastrophic compressor failure if they are allowed to continue. The
protection system (as specified in SAES-J-604) that is required by Saudi Aramco protects a
compressor from extensive damage by tripping the unit before such damage can occur.

Figure 12. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line
Stonewall - Another important characteristic of dynamic compressors is stonewall (or a choked

flow condition), which is shown in Figure 13. As the flow rate through the compressor increases
beyond the design value, the amount of head that is produced decreases because the tangential
velocity of the gas decreases. As the flow rate increases, the rate at which the produced head
decreases is accelerated. At a certain point, the head that is produced drops rapidly to zero. This
point is called the stonewall, or choked flow condition. The point at which stonewall occurs is
influenced by the Mach number.
The Mach number is the magnitude of the relative velocity compared to the speed of sound
(sonic velocity) of a particular gas. When the Mach number equals one, the point at which
stonewall occurs is reached. Stonewall occurs when sonic velocity is reached at any point in the
compressor, but it is normally considered as stonewall when sonic velocity is reached at the
compressor stage entrance. Once the sonic velocity is reached, the flow through the compressor
cannot be increased. Because the system resistance is usually too great to allow the compressor
to reach this condition, stonewall or choked flow is not usually reached in actual operation.
The following are the most significant damaging effects of stonewall:
Temperature rise due to low efficiency.

Gas turbulence that can excite blade natural frequencies (typically in axial
compressors only).

Figure 13. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall
The molecular weight of the compressed gas also impacts the point of stonewall. The following
is the equation for determining the Mach number:
Vrel
M=
Vsonic
Where:
M = Mach number
Vrel = The gas velocity relative to the blade
Vsonic = Sonic velocity
The following equation is used for determining the sonic velocity of a gas:
Kg(1545) T
Vsonic =
MW
Where:
Vsonic = Sonic velocity

K = Ratio of specific heats
g = Gravitational constant, 32 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2
T = Temperature in °R
MW = Molecular weight of the gas

Using the equations for Vsonic and the Mach number, high molecular weight gases result in low
Vsonic values and the Mach number will quickly approach 1. Figure 14 shows a graphical
representation of the effect of molecular weight on compressor head versus flow curves.
Figure 14. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on Compressor

Head Versus Flow Curves
Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different Speeds
The general laws for speed characteristics (fan laws) are the same for centrifugal compressors as
for centrifugal fans and centrifugal pumps. The three basic fan laws are as follows:
N 
Equation 1: Q2 = Q1  2 
N1 
2
N 
Equation 2: H2 = H1  2 
N1 
3
N 
Equation 3: bhp 2 = bhp 1  2 
N1 
Where: Q1 = Initial flow rate, cfm

Q2 = Final flow rate, cfm
N1 = Initial speed, rpm
N2 = Final speed, rpm
H1 = Initial head, ft-lbs/lbm
H2 = Final head, ft-lbs/lbm

These equations show the relationship between the flow rate (Q), the head (H), the horsepower
(bhp), and the compressor speed (N). Basically, the performance of a centrifugal compressor at
speeds other than the speed for which the compressor is designed is such that the capacity or
flow rate will vary directly as the speed varies, as indicated in Equation 1. The head that is
developed will vary as the square of the speed, as indicated in Equation 2. The horsepower will
vary as the cube of the speed, as indicated in Equation 3.
The fan laws can be used for estimation purposes; however, the accuracy of the calculated results
decreases with increasing speed ratio. Because the change in energy in a fan is significantly
lower than in a compressor, the fan laws are more accurate for fans than for compressors. Other
factors that contribute to the inaccuracies of the fan laws include the following:
The higher the head, the greater the inaccuracy.

The heavier the gas, the greater the inaccuracy.
The greater the backward lean, the greater the inaccuracy.
Typically, the discrepancies will not be great until a speed change of 30 to 40 percent is reached
(except in multistage compressors, where a change of 10 percent can affect the fan laws). The
fan laws only accurately apply to single-stage compressors with very low compression ratios.
The following examples illustrate the application of the fan laws:
Assume that a multistage compressor delivers 10,000 cfm at a head of 30,000

ft − lbf
at an operational speed of 8000 rpm with a required power input of 2200
lbm
bhp. The fan laws can be used to determine the speed, the head, and the power
that are required from the same compressor system to deliver 11,000 cfm.

The first fan law states that speed is proportional to flow rate. The required new speed can be
found as follows:
N 
Q 2 = Q1  2 
 N1 
Q2  N 2 
= 
Q1  N 1 
 Q2 
  N1 = N 2
 Q1 
 11,000 
 10,000  8000 = 8800 rpm
 
The new speed that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm is 8800 rpm.
The second fan law states that speed squared is proportional to head. The required new head can
be found as follows:
2
N 
H2 = H1  2 
N1 
2
ft − lbf  8800 
H 2 = 30 ,000  8000 
lbm
H 2 = 30 ,000 [1.21]
ft − lbf
H 2 = 36 ,300
lbm
ft − lbf
The new head that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm at a speed of 8800 rpm is 36,300 .
lbm

The third fan law states that speed cubed is proportional to brake horsepower. The new power
ft − lbf
required to obtain 11,000 cfm (at a speed of 8800 rpm and with a head of 36,300 ) can
lbm
be found as follows:
3
N 
bhp 2 = bhp 1  2 
N1 
3
 8800 
bhp 2 = 2200 
 8000 
bhp 2 = 2200 [1.331]
bhp 2 = 2928
The new required brake horsepower input is 2928 bhp.
These equations are used to draw the head curves at speed N2 if the curve at speed N1 is known,
as shown in Figure 15. Starting with any point on the head curve at speed N1 (point A1), both the
head (H2) and the flow rate (Q2) are calculated by equations 1 and 2. Although the head is
proportional to speed squared, flow is proportional to speed; therefore, as point A2 moves up to
indicate the increase in head as speed increases, point A2 also moves to the right to indicate
increase in flow as speed increases. These calculations give equivalent operating points on the
curve for speed N2 (point A2). A series of these points defines the head curves for the speed N2.
Similarly, for the horsepower curve that is shown in Figure 16, the horsepower (bhp2) and the
flow rate (Q2) for speed N2 are calculated from the horsepower (bhp1) and the flow rate (Q1) at
speed (N1 point A1) to obtain the equivalent operating point A2.

Figure 15. Typical Head Curve

Figure 16. Typical Horsepower Curve
In the fan law example, a flow increase of only 10 percent requires a driver horsepower increase
of 33 percent. Saudi Aramco specifications 31-SAMSS-001 and 31-SAMSS-006 only require
that the compressor driver brake horsepower be rated 10 percent greater than the compressor
rated horsepower. As a result, the driver and the coupling power ratings are typically the
limiting factors when considering a design flow increase of a compressor.

DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS
This section discusses the following performance characteristics for positive-displacement

compressors:
Isentropic Process
Pressure Volume Cycle
Clearance Volume
Pressure Effect on Volume
Isentropic Process
The isentropic process of a positive-displacement compressor varies little from that of the
dynamic compressor. The theory is the same, but other factors are taken into account that affect
the isentropic exponent.
The specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) and the specific heat at constant volume (Cυ) are
affected by the variation in temperatures commonly occurring in reciprocating compressors. The
temperature does not vary as much in centrifugal compressors. These variations typically will
increase the specific heat constant.
The experimentally determined constant (n) in a polytropic equation is typically less than the
ratio of specific heat constant (k) in the isentropic equation for a positive-displacement
compressor. The mechanical efficiency range also is slightly higher than for centrifugal
compressors. It is approximately 88% to 95% for positive-displacement compressors.
Pressure Volume Cycle
Figure 17 shows the pressure volume cycle of the reciprocating type of positive-displacement
compressor. The positions of the piston (a, b, c, d) correspond to the labeled points on the
pressure volume diagram. As shown in Figure 16, the pressure volume cycle includes:
Isentropic compression (the line between “A” and “B”). The cylinder is filled
with gas at the suction pressure with the piston at position “A.” As the piston
starts to move, the suction valve closes. As the piston continues to move from
position “A” toward position “B,” the piston compresses the gas isentropically
until the pressure within the cylinder reaches the discharge pressure. At this
point, the discharge valve is closed.

Constant-pressure discharge (the line between “B” and “C”). At point “B,” the
discharge valve opens and permits gas to flow from the cylinder into the
discharge line at a constant pressure until the piston has reached the end of its
stroke at point “C.”
Isentropic expansion (the line between “C” and “D”). Because it is impossible to
build a compressor with zero clearance volume, gas remains in the cylinder’s
clearance volume at the end of the discharge stroke. The gas in the cylinder
expands isentropically to the suction pressure as the piston starts to move from
point “C” to “D.” Both the suction and discharge valves are closed.
Constant-pressure suction (the line between “D” and “A”). When the pressure
within the cylinder reaches the suction pressure, the suction valve opens and
permits gas at suction pressure to enter the cylinder as the piston moves from “D”
to “A.”
Since points “B” and “D” are at some position during the cycle, the cycle is made
up of a suction stroke (“C” to “A”) and a discharge stroke (“A” to “C”).

Figure 17. Pressure Volume Cycle
Clearance Volume
In a reciprocating compressor, the piston does not travel completely to the end of the cylinder at
the end of the discharge stroke. Some clearance volume is necessary. Clearance volume
includes the space between the end of the piston and the cylinder head when the piston is at the
end of its stroke. The clearance volume also includes the volume that is in the valve ports, the
volume that is in the suction valve guards, and the volume that is around the discharge valve
seats.

The clearance volume is usually expressed as a percentage of the piston displacement, and it is
referred to as percent clearance, or cylinder clearance (C), as indicated in the following equation:
clearance volume , in 3
C= × (100)
piston displacement , in 3
For double-acting cylinders, the percent clearance is based on the total clearance volume for both
the head end and the crank end of the cylinder. Because of the presence of the piston rod in the
crank end of the cylinder, these two clearance volumes are not the same. Additional external
clearance volume occasionally is added (the volume of any volume pockets) to reduce cylinder
capacity. The design clearance volume varies only slightly with the gas composition (MW).
Pressure Effect on Volume
A review of the gas laws shows how pressure affects volume. Boyle’s Law states that when the
temperature of a gas is kept constant, the volume of an enclosed mass of gas varies inversely
with the absolute pressure that is applied. The following formula shows the relationship between
pressure and volume when the temperature is held constant:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Where: P1 = Inlet pressure

V1 = Inlet volume
P2 = Discharge pressure
V2 = Discharge volume

WORK AID 1: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR DETERMINING

DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Work Aid 1A: Calculation Procedure
P1 = ( )+( )=( ) psia
P2 = ( )+( )=( ) psia
T1 = ( )+( )=( ) °R
T2 = ( )+( )=( ) °R
Calculate Zavg, using Figure 18 and Figure 19.
At the inlet:
P ( )
Pr = = =( )
Pc ( )
T ( )
Tr = = =( )
Tc ( )
Z1 = ( ) (Figure 18 and Figure 19)
At the discharge:
P ( )
Pr = = =( )
Pc ( )
T ( )
Tr = = =( )
Tc ( )
Z2 = ( ) (Figure 18 and Figure 19)
( )+ ( )
Zavg = =( )
2

Calculate (n-1)/n.
(n − 1) / n
 T2   P2 
  = 
 T1   P1 
(n − 1) / n
( )  ( )
  = 
( )  ( )
(n − 1) 1n( )
= =( )
n 1n( )
Calculate Hp.
 n   P2  ( n −1/n ) 
H P = Z avg RT1     − 1
 n − 1  P1  
( ) ( )  ( )
( )

=( ) ( )    − 1
( ) ( )  ( ) 
ft − lbf
=( )
lbm
Calculate the polytropic efficiency, using Figure 19.
)  (
 k −1
  ( ) −( ) /( )) 
  (
X =   − 1 = 
 − 1 = ( )
P2
k
 P1    ( )  
   
From Figure 20.
η=( )

Work Aid 1B: Charts for Determining Compressor Performance Characteristics
Use Figures 18, 19, and 20 to perform the calculations.
Critical Constants
Mol. Wt. Pressure Temp.
Compound Formula M psia Pc °R Tc
Acetylene C2H2 26.036 905.0 557.4
Air N+O2 28.966 547.0 238.7
Ammonia NH3 17.032 1,657.0 731.4
Benzene C6H6 78.108 714.0 1,013.0
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 653.0 799.0
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 628.0 766.0
N-Butane C4H10 58.120 550.7 765.6
Isobutane C4H10 58.120 529.1 734.9
N-Butene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6
Isobutene C4H6 56.104 579.8 752.5
Butylene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 1,073.0 548.0
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.010 510.0 242.0
Chlorine Cl2 70.914 1,120.0 751.0
Ethane C2H4 30.068 708.3 550.1
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.069 927.0 629.6
Ethylene C2H4 28.052 742.1 509.8
N-Hexane C6H14 86.172 439.7 914.5
Helium He 4.003 480.0 510.0
Hydrogen H2 2.016 188.0 60.2
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.076 1,306 672.7
Methane CH4 16.042 673.1 343.5
Methyl alcohol CH3OH 32.042 1,157.0 924.0
Nitrogen N2 28.016 492.0 227.2
N-Octane C8H18 114.224 362.1 1,025.2
Oxygen O2 32.00 730 278.2
N-Pentane C5H12 72.146 489.5 845.9
Isopentane C5H12 72.146 483.0 830.0
Propane C3H8 44.094 617.4 666.2
Propylene C3H6 42.078 667 657.4
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.060 1.142 775.0
Toluene C7H8 92.134 611 1,069.5
Water H2O 18.016 3,206 1,165.4
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 1,199.2 584.5
Figure 18. Critical Constants of Gases

Figure 19. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure

Figure 20. Efficiency Chart

WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING POSITIVE-

DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Calculate the total cylinder volume:

2
 d
Volume = π   L
 2
= 3.14 ( )2 ( )
Calculate the piston displacement volume:
2
d
Volume = π   h
2
where h = piston stroke
= π( ) ( )
2
Calculate the clearance volume:
Clearance Volume = Total Cylinder Volume − Piston Displacement Volume
= −

Calculate clearance percentage:
Clearance Volume
C= × 100
Piston Displacement
( )
= × 100
( )
=( )%

GLOSSARY
adiabatic head The energy in foot pounds force that is required to compress a gas
adiabatically and to deliver one pound of a given gas from one
pressure level to another.
clearance volume The maximum cylinder volume on the working side of a piston minus
the piston displacement volume per stroke. Typically expressed as a
percentage of the displacement value.
compressibility A factor representing the deviation of a gas from the ideal gas laws.
isothermal compression Gas compression where the temperature of the gas remains constant.
partial pressure In a mixture of gases in a specific volume, the pressure each gas
would exert if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the
mixture temperature.
performance curve A plot of the expected operating characteristics, such as head,
efficiency, or discharge pressure versus inlet capacity.
polytropic compression Gas compression in which the relationship between the gas pressure
and volume, raised to the exponent n, is constant. Polytropic
compression most closely approximates the actual gas compression
path.
polytropic head The energy in foot pounds force required to compress polytropically
and to deliver one pound of a given gas from one pressure level to
another.
specific heat The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit weight
of a substance by one degree. (Whether Celsius or Fahrenheit must
be stated.)
stonewall A point of maximum flow and minimum head, beyond which a
further reduction in the process resistance will not increase the gas
flow rate.
surge limit The volume flow below which dynamic compressor operation
becomes unstable.
isentropic compression Gas compression in which no heat is transferred to or from the gas
during the compression process. Also known as adiabatic
compression.

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Chapter : Rotating Equipment For additional information on this subject, contact

DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ... 1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Page

Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

P1 V1 = P2 V2 ; when temperature is constant

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Where: PT = Total pressure

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Where: υ = Specific volume (ft3/lbm)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

The following reversible (Ideal) compression processes can be applied to compressors:

The equation for isothermal efficiency is as follows:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Where: CP = Specific heat at constant temperature

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Head (Hp) is a fundamental property of a compressor. Head is a function of the compressor

Where: Head = ft-lbf/lbm

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Where: Hiso = Isothermal head

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Where: ηp = Polytropic efficiency

Polytropic efficiency is a characteristic of each compressor. Polytropic efficiency is equal to the

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Head iso Head isen Head poly

Where: X = Temperature rise factor

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic Efficiency Based on

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

(P)(υ) = (Z)(R )(T )

Where: Z = Compressibility factor

Where: Tr = Reduced temperature in °R

Where: Pr = Reduced pressure in lbf/in2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Figure 2. Critical Constants of Gases

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Figure 3. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Zavg = Average compressibility factor

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Properties of Gas Mixtures

Dry Gas Mixtures

Dry Gas Mixtures

Gas constant (dependent on molecular mass MW)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Mol Molecular Critical Critical

Figure 4. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture

Where: Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component of the mixture

The premise for the calculation of MW is the following equation:

Where: Runiv = Universal gas constant

Given that MW = ∑( X i )( MWi ) , it follows that:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 18