Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2016, 35, 299 -312

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2016-0161
© 2016 Human Kinetics, Inc. ARTICLES

The Possibilities of “Doing” Outdoor and/or Adventure

Education in Physical Education/Teacher Education
Sue Sutherland
Ohio State University

Maureen Legge
University of Auckland

Background: Physical education has a long association with teaching outdoor and/or adventure education
(OAE). As physical education teacher educators, with a special interest in teaching OAE, we wanted to examine
perceptions of models based practices in physical education/teacher education. Purpose: This manuscript;
explores and critiques a range of national and international perspectives on models based practices in OAE;
challenges what stands for teaching OAE in PETE; and offers suggestions for future practice and research.
Method: Papers were selected through a systematic review methodology. Data analysis: Using a process of
inductive analysis and constant comparison we identified two main themes: Ways of doing this in PE and Ways
of doing this in PETE. Discussion/Conclusion: Future recommendations include the pedagogical relevance
and importance of understanding the socio-cultural context, the challenge of adventure education being a
controlled orchestration and the need to pedagogically change the key of this orchestration, and employing
innovative methodological approaches to further explore these issues.
Keywords: physical education, physical education teacher education, models based practice, adventure based
learning, outdoor adventure education

In this introduction we identify brief backgrounds or and can include environmental education and adventure
understandings of outdoor education focusing on the UK, education.
Australia, New Zealand, USA, and Scandinavia since Outdoor education has its foundations in physical
the late 19th century, as these were the countries where education with militaristic origins (Martin & McCullag,
empirical studies have been conducted. Referring to 2011). While it is difficult to generalize, the rise of out-
these understandings, our intent is to not to give detailed door education in education, in the UK, USA, Australia,
historical accounts (see Cook 2001; Nicol 2002a; Raiola New Zealand, and Scandinavia, can be linked to societal
& O’Keefe, 1999) but to consider the ways in which features such as; social education and welfare; molding
outdoor learning has been mediated in and through social better citizens; recreational camping; broadening the
relations across these countries. For the purpose of this content of education; Nature as the educator and ‘home’;
section we use the term ‘outdoor education’ (OE), as it cultural perspectives of the natural world; teachers who
is the most commonly used terminology when tracing took their students outdoors in the belief that being out-
developments. Wattchow and Brown (2011) note it is doors was good for them and could be linked through
difficult to find a common understanding of what outdoor the school curriculum in various ways; establishment
educators believe defines outdoor education. According of organizations such as Scouting and Outward Bound;
to Priest and Gass (2005) outdoor education takes place socialist inspired ‘woodcraft’ movements (Smith 1963;
mostly in the outdoors with the natural environment, Boyes 2000; Cook, 2001; Nicol 2002a, 2002b; Dahle
2007). Over time teaching outdoors has become formal-
ized and written into curriculums (Cook 2001; Schoel,
Prouty & Radcliffe 1988; Irwin & Straker 2015). In the
Sutherland is with the Dept. of Human Sciences, The Ohio advance of outdoor education, the countries we focused
State University, Columbus, Ohio. Legge is with the Faculty of on have developed their own ‘characteristics’ of situated
Education, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. practice influenced by national and international historical
Address author correspondence to Sue Sutherland at suther- developments and educational trends over the decades
[email protected] since the 1800s.

299
 300 Sutherland and Legge

United Kingdom the 1960s an emphasis was placed on residential experi-

ence for all students during their school life. Outdoor
The rise of outdoor education in the UK since the late education evolved to another degree with recognition of;
19th century was linked to social education and welfare, the personal and social development that occurred in the
and broadening the nature and content of ‘progressive’ outdoors as educative; the value of outdoor activities for
education (Cook, 2001). Significantly influenced by recreation and leisure; and developing an understanding
the American philosopher and education reformer John of the environment (Nicol, 2002a).
Dewey, progressive education was a pedagogical move- In a trend toward subject integration in the 1970s
ment centered on experience and the welfare of children. outdoor activities were linked to the school curriculum.
Initially outdoor education was focused on boys as they Outdoor education became the preferred term and was
were seen as the “root of social problems” (Cook 2001, linked to policy documents; named in a national asso-
p. 49). To redress the inequalities of urban life of the late ciation title; seen as an innovative pedagogy supporting
19th and early 20th century for working class children personal and social development of students with links
residential primary schools were developed by some cities to environmental education (Nicol, 2002b). In 1975 the
e.g., Glasgow (Nicol, 2002a). These schools placed an Dartington conference was significant to the emergence
emphasis on pastoral care and physical activities in the of contemporary outdoor education because it advanced
outdoors and attendance was viewed as a recuperative three components of the outdoor adventure experience
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holiday. In some other schools socialist inspired ‘wood- that became a mantra for outdoor education curricula,
craft’ movements that valued character building in the “respect for self, others and nature” (Wattchow & Brown
form of initiative and self-discipline. The aim of outdoor 2011, p xvii). Outdoor education focused on human to
education in the 1940s was rehabilitative and strategically nature relationships often through recreation activity such
used in part to prepare children for leadership roles in a as rock climbing and kayaking. These activities were used
working environment (Nicol, 2002a). to introduce knowledge and skills for leisure and personal
It is important to note that in the early 20th century and social development through participation, enjoyment
the forerunners on which outdoor education in the UK and fun (Martin & McCullag, 2011).
was established were Scouting, Outward Bound and later The deaths of British children during participation
the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme (Cook, 2001). in outdoor education in the 1980s called into question
The conception of these organization resonated with the educational justification. More prescriptive safety
popular beliefs of the time (Brookes, 2004) and to meet procedures were adopted and the codification of qualifica-
societal features such as, improve the behavior of boys tions became the means for outdoor educators to evaluate
and mold better citizens, characterized by a military professional competence (Cheesmond, 1981). Provision
concern for character building and patriotism (Cook, of outdoor education was challenged for cost effective-
2001). Outward Bound has had a significant influence ness particularly as residential buildings required mainte-
on the field of outdoor (adventure) education (Schoel, nance and there were transport costs to these off campus
Prouty & Radcliffe, 1988). Developed from the ideas of facilities (Nicol, 2002b). Questions of philosophy were
Kurt Hahn in the 1940s, Hahn believed the traditional debated, in search of principles to justify practice and a
school curriculum did not cater for the development of philosophy arising from the practice of outdoor education
the whole child. He felt if adolescents were given the (Cheesmond 1981). Mortlock (1984 cited in Nicol 2002b)
opportunity for leadership and could see the results of writing from personal experience challenged thinking
their actions they would develop into better people. By by suggesting that it was not what people were doing in
articulating outdoor adventures as a medium for leader- the outdoors but what they were experiencing that was
ship practice Hahn developed a philosophy characterized important for learning. Mortlock’s book The Adventure
by four achievements, to gain physical skills, to undertake Alternative considered human to nonhuman intercon-
expeditions on land and sea, participate in a long-term nections with the natural environment—a milestone in
project of own choice, and to carry out public service the history of outdoor education (Nicol, 2002b) In the
(Cook, 2001). Hahn’s vision evolved into the first ‘Out- 1990s a new trend developed when the term adventure
ward Bound’ (OB) school established in Wales (outward education was favored over outdoor education, with per-
bound is a nautical term describing a ship leaving port). sonal and social development accounted for more than
The Welsh OB School was intended for merchant seamen environmental education (Nicol, 2002b).
to develop skills of self-discovery, confidence, tenacity, While it has been reported that the provision of
and perseverance for survival during WWII. outdoor education within schools has declined in the
In the 1950s outdoor education residential cen- UK over the past two decades due to factors such as the
ters continued to demonstrate a military ethos with an reduction in local authority outdoor education centers,
emphasis on character building, citizenship and efforts safety concerns, and cost (Allison & Telford, 2005), out-
to address the inequalities of urban life. Programs used door education still seems to hold a place in the physical
outdoor pursuits as the medium but there was a gradual education curriculum. Indeed, Williams and Wainwright
movement toward participation for the intrinsic value of (2015) have recently conceptualized a pedagogical model
having fun and enjoyment (Cook, 2001; Nicol, 2002a). In for outdoor adventure education in the UK context.

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Australia and New Zealand New Zealanders’ adventure status can be traced to
the isolation and pioneering spirit of the early coloniz-
Australia and New Zealand outdoor education has taken ers (Kane & Tucker, 2007). The bonds that developed
its lead from British influences, not surprising given that between pioneering people, alongside the ruggedness
predominantly early colonists came from England, Scot- of the New Zealand environment, has shaped national
land, Ireland and Wales (Cosgriff, Legge, Brown, Boyes, identity and connection with the outdoors. Like Aus-
Zink & Irwin, 2012). Researching the development of tralia the term ‘bush’ is applied to wilderness areas and
outdoor education in these countries we were struck by is associated with exploration and outdoor challenges.
an underpinning discourse of identity with pioneers and According to Lynch (2006) ‘wholesome’ outdoor pursuits
the environments they confronted (Boyes, 2000: Brookes, like tramping and mountaineering were seen as important
2002). For example, central to the discussion about experiences for molding young boys into ‘intrepid’ men
outdoor education in Australia is what Australian’s call who embodied the masculine ideal of the Victorian era.
‘the bush’ (Brookes, 2002). In Australian vernacular the Girls were not encouraged to take part in activities of
bush can refer to remote rural areas, native forests and such a physical nature. As formal schooling progressed
woodlands, and mountains. Although pioneer ‘Bushmen’ from the mid 1800s children were encouraged to interact
associated with the lived experience of the bush have with nature but out of school excursions were located in
long since vanished their hardiness and ability to contend subjects such as science and geography (Boyes, 2000).
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with a challenging environment is a legend that is still Boyes (2000) and Lynch (2006) note there has
appropriated (Brookes, 2002). The bush is emblematic been an ad hoc approach to the development of outdoor
of Australian pioneering history and road to democracy. education in New Zealand. Overtime, a shift to include
Traditions from Britain, including organizations physical fitness and more active engagement with
such as Outward Bound and the scouting movement, the outdoors through pursuits saw outdoor education
have seen Australian outdoor education structured around situated in the curriculum in a formalized manner. In
adventurous recreation pursuits, natural history and what the 1970s outdoor education became part of the New
was known locally as bushwalking. Bushwalking evolved Zealand Curriculum in physical education and health.
in local contexts requiring knowledge and experience In a similar manner to the UK the outdoor pursuits
of the surrounding area, and included activities such as lobby gained capital. To counter this, in the 1980s the
walking/hiking, nature study, camping, and fishing. The New Zealand Department of Education introduced the
urbanization of Australia meant many citizens became generic term Education Outside the Classroom (EOTC)
remote from the bush and contact in a meaningful way. describing curriculum-based learning that extends
In the 1970s closure of many Australian rural schools, beyond the classroom walls but could still include
allowed the buildings new use as accommodation for pursuits-based outdoor education (Irwin & Straker,
school camps. Funding from the Department of Educa- 2015). School ‘camps’ dominate New Zealand outdoor
tion through the 1980s helped maintain the momentum education. Camps may be residential in school owned
of these school camps into the 1990s. During these properties, privately operated outdoor centers, on marae-
decades outdoor education was established as a draw cultural home of indigenous Māori, in tents or located
card to offer students the opportunity for off campus along the way in purpose built huts in national parks.
studies in ‘the bush’. Élite schools in particular, gained Year groups from primary and secondary schools are
from being able to offer outdoor education of this kind. taken to spend 2–5 days at these places participating
However, while these developments saw the growth of in a range of outdoor activities and studies that may or
outdoor education Brookes (2004) suggests that the sub- may not be organized by physical education teachers
sequent pedagogy positioned the bush as an ‘empty site’ (Remington & Legge, 2016). More recently in Australia
on which to do something that required a repertoire of and New Zealand, as a counter to adventure based, travel
safety management, instructional techniques associated traditions of outdoor education Wattchow and Brown
with outdoor pursuits and facilitation skills for abstract (2011) advocate for ‘a pedagogy of place’. In this view
cognitive development; as opposed to the earlier ethos outdoor education is a term that is responsive to the sig-
of bushwalking located in the particular geographical, nificance of local outdoor places, the sites where outdoor
social and cultural context. In addition, indigenous education is practiced, that may be lost in the diversity
contexts and understanding of the land that is central to of outdoor educational landscape practices.
their culture was limited or nonexistent in this discourse
of outdoor education (Brookes, 2004). Since the 1990s a
shift in outdoor education toward a discourse that includes
USA
environmental sustainability reflects a growing social USA outdoor education has evolved since the 1800s from
concern for the environment (Lugg, 1999). The focus a history of recreational camping seen to be good for
on human relationships remains but participants need children because it provided a healthy environment with
to develop experiential ecological literacy to take part supervised activities. Frederick Gunn first incorporated
safely, to respect and value the environment, and live in camping as part of an educational program for the boys
the outdoors (Martin & McCullag, 2011). at the Gunnery School, Connecticut in 1961(Raiola &

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 302 Sutherland and Legge

O’Keefe, 1999). In 1902, Laura Matton, a teacher at a Scandinavia

private school for girls who went on to be influential in
the early camping organization, led a summer expedi- Scandinavian countries add to the mix of outdoor edu-
tion in New Hampshire and this was the foundation for cation with their unique concept of friluftsliv that has
a summer camp for girls. The goal of these camps was similarities to outdoor education and outdoor recreation.
to challenge the limitations that had been imposed on Deeply rooted in Norway and Sweden friluftsliv is a
girls when in the outdoors (Raiola & O’Keefe, 1999). philosophy about outdoor living with ‘nature as home’
The scouting movement in the USA was established in based on a Scandinavian self-image associated with an
1910 for boys and 1912 for girls and influenced the use unpopulated landscape—easily accessible to those who
of the outdoors as an educational endeavor. During the live in towns and cities (Gelter, 1999). The term—coined
1920s and 1930s overnight camping was incorporated in 1859 by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen in a
into many public school educational programs (Raiola poem about a character who needed ‘time out’ in nature
& O’Keefe, 1999). The rapid development of school to clarify his thoughts- translates as ‘life in the open air’
camping, via residential centers, took place in the 1950s (Dahle 2007; Gelter 1999). The concept has the primary
and 1960s. During this timeframe, outdoor education focus to seek out a meaningful relationship and connect-
became the preferred term for experiences that took edness with nature. The reward of this connectedness is
place in residential camps, school sites and within local a strong sensation of a new level of consciousness and
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communities (Raiola & O’Keefe, 1999). Educator Julian spiritual wholeness with nature (Gelter, 1999).
Smith (1963) saw that outdoor education was a means to While friluftsliv is viewed as a Norwegian term, there
enhance learning through real life outdoor experiences is no consensus on the meaning because other Nordic
that bought adults and children closer to human’s natural countries bring their geographical, social and cultural
roots in the outdoor environment. Smith observed that diversity to broaden the concept and its interpretation
education in and for the outdoors was a means to protect (Henderson & Vikaner, 2007). Ibsen coined the phrase
people from increasing influences such as mechanization based on the way of outdoor life that has characterized
and the depersonalization of society. The contemporary Norwegian culture. Traditional Norwegian friluftsliv is
approach to teaching outdoors evolved as educational about people going for daily or overnight walks either
alternatives to traditional teaching and learning valued alone, or with family and friends for physical activity, to
direct experience. interact socially and be close to nature. In winter skiing
The introduction of Outward Bound (OB) in the may be used instead of walking. Other activities may
1960s was a strong influence on the use of adventure occur during these walks including photography, berry
education in schools. However, in the early 1970s Jerry picking, fishing or gathering mushrooms (Dahle, 2007).
Pieh in Massachusetts noted the expense, intensity and The experience is purely as a leisure pursuit with no ele-
duration of the OB courses in the USA limited the number ments of competition undertaken with a sense of freedom
of young people who could participate. Aided by Federal to enjoy the shared experience of the natural world, the
funding Pieh worked with staff from OB backgrounds, physical activity and companionship (Backman, 2011).
and many teachers, to modify the outdoor curriculum to Fritluftsliv is linked to early 20th century legislation that
bring elements of OB in from the wilderness and back to allowed the right of open access to land. The practice of
public schools as Hahn had originally intended. Named fritluftsliv is unorganized, situated in local nature areas
Project Adventure (PA) the model focused on 10th grade with tacit knowledge traditionally passed on within
physical education, a combination of interdisciplinary social groups such as family and friends (Dahle, 2007).
academic classes, a series of initiative problems, and Excellent public transport to get to natural places, the
high and low challenge courses (Prouty, Panicucci & opportunity to camp freely or access systems of cabins
Collinson, 2007). The content was experiential to chal- for accommodation and more leisure time serve to enable
lenge, motivate, teach social skills, and improve fitness. the population to participate in friluftsliv.
The PA adventure based learning (ABL) model of direct, Practicing friluftsliv is not dependent on high costs,
active and engaging learning takes participants out of traveling or equipment, nor is friluftsliv dependent on
their usual frame of reference to participate “in things organizations. In Sweden friluftsliv-days are estab-
new and different” (Rohnke & Butler, 1995, 5). What lished in the curriculum. Gelter (1999, p. 14) suggests
makes adventure learning different is that activities such that although friluftsliv is on the curriculum it is not
as cooperation, problem solving and decision-making about teaching or excursions but ‘learning the ways
that may be taught didactically, are taught so the group of yourself and the more-than-human world’. Schools
develops its own abilities with guidance from teachers aim to make friluftsliv a life pattern through preschool
or group leaders. Adventure education can be facilities outdoor schools, teacher education on friluftsliv, resi-
based or wilderness based and is found all over the world dential outdoor education centers for school classes,
with educators from other cultures developing methods and winter vacation Nordic ski experiences. Ironically,
and curricula that relate to their social, cultural and despite a consistent tenet of philosophy that friluftsliv
educational contexts. (Boyes, 2000; Prouty, Panicucci is an uncomplicated experience with nature Backman
& Collinson, 2007). (2011) found that teachers were confused about where

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 Possibilities of “Doing” OAE in PE/TE 303

the location of the outdoors and nature for friluftsliv However, more recently experiential learning has
could be—in a local park where a bus passing may been criticized as a suitable learning theory for OAE due
interrupt the sounds of nature and the purity of the fri- to the overemphasis on doing and reflecting. Fenwick
luftsliv experience or somewhere distant from the urban (2001) argues that processing in experiential learning
environment, untouched by civilization where birds can assumes that the experience is a discrete object that the
be heard. Dahle (2007) discusses contemporary change learner is separated from to reflect upon and generate
influencing the Norwegian tradition because schools and knowledge. This focus on experience in the absence of
universities are ‘teaching’ friluftsliv through activities historical, political and social context has meant that the
such as snowboard days, canoe expeditions and overnight emphasis on the place-based approach to OAE has been
snow caving which is altering the shape of friluftsliv. His overshadowed (Wattchow & Brown, 2011). Some have
concern is that the influence of an international leisure argued that experiential learning represents a mechanistic
activity culture is introducing a wider range of outdoor learning theory (Quay, 2003) and that the focus on indi-
pursuits that sells expeditions or adventures as an experi- vidualism is to the detriment of the social and cultural
ence package rather than a way of life. Dahle described dimensions (Brookes, 2002).
this influence as the sportification of friluftsliv and is Constructivist learning provides a further theoretical
concerned that new activity trends may weaken the tradi- foundation for experiential learning where the process
tion or mean those in their teens or late twenties might and situation of learning is emphasized along with the
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abandon the tradition (Brookes & Dahle, 2007). Dahle outcome. Constructivism views learning as a process
(2007) recommends the public sector ensure children are where knowledge is constructed by the learner through
socialized so the ‘daily walk fritluftsliv’ and ‘vacation an active process rather than through teacher directed
walk fritluftsliv’ continue to be practiced in the inter- instruction (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, the learner is actively
est of traditional social wellbeing. Friluftsliv has been engaged in knowledge creation, which is socially con-
shaped by unique geography, cultural and social features structed and facilitated by the teacher who provides a
over time and through practice. Like other examples learning environment that fosters self-directed learning.
of education in the outdoors it has been subject to new As such, there is a clear alignment with what occurs in
influences that challenge the tradition of what is in this OAE programs. Indeed, Kraft and Sakofs (1988) suggest
case, a way of life. Outdoor educators in any setting have there are several elements that are inherent to experiential
the opportunity to include friluftsliv concepts into their education; the learner is an active participant in learning;
pedagogy (Vikander, 2007). activities are real and meaningful in terms of natural
consequences for the learner; reflection on learning is
Theoretical Foundation a critical element to develop new skills, attitudes and
ways of thinking; learning must have present and future
Experiential learning and constructivism have historically relevance for the learner and the society in which he/she
served as the theoretical frameworks for OAE. Draw- is a member.
ing on the work of John Dewey, experiential learning
emphasizes the importance of the experience, coupled Models-Based Practice
with the practice of reflection to facilitate learning.
Dewey’s (1997) progressive views of an education where Recently models based practice has been highlighted
the learner was the center of the experience, was the as a future direction for teaching meaningful physical
foundation of experiential education. Dewey advocated education (Lund & Tannehill, 2014; Casey, 2014; Met-
that the most powerful learning experiences were those zler, 2000). Models based practice is a comprehensive
that engaged learners in posing and solving problems to approach to teaching physical education where one or
make meaning and build understanding. Although there more models can provide the framework for a physical
are a number of experiential learning cycles or models education curriculum. Casey (2014) conducted a com-
that inform OAE, Kolb’s experiential learning cycle is the prehensive review of models based practice in physical
most commonly used (Priest & Gass, 2005). Kolb’s four- education and indicated that teachers noticed positive
stage cycle draws on the work of Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and changes in student learning, teacher effectiveness, and
Jean Piaget to provide a framework for learning through teacher efficacy through the use of models based practice.
experience. Within this cycle, an individual engages in As a result of his review Casey posed some interesting
a concrete experience, observes and reflects upon this questions for researchers to consider in regard to the “do-
allowing for the formation of abstract concepts, which can ability and sustainability in MBP in physical education”
then be transferred to new situations beyond the original (2014, p. 29). In light of the issues raised in Casey’s
experience. The processing of the activities “enhances review and as physical education teacher educators, with
the richness of the experience…these unique learnings a special interest in teaching OAE, we wanted to examine
then can be used again and generalized to other settings” the use of models based practices in physical education/
(Luckner & Naddler, 1997, p.10). As such, Kolb’s cycle teacher education. We contend that OAE can be used
could be, and often has been, used as a pedagogical tool as both a curriculum and instructional model. Thus the
to facilitate experiential learning within OAE. purpose of this manuscript was to review the literature

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 304 Sutherland and Legge

regarding the use of the OAE model in physical educa- Findings

tion and physical education teacher education. Through
this process we aim to challenge what stands for teach- Two themes, with subsequent subthemes, were developed
ing OAE in physical education/teacher education and to during the analysis process. The first theme was Ways of
offer suggestions for future use of OAE in and through doing this in physical education and included the sub-
physical education/teacher education. themes of a) external influence, b) student outcomes, c)
not all smooth sailing, and d) pedagogical considerations.
The second theme was Ways of doing this in PETE and
Methods included the subthemes of a) in the name of OAE, b)
power of experience, and c) bumpy road from PETE to
To explore the ways of doing OAE within physical edu-
physical education.
cation/teacher education we used a systematic review
methodology to synthesize findings from the OAE
literature. Using the process outlined by Casey and Ways of Doing This in Physical Education
Goodyear (2015), we undertook the following five-step The historical background on how Outdoor and Adven-
progression to review the literature base in OAE. We ture Education is conceptualized in different countries
focused on a specific question to guide our review: How has clearly had an impact on how OAE is implemented in
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is OAE experienced in or through physical education physical education. It is within the context of how OAE is
and physical education teacher education (PETE)? We embedded within physical education internationally that
then developed a protocol to include using peer-reviewed we will discuss the findings of this theme.
manuscripts specifically related to our question, and
identified relevant literature through a detailed academic External Influence. The nature of the OAE model
database search process. Given the different terminology represented in the research has been shaped by external
around OAE we attempted to be broad in our terms to influences of a national curriculum/framework of
maximize the search process. We searched the follow- standards and the use of external providers for OAE.
ing databases: Academic Search Complete, Education The primary external influence on ways of doing OAE
Research Complete, ERIC, Physical Education Index, or friluftsliv is the inclusion within a national curriculum
PsycINFO, SocINDEX, and SPORTDiscus. The search or national syllabus or framework as seen in Aotearoa
terms “Adventure Education”, “Outdoor Education”, New Zealand, Australia, Singapore, Sweden, and the
“Outdoor Adventure Education”, “Outdoor Adventur- UK. The vehicle for the delivery of OAE differs both
ous Activities”, “Outdoor Pursuits”, “Adventure based within and between these counties. Within Aotearoa
Learning”, and “Friluftsliv” were each combined with New Zealand and Australia, where OAE is one of the
“School”, “Physical Education” and “Physical Education key areas within the Health and/or Physical Education
Teacher Education”. Additional articles were identified curriculum, it is often implemented through an OAE
through a reading of the reference pages of the documents camp experience or an outdoor pursuits/adventure
identified through the search process. Despite this search skills-based program (Mikaels, Backman & Lundvall,
process, we readily acknowledge that due to the various 2015; Hastie, 1995; Smith, Steel, & Gidlow, 2010;
conceptions of how OAE is conducted in and through Quay, Dickinson, & Nettleton, 2002/2003). Sweden
physical education/teacher education internationally, we follows a similar pattern with the addition of skills based
may have missed some relevant articles. Once we had trips, such as alpine skiing, and orienteering to meet the
identified the literature we decided upon the inclusion friluftsliv requirement in physical education (Backman,
and exclusion of documents based on methodological 2011a; Backman, 2011b). OAE is included within
criteria. We used the following inclusion criteria, (a) the National Curriculum within Singapore but can be
written in English, (b) published in peer-reviewed jour- implemented through physical education or other areas
nals in the last two decades, (c) empirically based, (d) of the curriculum (Atienco & Tan, 2016; Atienco, Tan,
available in full-text, and (e) the focus was on OAE in Ho & Ching, 2015). Within the USA, OAE is not tied to
or through a physical education or PETE setting. We a specific curriculum area through a national curriculum,
excluded sources that were unpublished dissertations as it is in some other countries. However, OAE addresses
or thesis and published in conference proceedings. This the SHAPE America National Standards for Physical
resulted in 37 sources meeting all inclusion criteria and Education and is most often taught as Adventure Physical
form the basis for this review. Finally, we synthesized the Education or Adventure-based Learning (e.g., Tischler &
research findings in the contexts of physical education McCaughtry, 2014; Sutherland, Stuhr, & Ayvazo, 2016).
and physical education teacher education through the The external influences were perceived to be either
process of inductive analysis and constant comparison. an enhancer or concern (in the eyes of teachers) to
The outcome of our analysis was the following two the ways of doing OAE in physical education. As an
themes: Ways of doing this in physical education, and enhancer, the external influence provided more legiti-
Ways of doing this in PETE. macy to OAE and was best demonstrated through the

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development of a pretertiary outdoor leadership course (Smith et al., 2010). An increase of caring for peers was
within Tasmania, Australia which counts toward univer- also highlighted in the OAE camp experience (Quay,
sity entrance scores to supplement the non pretertiary Dickinson, & Nettleton, 2002/2003).
outdoor education courses (Dyment, Morse, Shaw, & Beyond the OAE camp experience, personal and
Smith, 2014). The outdoor leadership courses provided social skills were also reported as a positive outcome
teachers with a “welcomed set of teaching challenges” in adventure-based learning, Team Building through
(Dyment et al., 2014, p.88), such as teaching new content Physical Challenge (TBPC), and Parkour units taught
and higher order thinking skills. In addition, the course in physical education. In these units, a greater under-
was “taken more seriously” (Dyment et al., 2014, p.88) standing of intrapersonal and interpersonal relationship
by students due to the pretertiary status, which resulted skills (IIRS) was indicated (Stuhr, Sutherland, Ressler,
in a perceived increase in motivation and enthusiasm for & Ortiz-Stuhr, 2015), social skills were recognized
the course. (Fernandez-Rio & Suarez, 2016), and social regard was
The external influence also acted as an inhibitor to enhanced (Gibbons, Ebbeck, Concepcion, & Li, 2010).
the ways of doing OAE in that there was concern regard- The novelty of the activities, the specific pedagogies,
ing the lack of direction and the influence of external and the enjoyment of participants all contributed to these
agencies in the aims, outcomes, and assessment of OAE student outcomes from OAE.
and friluftsliv (Backman, 2011a; Mikaels et al., 2015). The disruption of social norms as a result of par-
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The teachers’ felt that the lack of specific direction ticipating in OAE was clearly an important outcome of
resulted in a shift from coupling the teaching of environ- the experience. Inclusion, letting down barriers, shifting
mental education within OAE to a skills based approach social perceptions were all experienced by participants
to teaching OAE, which was activity based rather than engaging in OAE. Students in these studies often com-
a student-centered approach to OAE (Mikaels et al., mented on the difference in the inclusivity of social
2015). In addition, the lack of distinct and explicit aims groups in OAE in comparison with both physical educa-
was considered a factor in “weakening the PE teachers tion and school settings (Fernandez-Rio & Suarez, 2016;
control of teaching in Friluftsliv” through issues related to Smith et al., 2010; Zink & Burrows, 2008), which would
schedule time, cost, location, and risk (Backman, 2011a, often occur in conjunction with letting down barriers and
p.57). The watering down of what and how much is taught acting more “real” without hiding behind technology.
in the name of friluftsliv was of concern to physical Students perceived their peers to be different from the
education teachers in Sweden (Backman, 2011a). This school personae in that they are more real and ‘less plas-
concern was shared by primary teachers in Aotearoa tic’ (Smith et al., 2010). Counter to the usual masculinities
New Zealand with the outsourcing of OAE to external present in boy’s physical education settings, participation
agencies due to the strong influence these agencies had in OAE in the form of adventure physical education for
on content, assessment and type of student learning that a group of high school boys provided an opportunity for
is occurring (Remington & Legge, 2016). This influence the reconsideration of social hierarchies and masculinities
has raised concern that the assessment of student learning in physical education (Tischler & McCaughtry, 2014). In
becomes skill-based demonstrations and, as one teacher contrast to the sport based physical education curriculum,
stated, is “a plastic and artificial way of assessing people.” the participants felt that the usual social hierarchies
(Mikaels, et al., 2015, p.8). and masculinities were nonexistent and when they did
develop, they shifted based on the specific skills needed
Student Outcomes. This subtheme highlights the for each of the units in adventure physical education. The
student outcomes from participation in OAE and includes content and pedagogy of adventure physical education,
personal and social development, disruption of social along with the teacher’s emphasis on personal growth,
norms, and increases in self-perception and self-concept. social development and participation contributed to the
The positive influence on the ways of doing OAE on shifting masculinities.
the student participants was frequently reported as an The physical outcomes from participation in OAE
outcome of the model. The factors contributing to these were primarily related to self-perception and self-concept.
positive outcomes were attributed to the novelty of the Positive influence on perceived athletic competence,
OAE experience, the fun and engaging atmosphere created global self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived
in OAE, the social system present in the experience, and behavioral conduct, and enhanced perceptions of positive
the teacher/student relationship. Personal and social skill regard from peers were all reported after completing an
development, considered to be an important outcome eight month TBPC program, which was incorporated
of OAE (Lugg & Martin, 2001; Zink & Boyes, 2006), into physical education (Ebbeck & Gibbons, 1998;
seemed to be facilitated through the social experience of Gibbons & Ebbeck, 2011; Gibbons et al., 2010). OAE
participating in the OAE camp experience (Hastie, 1995; in the form of adventure physical education was per-
Smith et al., 2010). The development of friendships and ceived to be a ‘different way to exercise’ that was fun,
closer relationships with peers was an important outcome engaging and motivating, and presented students with
of the OAE experience according to the participants content that was physically demanding and incorporated

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 306 Sutherland and Legge

fitness concepts of muscle endurance, strength, balance, and that if their school was not in a location where this
flexibility, and coordination (Gehris, Kress, & Swalm, was readily available then it proved to be a perceived
2010). Thus, this form of adventure physical education barrier for teaching OAE (Backman, 2011a; Lugg &
was perceived to have a positive influence on aspects of Martin, 2001; Zink & Boyes, 2006). The need for and
physical self-concept related to flexibility and strength, cost of specialized equipment such as climbing gear,
but not to appearance and health. tents, and cooking equipment was also presented as a
barrier for teaching OAE (Backman, 2011a; Lugg &
Not All Smooth Sailing. Despite the positive benefits Martin, 2001; Zink & Boyes, 2006). The cost of running
of participation in OAE within physical education, there OAE experiences either within the physical education
were some concerns regarding the ways of doing OAE, setting or as an off-site camp experience was viewed as
which could also be seen as the flip side of student the prohibitive (Backman, 2011a; Lugg & Martin, 2001;
outcomes. These concerns fall into three main areas, lack Moreri, 2011; Zink & Boyes, 2006).
of physical activity time, social system more important Some teachers indicated a philosophical tension
than activities, and student resistance. Very little research between the nature of activity-based OAE experience
has looked explicitly at the amount of physical activity versus the student centered approach. The representation
time students accrue in OAE, although this is considered of OAE through pursuit-based activities with a focus
to be low in importance as an outcome for OAE (Lugg on skill acquisition caused personal conflict for some
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& Martin, 2001; Zink & Boyes, 2006). The current teachers who felt that OAE was, “autocratic teacher-led
climate within the USA is one where a minimum of as opposed to student-centered…there are things that we
50% moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) only do for the assessment…that it is a box that needs to
time in physical education is recommended (Centers for be ticked” (Paul, OE teacher; Mikaelis et al., 2015, p.7).
Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). However, Gehris, This tension was also clear regarding the outsourcing of
Myers, and Whitaker (2012) found that for students in the OAE curriculum to agencies where the educational
an adventure physical education unit the mean MVPA connection to school curriculum is not clearly delineated
time was 28.3% (± 16.3%) which falls short of the (Mikaelis et al., 2015). It is worth noting that depending
recommended 50% MVPA. However, when considering on the intent of the OAE activities (e.g., outdoor pursuits)
participation across the unit, students engaged in 40.0% direct instruction versus student-centered instruction may
MVPA in high elements and only 13.7% in initiatives. be appropriate. In addition, the teacher’s philosophical
A further drawback for student engagement in OAE student-centered approach might not align with the skills
was the prevalence of the social system or social experi- based approach of external providers.
ence seeming to hold more weight for participants relative The need for a reconceptualization of approaches to
to what they felt they gained from OAE. Although, in OAE was also evident within the data. The use of place-
general the students participated in the various activi- based approach to OAE that has recently been incorpo-
ties conducted within OAE, the relevance of the actual rated into the physical education curriculum in Singapore
activities rather than the social experience needs further has required a shift in how physical education teachers
exploration. Some students in OAE camp experiences view the subject (Atienco & Tan, 2016; Tan & Atienco,
seemed to get on with the activities quickly to gain more 2016). This shift has not necessarily been a smooth
time to socialize with friends (Hastie, 1995). In addition, process for teachers to change from an adventure-based
some students were happy to let others make the decisions camp experience to a place-based approach (Atienco &
regarding activities and solving problems which could Tan, 2016; Tan & Atienco, 2016). The teachers began to
contradict the purpose of engaging in OAE, which “calls realize that place-based pedagogy was more than a focus
into question the assumption that the outdoors provides on the learning activities but lacked the pedagogical
clear, direct and meaningful experiences” (Zink & Bur- content knowledge to, “fully engage with the learning
rows, 2008, p.259). However, it is interesting to note that processes underpinning place-based pedagogy” (Tan &
when students saw value in OAE and were intrinsically Atienco, 2016, p.32).
motivated to engage they felt more satisfied with the OAE
experience and conversely, if they felt ‘forced’ into OAE Ways of Doing This in Physical Education
without finding value in the experience they were less
satisfied (Wang, Ang, Teo-Koh, & Kahlid, 2004). For
Teacher Education
some students, the switch from their typical multi activ- The position of OAE within PETE programs is an impor-
ity physical education curriculum to an adventure-based tant consideration given the inclusion of this model in or
learning unit proved to be too much of a change and they through K-12 health and/or physical education programs
engaged in active resistance to the ABL activities, such internationally. It is within the context of ‘what and why’
as sabotaging the activity (Sutherland & Stuhr, 2014). OAE is being embedded in PETE that we will discuss
the findings of this theme.
Other Barriers. Within this subtheme the considerations
highlighted in the data were logistical, activity based In the Name of OAE. Of note in this theme is the
versus student centered, and support. Some teachers felt conflict surrounding what counts as OAE within the
that access to outdoor settings was important for OAE PETE programs internationally. As we have indicated

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 Possibilities of “Doing” OAE in PE/TE 307

previously, there is not one universal definition of OAE, in a variety of activities. This personal growth came in
but rather it can be an amalgam of different activities, various forms including overcoming fear, realizing the
philosophies, and pedagogical approaches. Although we importance of a supportive environment and peer support,
have provided our understanding and interpretation of power of peer influence, and coping mechanisms (Carlson
OAE, this may not always align with the definition used & McKenna, 2000), fear, risk and challenge (Timken
in the PETE programs covered in this review. & McNamee, 2012), coming to know and understand
The most common form of addressing OAE within differences, building cooperation and teamwork within
the studies we considered was either through a specific the group, and fending for self (Dorovoloma, 2008).
course or series of courses, or as OAE camp based expe- Professional growth seemed to occur through the
riences, which may be run in conjunction with a course intentional instructional strategies of the OAE facilita-
or as a stand-alone experience. A number of studies tors through reflective journals or reflective assignments
reported that the inclusion of an OAE course within the (Carlson & McKenna, 2000; Sutherland et al., 2011;
PETE program (Backman, 2008; Dorovolomo, 2008; Sutherland & Stuhr, 2014; Sutherland et al., 2016; Timken
Sutherland, Ressler, & Stuhr, 2011; Sutherland & Stuhr, & McNamee, 2012), interviews (Dorovoloma, 2008;
2014; Sutherland, Stuhr, & Avvayzo, 2016; Timken & Sutherland et al., 2011; Sutherland & Stuhr, 2014; Suther-
McNamee, 2012; North, 2015) was the means through land et al., 2016), and group debriefing (Dorovoloma,
which the preservice teachers came to understand OAE. 2008; North, 2015). These strategies provided the pre-
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However, what is not as clear is how many of these service teachers with the opportunity to consider how the
courses provided the preservice teachers with knowledge OAE experience influenced their growth as professionals
and understanding of OAE through experience, versus the in the areas of experience of K-12 students (Carlson &
knowledge and understanding of OAE and how to teach McKenna, 2000; Timken & McNamee, 2012) the impor-
OAE in a physical education context. tance of creating a supportive environment (Carlson &
OAE camp based experiences either as a part of McKenna, 2000; Timken & McNamee, 2012), the power
a course or as stand-alone experiences was another of peer influence in both a positive and negative way, goal
way that OAE was embedded or addressed in PETE setting (Carlson & McKenna, 2000), the use of the full
programs (Carlson & McKenna, 2000; Dorovolomo, value contract and the possibility of curricular change in
2008; North, 2015; Timken & McNamee, 2012). These physical education (Timken & McNamee, 2012).
camps provided preservice teachers with an opportunity
Bumpy Road From PETE to PE. Despite the powerful
to engage in and experience OAE first hand, and were a
very intentional provision within the PETE program. At influence of OAE courses and experiences on pre service
the University of Auckland in Aotearoa New Zealand the teachers’ personal and professional selves, it was far
four-year PETE program includes a series of camps, each from an easy road to transfer what was experienced and
with a different focus. Final year PETE students lead and learned in the PETE program to the K-12 PE setting.
peer teach a three-day beach camp for year 1 students. The bumps in the road signified a) experience is all they
Maureen works in partnership with Māori-indigenous need, and b) lack of relevant content knowledge (CK)
people to use the outdoors with year 2 students to shape and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) occurred in a
knowledge and understanding of Māori culture during number of different countries. A number of preservice and
a four-day marae stay. Year 3 students participate in a in-service teachers felt that while they enjoyed their OAE
five-day bush-based camp to learn outdoor skills with experiences in their PETE programs, they did not gain
Maureen and other staff. All aspects of the OAE program knowledge, understanding and experience in how to teach
are supported through on campus course work (Legge & OAE within a school setting (Backman, 2011a; Moreri,
Smith, 2014). 2011). The feeling that PETE programs did not provide
Whatever methods was used in the name of includ- the specific content knowledge and pedagogical content
ing OAE within PETE programs, intentional instruc- knowledge necessary to teach OAE in a school setting
tion in OAE is important when considering the level of was expressed by a number of teachers. This lack of CK
risk that is often associated with this content area. In a and PCK seemed to occur either through the complete
recent study of the use of friluftsliv in Swedish schools, lack of OAE courses within the PETE program (Capel
Dahl, Lynch, Moe, and Adland (2016) indicated that the & Ketene, 2000; Carney & Chedzoy, 1998; Moreri,
amount of instruction in teacher education in the content 2011), or the emphasis of the OAE course/experience on
of friluftsliv impacted the number of accidents reported. participation rather than learning to teach (Atienco et al.,
One year of teacher education in friluftsliv reduced the 2015; Carlson & McKenna, 2000; Dorovoloma, 2008).
number of accidents. This is an important consideration given that the CK
and PCK of OAE is very different from the typical sport
Power of the Experience. Within the data from the based curriculum that is delivered in PETE programs
empirical studies explored in this paper, it was evident (Sutherland et al., 2016). Even within the inclusion of
that preservice teachers found the OAE experience to be one or two courses in a PETE program focused on OAE
influential both personally and professionally. The OAE it is difficult to cover the CK and PCK that is needed
camp experience provided the opportunity to explore to be able to effectively teach OAE in K-12 schools
personal growth and boundaries through engagement (Sutherland et al., 2016). It is important to note however,

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 308 Sutherland and Legge

that even when learning to teach OAE was the focus of the With the exception of friluftsliv, which has a clear his-
PETE course, preservice teachers still experienced some torical and cultural identity as a philosophy of outdoor
difficulty transferring that knowledge to teaching K-12 life in Scandinavian countries, the different terminology
students (North, 2015; Sutherland et al., 2011; Sutherland for OAE seemed to be used interchangeably and with-
& Stuhr, 2014; Sutherland et al., 2016). out clear definition. Terms such as outdoor education,
The findings indicated that external influences were adventure education, outdoor adventure education, out-
an important factor on the ways of doing OAE in and door adventurous activities, outdoor learning, learning
through physical education/teacher education, student outside the classroom, adventure physical education, and
outcomes from participation in OAE were largely positive adventure-based learning were all used within the grow-
although it certainly was not a smooth process at times, ing body of research on the use of OAE in and through
and pedagogical considerations are important to reflect physical education/teacher education. As we indicated
upon when implementing OAE in this context. Within earlier, there is an abundance of terms used to describe
PETE, the delivery of OAE occurs through a number of OAE and which we believe has led to confusion of what
different ways and there is a strong belief that the power constitutes OAE within physical education. Our under-
of the experience has an important influence on preservice standing and interpretation of OAE is an experiential
teachers. However, attention must be paid to developing endeavor that incorporates a contextualized sequence of
the relevant content knowledge and pedagogical content activities combined with a reflective process that may
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knowledge. or may not take place in the outdoors. In this is a strong

belief that a socially critical perspective incorporating a
connection to the local environment, culture, and history
Discussion is emphasized. However, to build a strong foundation
for an OAE program, there must be a clear alignment
The shared historical influence has helped to shape between the term and the philosophical approach used
how OAE is offered in and through physical education/ to teach the activities, whether it is a program aimed at
teacher education in the countries we considered for this fostering personal growth or skill based outdoor activi-
paper. The external influence highlighted in the findings, ties. Thus, with OAE situated as an umbrella term, there
coupled with the historical underpinnings, also affects the could be a myriad of different outcomes and pedagogical
ways in which OAE occurs. We position the findings from approaches used to achieve these outcomes. One such
this research within ways of teaching OAE in and through approach is adventure-based learning (ABL).
physical education/teacher education illustrated through Situated within our own lived experience as par-
examples from our own lived experience. ticipants, practitioners and teacher educators, we use
Gaining legitimacy through inclusion in a national the term and philosophy of ABL to represent how we
curriculum or framework has certainly resulted in the incorporate OAE within physical education/teacher edu-
presence of OAE in physical education within Aotearoa cation. To us ABL embodies a student-centered approach,
New Zealand, Australia, Singapore, and Sweden. While encompassing a form of adventure, where the educative
the predominant version of OAE in physical education purpose of the experience is emphasized, and students
in these countries is through an OAE camp experience reflect on their personal and social development through
or adventure skills-based activities, questions arise to a debrief process. We propose that the key components,
the congruence of these experiences or activities to the or nonnegotiables, for ABL include experiential learn-
philosophy of experiential learning. The outsourcing of ing, sequence and flow of activities, student centered
OAE experiences needs to be problematized as it could facilitation, processing (brief and debrief), emotional and
be both a facilitator and/or inhibitor for the participants’ physical safety (including Challenge by Choice and Full
experiential learning. While we recognize that instructors Value Contract), and cultural responsiveness. Conceptu-
in outdoor residential centers or adventure agencies will alized this way, we argue that ABL can be used with a
likely possess the necessary technical skills to teach OAE, variety of content, in different cultural contexts, and with
it is not clear if they also have the necessary knowledge of different participants.
learners, learning, schooling, curriculum, pedagogy, and Given our positionality on ABL, we found it dif-
assessment that teachers possess. The consequences of ficult to discern if the key components of experiential
handing over the teaching of OEA to outside instructors learning were adhered to in the research studies reported.
means that, teachers lose sight of the educative value of The quality of the experiential learning process was at
the process, participants do not experience their teacher’s times questionable or difficult to determine. We would
knowledge and understanding of the learning process, challenge future researchers in the area of OAE to delin-
and that teachers are unable to make changes to the pro- eate the philosophical underpinnings of the program or
cess to meet the needs of the participants (Remington & experience to allow for a deeper understanding of the
Legge, 2016) nature of the program/experience and the outcomes on
We contend that the blurred naming or terminology participants or instructors. It was also difficult to ascertain
used to identify the provision of OAE internationally is who is doing the actual teaching of OAE in the trenches
problematic and can lead to the devaluing of the educa- and how they are being trained. At times it seemed as
tive purpose of OAE in and through physical education. though those doing the teaching of OAE in and through

JTPE Vol. 35, No. 4, 2016

 Possibilities of “Doing” OAE in PE/TE 309

physical education/teacher education may not have had of producing healthy citizens with the knowledge, skills
training either through teacher education or professional and power to participate in society in a just and ethical
development to actually facilitate the experiential process manner (Tinning 2002) aligns well with the philosophy
in OAE (e.g., Dorovolomo, 2008; Gehris et al., 2010; underpinning OAE.
Tischler & McCaughtry, 2014). Karppinen, (2012) suggests that in OAE nature and
Learning to teach OAE is not an easy process the environment are regarded as important. It makes sense
(Remington & Legge, 2016; Sutherland & Stuhr, 2014; then to consider how well environmental awareness and
Sutherland et al., 2016). The CK and PCK required to understanding is being taught alongside OAE activities. In
successfully teach OAE in physical education needs to the future it would be interesting to research a variety of
be addressed within PETE programs. However, we fully school cultures internationally before and after interven-
acknowledge the time constraints that PETE program tions of OAE to include and examine educative outcomes
operate under and that physical education majors often associated with environmental care and protection, to gain
possess little if any OAE CK or PCK entering PETE new insights into how the USA and other countries align
programs. Our own lived experiences foreground our their HPE teaching and PETE practices to their unique
intentional inclusion of ABL as a philosophy, curriculum, outdoor adventure settings. Aligning with the philosophy
and instructional model within our own teaching in our of a model such as ABL is the belief that learning is a result
respective university PETE programs. of direct experience, innovative research practices that use
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visual ethnography, poetic representation, autoethnogra-

phy, and self-study could highlight lived experiences of
Conclusion students, teachers, and teacher educators to make what hap-
pens in the outdoors, and often seems intangible, tangible.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the scope of this
paper, we assert that the growing body of research in
OAE cements its inclusion as both a curriculum and References
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