Group eory

Selected Problems

B. Sury

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First published 2004

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"It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of
getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment. When I have clarified
and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go into
darkness again; the never-satisfied man is so strange if he has completed a
structure, then it is not in order to dwell in it peacefully, but in order to
begin another. I imagine the world conqueror must feel thus, who, aer one
kingdom is scarcely conquered, stretches out his arms for others."
C.F. Gauss in a letter to Bolyai in 1808
When Horn becomes ⊗ and life seems drab and dreary, join the club of
problem-solvers in group theory!
My group could be a-belian; what is a mere million?
Isomorphic copics could havc hucs of a chamclcon!
My matrices – my dear Homs – are oen elementary.
In such a case, the group can even have the center {e).
Aut I convince any more ? Life's normally N or G!
 Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements
Examples and Notations
Problems
Solutions
Bibliography
Preface

ese are problems which the author has callected over two decades. e
problems are principally aimed at undergraduate mathematics honours
students, but the author expects many of them would be useful even for
beginning graduate students. Excepting a few preliminary ones, we have
included only problems which are not found in standard texts of Artin,
Fraleigh, Herstein, Hungerford and Lang. ese problems are meant only to
supplement the existing ones in them and not to substitute for them. e
author wishes to acknowledge the enormous pleasure he has derived from
two textbooks ‐ one, the wanderful graduate text A course in the eory of
Groups by D. J. S. Robinson and the other e eory of Groups by I. D.
Macdonald. Only abstract groups are discussed here although many
problems on finite groups here can be stated at least for profinite groups. A
glaring omission (and perhaps a big disappointment to some readers) is of
problems in representations of finite groups. On the one hand, many
interesting or useful problems involving representation theory require a
knowledge of semisimple rings and modules, and concepts like tensor
products etc. On the other hand, the author believes that problems involving
representations of finite groups alone require a separate manuscript whose
size would go beyand the rest of the topics. As a result, the author has
decided, albeit grudgingly, to stick only to some basic problems on
representations which involve only linear algebra. Aiso, though we have
included a few problems on free groups, we have not really gone into
combinatorial group theory. Problems involving wreath products and HNN
extensions, etc. are aiso not discussed. e problems are interspersed with
comments putting them in perspective with other problems and with the
subject itself. We have adopted a convention whereby we have separated the
problems into two categories –S and N– which indicate whether they are
standard or not. By standard, we do not mean easy problems but we mean
problems which appear in some advanced text as a theorem perhaps. e
intention of this problem book is two‐fold; on the one hand, to reinforce the
existent knowledge by solving new problems and, on the other hand, to
introduce some concepts not usually taught at this level, by means of what
we have called standard problems. A final word on acknowledging the
source of the problems‐we have mentioned the names of people to whom
the result is due. However, these problems have been callected over many
years and it has not been always possible to locate a reference where it has
appeared either as a theorem or a problem etc. erefore, rather than
mention only those references which are known to the author, we adopt the
policy of not mentioning a reference but only the name in each case.
Acknowledgements

Over the years, D. S. Nagaraj, Dipendra Prasad, Raja Sridharan, Ravi Rao,
Amit Roy and T. N. Venkataramana have been some people with whom I
have shared the enthusiasm of encountering these types of problems and
solving them. I have aiso enjoyed and benefitted from the works of A.
Lubotzky, A. Mann, A. Shalev and L. Pyber for their group‐theoretic
essence.
Examples and Notations

Let us start by recalling the principal examples which one encounters and
basic results on them; this will also serve the purpose of fixing our notations.

/n denotes the group of integers modulo n, under addition mod n.

( /n)× = {a ≤ n: (a,n) = 1} under multiplication mod n. e notations
/n and ( /n)* are perhaps less familiar compared to n etc.
S1 = {z ∊ C : |z| = 1} under multiplication.
All the above are abelian groups.
We recall also that a finite abelian group is isomorphic to the direct
sum of cyclic p-groups for various primes p dividing its order.
Sn, the set of all permutations (i.e., bijections) of n symbols, under the
composition of permutations. In fact, for any set X, the set Sym(X) of
all bijections on X is a group under composition. e subset SF(X)
consisting of all those bijections which move only finitely many
elements, is a subgroup.
We shall use the convention that the permutation στ is obtained by
applying σ first and τ later.
GL(n, Q), the set of all n × n rational matrices which have non-zero
determinants (the symbol GL stands for 'general linear') is a group
under matrix multiplication.
Similarly, one can define GL(n, R) and GL(n, C).
One has also the 'special linear' groups SL(n, Q), SL(n, R) etc.
consisting of the matrices which have determinant 1.
 SO(n) ={g ∊ SL(n, R) : ggt = In}, is known as the special orthogonal
group of degree n.
SU(n) = , is known as the special unitary group of
degree n.
Sp(n) =
is known as the symplectic group of
degree n; here 0 and In denote n × n block matrices.
ese are nonabelian groups when n ﹥ 1.
B(n, Q), the upper triangular rational matrices with nonzero diagonal
entries, U(n, Q), the subset consisting of those upper triangular
matrices which have all diagonal entries equal to 1 and T(n, Q), the
diagonal matrices with all diagonal entries nonzero rational numbers,
are groups. Note that T(n, Q), for any n and, U(2, Q) are abelian
groups.
GL(n, Z) = {g an integral matrix: det(g) = ±1}.
GL(n, Z[1/p]) where p is a prime number.
Here, Z[1/p]denotes the set of rational numbers whose denominators
are divisible only by p and, the above group consists of all matrices
whose determinants are ±a power of p.

Note that

where we have used the notation H ≤ G to denote the fact that H is a

subgroup of G. We shall also write G ≥ H at times.
Also, H < G for groups would mean that H is a proper subgroup.
Let us note that the set of matrices

form a group under matrix multiplication but it is not a subgroup of GL(2,

R).
 We have

where Pσ is the 'permutation matrix' whose rows are the rows of the identity
matrix permuted according to σ, i.e., the rows of Pσ are Rσ(1), ... , Rσ(n).
Note that trivially

while the union of two subgroups may not be a subgroup. Further, if g is an

element of a group G, then its centraliser CG,(g) := {x ∊ G : xg = gx} ≤ G.
Moreover, for any subset S ⊂ G, the subgroup CG(S) := ∩s∊S CG(s) is the
centraliser of S. For S = G, the centraliser CG(G) is usually denoted by Z(G),
and is called the center of G.
If μ(n) denotes the complex nth roots of unity, we have a chain of
subgroups

For any subset S ⊂ G, one denotes by < S > the subgroup generated by S.
In concrete terms, it consists of all finite products of elements of S and their
inverses. For instance, for any group G and any positive integer n, the subset
Gn := {gn : g ∊ G} gives a subgroup < Gn >. Note that, in any abelian group G,
we have < Gn >= Gn.
Evidently, for any G and any n, the subgroup < Gn > is normal in G; we
write < Gn > G.
Given a subset S ⊂ G, one also defines the normal subgroup generated by
S as the smallest normal subgroup < S > N of G which contains S. In concrete
terms, it consists of all finite products of conjugates of elements of S and
their inverses.
One says that a group G is finitely generated if there exists a finite subset S
⊂ G such that G = < S >
 For any subset S ⊂ G, we define the normaliser
NG(S) = {g ∊ G : gSg–1 = S}.
Observe < S > NG(S) ≤ G and NG(S) is the largest subgroup of G
containing S in which < S > is normal.
For any group G, and x, y, ∊ G, we denote [x,y] = xyx–1y–1. Such elements
are called commutators in G. If S is the subset of all commutators of G, one
obtains the commutator subgroup of G, denoted by [G,G]. Sometimes, one
also denotes [G,G] by D(G) and refers to it as the derived group of G.
More generally, for H, K ≤ G, [H,K] denotes the subgroup of G generated
by {[h, k] : h ∊ H, k ∊ K}.
A group G is said to be solvable – the terminology comes from Galois
theory – if the chain
G ≥ D1(G) := D(G) ≥ D2(G) := D(D(G)) ≥ ……
becomes the trivial group in a finite number of steps. Evidently, any abelian
group is solvable. A nonabelian example is the group B(n, Q), the upper
triangular rational matrices with nonzero diagonal entries for any n ≥ 2.
A complementary concept is that of a perfect group; a group G is said to be
perfect if G = [G,G].
A group G is said to be nilpotent if the lower central series
G ≥ C1(G) := D(G) ≥ C2(G) ≥ C3(G)…
becomes trivial in a finite number of steps where Cn+1(G) = [G, Cn(G)].
It is not only evident that abelian groups are nilpotent but also that
nilpotent groups are solvable because it is seen by induction on n that Dn(G)
≤ Cn(G) for any G. e group U(n,Q) is nilpotent but nonabelian when n >
2.
In any group G, one defines inductively
 [x1,… , xn] := [[x1,… , xn–1], xn].
Fn, the free group of rank n, is defined to be the set of all reduced (finite)
words in n symbols x1, … , xn and their 'inverse symbols' denoted by x1–1, …
, xn–1. Here, a word is said to be reduced if it does not contain two symbols
xi and xi–1 in juxtaposition. e empty word is also counted and is the
identity element. e group multiplication is by concatenation of two
reduced words and cancelling off all consecutive symbols of the form xixi–1
or xi–1xi.
Fn is nonabelian if n ≥ 2. It is evident that any group which can be
generated by n elements can be identified upto isomorphism with a quotient
group of Fn.
A group G is said to be finitely presentable if G ≅ Fn/K for some n where K
= < R > N for some finite subset R of Fn. e choice of finite sets X ⊂ G with
|X| = n and R ⊂ Fn with Fn / < R > N ≅ G is called a finite presentation of G.
If G = < X|R > and H = < Y|S >, then their free product is defined to be the
group < X Y|R ∪ S > and is denoted by G * H. Note that Fn is a free
product of Z with itself n times (taking free products is an associative
operation). We shall see via some problems that familiar groups like SL(2,
Z)/{±I} are free products.
For a positive integer n and 1≤ i ≠ j ≤ n, the elementary matrix Ei,j is the n
× n matrix whose only nonzero entry 1 is at the (i, j)th place.
Let us recall the concept of group actions which makes groups one of the
most powerful tools in mathematics as well as in other disciplines.
Recall that a group G is said to act on a set S if there is a homomorphism
from G to the permutation group Sym(S) of S. e action is said to be
faithful if the homomorphism is injective. It is customary to write g.s for the
element of S that s ∊ S is sent to by the permutation corresponding to g ∊ G.
For s ∊ S, the subset G.s := {g.s : g ∊ G} is called the orbit of s. For any g ∊ G,
the subset Sg := {s ∊ S : g.s = s} is called the set of fixed points under g. For s ∊
S, the subgroup Gs := {g ∊ G : g.s = s} is called the isotropy subgroup at s.
Note that for s ∊ S, the map g → g.s is a well-defined bijection from the set
G/Gs of le cosets of Gs to the orbit G.s of s. us, orbits under a finite group
action have cardinalities which are divisors of the order of the group.
In the particular case of a group acting on itself by conjugation, we denote
the orbit of an element g (this is the conjugacy class of g) by G(g). One also
writes g ~h to mean that g and h are in the same orbit; that is, they are
conjugate.
One calls an action of G on a set S transitive if each orbit is the whole set
S.
For instance, Sn acts transitively on {1, 2, … , n}.
e group GL(n, R) acts transitively on Rn – (0).
A group G is said to act r–transitively on a set S if G acts transitively on
the set
{(s1, … , sr) ∊ Sτ : gi distinct }.
For an element g in a group G, one usually denotes the automorphism x →
g–1xg of G as Int (g). Sometimes, one also writes xg for g–1xg. e group Aut
(G) of all automorphisms of G is defined by means of the composition in the
following order: g(στ) = (g(σ)) τ; this is consistent with our convention of
multiplying permutations. In this convention, the set of automorphisms x →
Int(x) can be identified with a subgroup of Aut G because
g(Int (xy)) = (xy)–1)g(xy) = g (Int(x))(Int(y)).
is is in fact, a normal subgroup. It is convenient at times to write xθ
instead of x(θ) for an automorphism θ.
e last important notion we recall is that of composition series and the
Jordan–Holder theorem. Recall that a normal series of a group G is simply a
finite sequence of subgroups

Of course, we know that the Gi's need not be normal in the whole of G;
they are usually called subnormal subgroups of G. A normal series

is said to be a refinement of a normal series

if each Gi is some Hj ; it is called a proper refinement if m > n.

It is elementary to show that any two normal series have refinements
which are isomorphic; that is, refinements in which any successive factor
Gi/Gi–1 of one is isomorphic to a successive factor of the other and vice
versa.
One says that a normal series is a composition series if it has no proper
refinements. Note that this is equivalent to the successive factors being
simple groups.
For instance, any normal series for Z will have a proper refinement
because the smallest nontrivial term in such a series is an infinite cyclic
group and will have proper nontrivial (normal) subgroups. erefore, Z has
no composition series.
e theorem of Jordan–Holder asserts that for a finite group, each normal
series admits a refinement which is a composition series and that any two
composition series are isomorphic.
Finally, we recall Zorn's lemma which is equivalent to the axiom of
choice. e use of Zorn's lemma becomes unavoidable when we need to
prove facts like every vector space has a basis. Let (S, ≤) be any non-empty
partially ordered set. is means the three properties : (i) s ≤ s for all s ∊ S;
(ii) s ≤ t, t ≤ s ⇒ s = t; and (iii) s ≤ t ≤ u ⇒ s ≤ u.
 A chain is a subset T of S in which for any two elements s, t ∊ T, either s ≤
t or t ≤ s. Zorn's lemma asserts that if every chain T in S has an upper bound
(that is, an element s0 ∊ S such that t ≤ s0 for all t ∊ T), then S has a maximal
element (that is, an element m ∊S which is not ≤ any element of S other than
itself).
Finally, we recall that a group is said to have exponent d if d is the smallest
natural number for which each element g satisfies gd = 1.
One last word of convention – a subgroup M of a group G is maximal if M
is a proper subgroup which is not contained in any other proper subgroup of
G.
Also, the identity element is always denoted by 1 unless there is an abelian
group written additively when it is denoted by 0 . Also, we write O(g) for the
order of an element g of a group G while the order of the group itself is
written as |G|. e notation pr||n means that pr is the highest p–power
dividing n.
Problems

PROBLEM S-l
(i) For any infinite cyclic group G = < g >, the map g 1 is an isomorphism
onto Z; for finite cyclic G, g ↦ 1 is an isomorphism onto Z/|G|. Use this to
prove that the direct product G × H of nontrivial cyclic groups G, H is cyclic
if and only if both G, H are finite and their orders m, n are coprime.
(ii) Prove that a finite group is cyclic if and only if it has a unique subgroup
of each order dividing the order of the group. Hence deduce that
for each natural number n.
(iii) Let G be a finite group in which, for every n/|G|, the set {g : gn = e} has at
most n elements. en, G is cyclic and the set {g : gn = e} has exactly n
elements for each n||G|. In particular, any finite subgroup of K* is cyclic for
any field K.

ASIDE        Note that for the application in (iii) to field theory, we need only
prove the result for abelian G. Later, we wlll discuss this problem again and
prove (ii) and (iii) as applications of Sylow's theorems.

PROBLEM S-2
(i)Use the group structure of (Z/p)* to prove Fermat's little theorem
asserting ap–1≡1 mod pfor prime p and (a,p)=1.
(ii) Prove Euler's congruence asserting aϕ(n)≡1mod n for (a,n)=1.
(iii) Prove the assertion n|ϕ(an – 1) for natural numbers a, n.
(iv) Prove Wiison s congruence that for a prime p, one has (p – 1)!≡ –1mod
p by looking at the product of all elements in .
(v) Let a be a natural number and p be a prime. Suppose that
for some n≥1. en, show that ap–1≢1 modulo p2).

ASIDE        Later, we shall also discuss problems which give various group-
theoreticol generalisations of Fermat's little theorem, Wilson's theorem etc.

PROBLEM N-3
Let G be any group of order n and let p any prime number. Consider the
subset S of G ×. . . × G ( p times) defined by S= {(g1,...,gp): g1g2...gp = e}. (i)
Prove that |S|≡ ⌗{g:gp)=e} mod p.
(ii) Use (i) to prove Cauchy's theorem which asserts that if G is a finite group
and p||G| is a prime, then G has an element of order p.
(iii) Use (i) to prove Fermat's little theorem for any prime p.

ASIDE    Recall thot a finite-dimensionol division algebra D over a field K is a

finite-dimensionol vector space D over K such that D has a multiplication
under which the set D* of all non zero elements forms group, the
multiplication is also required to satisfy x(y+z)=xy+xz and (x+y)z=xz+yz
and, λ(xy)=(λx)y for all λ ∊ K and all x, y, z ∊D. Note that D is a field if and
only if D* is an abelian group.
Further, D is said to be central over Kif the centre of D* is K*.
A familiar example is the space H of Hamilton's quaternions

H := {a0 + a1i + a2j + a3k : ai ∊ R}

where the multiplication is defined by i2 = j2= k2 = –1, and ij= k= –ji. Note
thot H is a 4-dimensional vector space over R and is central over R. A very
similar construction produces many examples of central division algebras
over Q.

PROBLEM S-4
(i) Let D be any finite-dimensional central division algebra over a field F of
characteristic p > 0. Prove that every finite subgroup of ?D* is again cyclic.
(ii) Show that the above Hamilton quaternion algebra

H :={a0 + a1i + a2j + a3k : ai ∊ R}

is such that H* := H\(0) is a group which contains a finite noncyclic group.

(iii) Show that (Z/n)*={a≤n:(a,n)=1} is cyclic if, and only if, n=2,4, pr) or
2pr) for some odd prime p.

ASIDE        e proof of (i) does require the application to field theory in

Problem S-l (iii). A generator in (iii) here is known in number-theoretlc
parlance as a primitive root modulo n. lt is interesting to note thot there is
no known algorithm to flnd a primitive root modulo a prime.

PROBLEM N-5
Show that the additive groups Z[1/2] and Z[1/3] are not isomorphic.

PROBLEM N-6
Let p, q be distinct odd primes. Consider the group G = (Z/p)* × (Z/q)* and
the subgroup H={(1,1),(–1,–1)}.
(i) Prove that

is a set of coset representatives for H in G.

(ii) Using the isomorphism

θ : (Z/p)* ×(Z/q)* → (Z/pq)*

get a set of coset representatives for θ(H).

(iii) Use the two sets to get expressions for the product of elements of G/H
and deduce the quadratic reciprocity law

ASIDE    e above observation is due to G. Rousseou.

PROBLEM N-7
Prove that Jordan–Holder theorem implies the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic.

PROBLEM N-8
(i) If H≤G has index n in G, then show that H contains a normal subgroup
N whose index is a divisor of n!.
(ii) Let G be a finite group and H ≤ G be of order n where each prime factor
of n is at least [G:H]. en, prove that H is normal.
(iii) Let N ⊴ G and suppose x, y∊G such that xy∊N. Prove that xryr∊ N for all
integers r.

PROBLEM S-9
Let a finite group G act on a finite set S. Prove:
Conclude that the number of orbits is the 'average number of fixed points'
.

ASIDE    e above statement is usually known as Burnside's lemma and is

effectively used in Polya's theory of enumeration and, in particular, in the
combinatorial enumeration of isomers of a chemical compound. In informal
parlance, one describes the lemma as saying that when one wants to count
cattle, count the number of legs and divide by 4 (!) Actually, there ore mony
Burnside lemmata of importance which are of different levels of difficulty
and this is the easiest of them all.

PROBLEM N-10
Let G be a finite group and H≤G such that HK is a subgroup of G for all K ≤
G. en, prove that H is a subnormal subgroup of G.

PROBLEM N-11
Let G ≤ Sp act transitively on {1, …, p} where p is a prime.
Show that any nontrivial normal subgroup aiso acts transitively on {1, …, p}
and contains a p-cycle.

PROBLEM N-12
Let p any prime number of the form 4n+1. Consider the finite set

S = {(x,y,z) ∊ N × N × N : x2 + 4yz = p}.

Define the Zagier map σ : S → S by mapping (x,y,z) to

Prove that σ is a permutation of order 2 and has a unique fixed point. Hence,
conclude that any prime number p of the form 4n+1 is a sum of two squares.
(ii) Let p be as before but define

S1) = {(x,y,z) ∊ Z × N × N : x2 + 4yz = p}

and S2 = {(x,y,z) ∊ S1 : z > x + y}. Consider the Nair maps

and β : S2 → S2;(x,y,z)↦ (–x,y,z) or (x,z,y) according as to whether z > y–x or

z < y–x. Show that α is an involution with a unique fixed point and draw the
conclusion about p using β.
(iii) Let p,S1) and S2) be as above. Consider the subset S3)= {(x,y,z)∊S1): z<
x+y}. Prove that if no element of S1) is of the form (x,y,y), then all the
elements of S1) can be callected in groups of 4 where exactly two are in S2)
and two in S3). Consider the Heathbrown-Nair map

to conclude that |S2| is odd and arrive at a contradiction.

ASIDE    Zagier's proof wos published as a 'One sentence proof ' but the other
vorlonts due to Heothbrown and Mohon Nolr ore unpublished.

PROBLEM N-13
Let G be a finite simple group and p ||G|. If G has exactly n > 1 p-Sylow
subgroups, show that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of An.

PROBLEM N-14
Let p be a prime and let a ≥ b be positive integers. Consider disjoint sets S1,
... , Sa and call their union S. Fix a cyclic permutation of each Si and let G
denote the group of permutations of S generated by these a p-cycles.
Considering the action of G on the set T of all pb-element subsets of S, prove
that

ASIDE    is ideo of proving the congruence is due to J.H. Smith.

PROBLEM S-15
For any prime p and any natural number n, prove that any p-group P ≤
GL(n, Z/p) is conjugate to a subgroup of the group U=U(n,Z/p) consisting of
upper triangular matrices with 1's on the diagonal. Hence, compute the
number of p-Sylow subgroups.

PROBLEM N-16
Use the Sylow theorems to solve Problem 1 (ii) and (iii).

PROBLEM S-17
Let G be a finite group and p||G| a prime. (i)Prove that if P is a p-Sylow
subgroup of G, then

NG(NG(P)) = NG(P).

(ii) Let N ⊴ G and let Q ≤ N be a p-Sylow subgroup of N. en, show that

G=N NG(Q).

ASIDE        e above idea is oen used and is referred to as the Frattini

argument.

PROBLEM N-18
Let G be a finite group and pr be a prime power dividing the order of G.
en, prove that there exist subgroups of order pr in G and that these are
≡1mod p in number.

ASIDE    e above generalisation of Sylow's theorems is due to Frobenius.

We have the following even stronger result due to E. Snapper.

PROBLEM N-19
Let G be a finite group and p be a prime such that pn||G|. Suppose H ≤ G has
order pm ≤ pn. en, prove that: (i) there exist subgroups of order pn
containing H and,
(ii) the number of subgroups of order pn which contain H is ≡1 modulo p.

PROBLEM N-20
Show that An is (n – 2)-transitive on {1, 2, ... , n}.

PROBLEM N-21
(i) Prove that any element in An is a commutator xyx–1y–1 in Sn where x is an
n-cycle.
(ii) In S2n+1, prove that the cycle (1 2 ... 2n+1) is expressible as xyx–1y–1
where x is a n+1-cycle.
(iii) In any Sn, show that every element is a product of at the most two
cycles.
(iv) Let F be a finite field. Prove that Sym(F) is generated by the
permutations σ : x → x–1 for x ≠ 0; σ(0) = 0 and τa,b: x → ax+b for a, b∊F.

ASIDE   e observation in (iv) was made by L. Carlitz.

PROBLEM N-22
(i) For any n, it is well-known that the permutations σ = (1 2) and τ=(1 2...n)
generate the whole of Sn. Prove this. Further, if p is a prime, show that any
transposition and any p-cycle generate Sp.
(ii) For general n, and for a transposition σ and any n-cycle τ, find a
necessary and sufficient candition for Sn to be generated by σ and τ.

ASIDE    e proofs of simplicity of the groups An for n ≥ 5 and of PSL (n,F)

= SL (n,F)/center for any field F and (n,F) ≠ (2,Z/2), (2,Z/3)are well-known
and contained ln all the standard texts. Here are some variants and
corallaries.

PROBLEM N-23
Prove that Sn is not isomorphic to a subgroup of An+1 for any n> 1.

PROBLEM N-24
(i) Consider the alternating group A(N) defined as the set of bijections of N
which move only finitely many natural numbers and move them as even
permutations. Prove that A(N) is simple.
(ii) Prove that any finite group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a finite simple
group.
(iii) Prove that in the infinite group SL (2, F) for any infinite field F, each
element is expressible as a finite product of elements of finite order.

PROBLEM N-25
(i) Suppose G is a group and g ∊ G an element conjugate to g-1 such that

G = G(g)G(g):= {xy : x,y ∊ G(g)},

where G(g) denotes the conjugacy class of g. en, prove that

 G = {xyx–1y–1 : x ∊ G(g),y ∊ G}.

(ii) Deduce that the group PSL(2, C)= SL(2, C)/± I is perfect.

PROBLEM N-26
Prove that SU(2) ≅H1), the group of unit quaternions; that is, the
quaternions a+bi+cj+dk which satisfy a2+b2+c2+d2=1. Write down explicitly
a homomorphism from SU(2) to SO(3) whose kernel is {±I2}.

PROBLEM N-27
For any field K, prove that GL (n,K) is the disjoint union of double cosets
BωB over permutation matrices ω. Here B:=B(n,K), the group of invertible
upper triangular matrices with entries from K.

ASIDE    e above decomposition is known os the Bruhat decomposition. lt

has analogues for many matrix groups and proves to be extremely useful.

PROBLEM N-28
(i) Prove that for any odd prime number p, an n×n integral matrix A≠ Id
with entries congruent to the corresponding entries of the identity matrix
modulo p is of infinite order. In other words, the 'principal congruence
subgroup' ker(GL(n,Z) → GL (n,Z/p) is torsion-free for an odd prime p.
(ii) Prove (i) using eigenvalues.
(iii) For p = 2, show that any matrix A in ker( GL (n,Z) → GL (n,Z/p)) of
finite order, has order 1 or 2 and is expressible as

M.diag(1,1,…,1,–1,–1,…,–1).M-1

for some M∊ GL (n,Z).

ASIDE        is is originally due to H. Minkowski and now many proofs are
known. e proof (ii) using eigenvalues is due to R. Guralnick. is proof
for (ii) is due to Y. Kitaoka. For p=2, one has to go modulo 4 to get a torsion-
free subgroup of GL (n,Z).

PROBLEM N-29
Let G=O(3,Q):={g∊GL(3,Q): ggt)=I}. Consider the sub group
. Prove that the set of permutation

matrices along with H generate only a subgroup of infinite index in G.

ASIDE        e above example was observed by J. Delaney. Recall that on

abelion group G is said to be divisible if for each g ∊G and each natural
number n, there exists h ∊ G satisfying nh=g. Examples are the additive
groups of Q, R and the group Q,/Z. Note that the first two groups are
uniquely divisible; that is, given g and n, the element h is uniquely
determined, however, the last one is not uniquely divisible. Notice that
nontrivial divisible groups are infinite.

PROBLEM S-30
(i) Prove that a nontrivial finitely generated abelian group cannot be
divisible.
(ii) Prove that if S is any set of generators of the additive group of Q, then S
contains a proper subset of generators.
(iii) Show that Q does not have proper maximal subgroups.
ASIDE    Call an abelian group D injective if any homomorphism α : A → D
from a subgroup A of an abelian group B extends to a homomorphism from
B to D. at this property is equivalent to divisibility is the contention of the
next problem which uses Zorn's lemma.
PROBLEM S-31
(i) Prove that an abelian group is divisible if, and only if, it is injective.
(ii) If D ≤ G is a divisible subgroup of an abelian group G, show that G=D ⊕
E for some subgroup E of G.
(iii) Prove that every abelian group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a divisible
group.

PROBLEM N-32
Let G be any divisible group and let S be any proper subset. Prove that the
number of different sets {S+g: g∊ G} must be infinite.
e above result is due to D. Costa.

PROBLEM N-33
Let θ : G → H be a surjective homomorphism of abelian groups whose
elements have order a power of a prime p. Suppose that kerθ is finite. en,
for each divisible element h ∊ H, there is a divisible element g∊G such that
θ(g)=h.

ASIDE    It is clear tht athe multiplicative group R>0 of positive real numbers
is isomorphic to the additive group of real numbers by means of the
logarithm map. Also, it is clear that for C*, the polar coordinates provide on
isomorphism C* ≅ R>0 × S1. ere is general structure theorem for divisible
groups from which one can deduce that the product above is isomorphic to
S1 itself but there is more elementary proof due to L.R. Duffy which uses
Zorn's lemma.

PROBLEM N-34
Use Zorn s lemma to choose appropriate bases for the Q-vector spaces R
and R × R and, show that C* ≅ S1.
PROBLEM N-35
Define the integer θ(G) recursively for any finite group G as

Compute θ(G).

ASIDE        e above was a problem posed by O. Morphy and solved by E.

Andersen.

PROBLEM S-36
Let G be any group.
(i) Prove

(ii) For any r≥1, prove

where we have written uv+w to mean uvuw for elements in a group.

(iii) Prove the Hall-Witt identity:

[a,b,cb][b,c,ac][c,a,ba] = 1.

Suppose [G,G] ≤ Z(G). en, prove for any x, y, z ∊ G and integer n that :
(iv) (xy)n = xnyn[y,x]n(n–1)/2.
(v) Elements of p-power order for any odd prime p, form a subgroup.

PROBLEM N-37
(i) Prove that for any group G, we have [G,G]≤< G2>. Obtain an explicit
expression for any commutator as a product of three squares.
(ii) If |G/Z(G)|2 < |[G,G]|, prove that there are elements of [G,G] which are
not commutators.

(iii) Consider the group G of matrices where a, b, c ∊ Z/4. Show

that is a commutator [X,Y] but that it is not a product of two

squares.

ASIDE    e above group in (iii) has order 43 and is the smallest group to
give on example as desired. For instance, if one considers the entries of the
matrices to be from Z/2 instead of Z/4, it is easily verified that X13 is indeed
the square of X12+X23– I. Here Xij denotes the elementary matrix which
differs from the identity matrix only at the (i, j)th entry, which is 1. It was
proved by Lyndon and Newman that in the free group on two symbols a, b,
the commutator [a,b] is not a product of two squares. e example below
due to P. J. Cassidy shows that in a general group G, one may require
arbitrarily many commutators to express elements of [G,G].

PROBLEM N-38
Consider the group

of matrices where f(x), g(y) are polynomiais in independent variables x, y

over rational numbers and h(x,y) ∊ Q[x,y]. Prove that [G,G] ≅ Q[x,y] and
that every n≥ 1, there is an element of [G,G] which cannot be expresed as a
product of ≤ n commutators.
PROBLEM N-39
Prove that in a finitely generated group G, if [G,G] is finite, then Z(G) has
finite index.

PROBLEM N-40
Let θ : G → G be an automorphism of a finite group G such θ(g)=g–1 for more
than 3/4ths of the elements of G. Prove that θ(x)=x–1 for all x ∊ G. If θ takes
g to g–1 for exactly 3/4ths of the elements of G, prove that G has an abelian
subgroup of index 2.

PROBLEM N-41
Suppose G is a nonabelian finite group. en, show that the number of
elements (x,y) ∊ G × G such that xy = yx is at the most .
ASIDE    We recall that H is said to be characteristic subgroup of a group G if
σ(H)=H for any automorphism σ of G. In particular, characteristic
subgroups are normal. In any group G, the subgroups [G,G] and <Gn > for
any n are evidently characteristic subgroups.

PROBLEM N-42
(i) Prove that a characteristic subgroup C of a normal subgroup N of a group
G is normal in G.
(ii) Prove that a subgroup of a characteristic subgroup is a characteristic
subgroup.
(iii) Give an example of a normal subgroup which is not characteristic.

PROBLEM N-43
Let G be any finite group and let g ∊ G. Write where pi's are
distinct primes. en, prove that every element g ∊ G can be uniquely
expressed as a product g = g1 . . .gr, where gi's commute pairwise and
for i = 1, . . . , r.

PROBLEM N-44
Suppose M, N are normal subgroups of a finite group G such that G/N ≅ M.
If N is simple, prove that G/M ≅ N.

ASIDE    e result below is due to .N. Hersteln and R. Teltler.

PROBLEM N-45
Let θ : G → G be a homomorphism of any group into itself.
(i) If g ↦ gθ (g) and g ↦ g2θ(g) are also homomorphisms, prove that G must
be abelian.
(ii) If g ↦ g2θ(g) and g ↦ g4θ(g) are homomorphisms, prove that G must be
abelian.

PROBLEM N-46
Let G be any finite group in which lth powers of elements commute among
themselves and mth powers of elements commute among themselves. If
(l,m)=1, prove that G must be abelian.

PROBLEM N-47
Let G be any group which has no nontrivial abelian normal subgroups. If θ
is an automorphism of G with the property that θ(x) commutes with x for all
elements x∊ G, prove that θ=Id.

ASIDE        e above result is due to T.J. Laffey and generalises a problem

posed by I.N. Herstein which asserts the same with the stronger assumption
that G is nonabelian, simple.
A well-known elementary exercise (see Herstein's text, for instance) asserts
that a finite group is the union of three of its proper subgroups if, and only if
it admits quotient isomorphic to Z/2×Z/2. Also, no finite group can be the
union of two of its proper subgroups. Note thot a cyclic group has the
evident property that it is not the union of its proper subgroups. e
fallowing results constitute the appropriate converse to this. ey are due to
B.H. Neumann, J. Sonn and Mira Bhargava.

PROBLEM N-48
(i) Show that if G has a quotient isomorphic to a finite, non-cyclic group,
then it is the union of finitely many proper subgroups.
(ii) If , then show that all the Hi's of infinite index can be
dropped without affecting this decomposition.
(iii) Deduce that a group G can be written as a finite union of proper
subgroups if, and only if G admits a finite non-cyclic group as a quotient.
(iv) Show that a group G can be written as a finite union of proper normal
subgroups if, and only if G admits of a quotient isomorphic to Z/p × Z/p for
some prime p.
Recall that a group is said to have a property virtually if there is a subgroup
of finite index with that property.

PROBLEM N-49
Let G be a virtually cyclic group. If G is torsion-free that is, has no nontrivial
element of finite order, prove that G itself is cyclic.

ASIDE        Actually, a much stronger result holds : ony virtually free group
which is torsion-free, is free. is is proved by Jeon–Pierre Serre by methods
from homological algebra.
ASIDE    Recall that given groups H, N and a homomorphism θ : H → Aut(N),
the semidirect product H α N is the group whose underlying set is H × N
and the multiplication is defined as (h1, n1)(h2, n2) := (h1h2,θ (h2)–1(n1)(n2).
Here, we need to recall our convention of multiplying automorphisms from
le to right, that is, g(στ) :=(g(σ))τ.

PROBLEM N-50
(i)Let G be a group, H ≤ G and N ⊴ G such that G= HN and H ⋂ N={1}.
Prove that for the action

one has G ≅ H α N. Hence, deduce that G ≅ G/N α N in this case.

(ii) Let N ⊴ G. Prove that G ≅ G/N α N if, and only if there exists a
homomorphism s : G/N → G such that π∘s=Id where π : G → G/N is the
natural homomorphism.

ASIDE    Recall that a group G is sold to be free abelian of rank n if, and only
if it is an abelian group G wlth bosis of n elements g1,…, gn, i.e.,
G = < {g1,… , gn}>
and implies ai = 0 for all i.

Note that in our additive notation, G = < {g1,… , gn}> means that G={a1g1+ .
. . +angn: ai ∊ Z}.
e following five problems deal with the structure of finitely generated
abelian groups.

PROBLEM S-51
(i) Show that a group G is free abelian of rank n if and only if it is
isomorphic to Zn), the set of integral n-tuples under coordinate-wise
addition.
(ii) Prove that, if G is free abelian rank n, then the rank n is uniquely
determined.

PROBLEM S-52
(i) Prove that if H is a subgroup of a free abelian group G of rank n, then H
is free abelian of rank r ≤ n. Further, prove that there are bases {e1, ..., en} of
G and {d1e1, ..., drer} of H respectively where di divides di+1 for i <r.
(ii) Prove that a finitely generated abelian group is isomorphic to
Zm × Zd1 × … × Zdr
for some m ≥ 0 and di dividing di+1.

ASIDE    e above result (i) is known as the invariant factor theorem (or as
the elementary divisors theorem) – seldom taught in undergraduate courses
– and the result (ii) is known as the structure theorem for finitely generated
abelian groups. e integer m in (ii) as well the di are uniquely determined
upto sign and the di's are called the invariant factors of H.

PROBLEM S-53
Prove that the existence of bases as in the invariant factor theorem is
equivalent to the following statement about matrices : Given any A ∊
Mm,n(Z) of maximum possible rank, there exist P ∊ GL (m,Z) and Q ∊ GL
(n,Z) such that PAQ is a matrix whose 'diagonal' entries are d1, d2, ... where
di|di+1. e integers di are also known as the invariant factors of the matrix
A.

PROBLEM S-54
Prove that SL (n,Z) for n ≥ 2 is generated by matrices of the form Xij :=I
+Ei,j, i ≠ j and that GL (n,Z) is generated by SL (n,Z) and the matrices diag
(±1,...,±1). Hence, deduce that if n ≥ 3, then SL (n,Z) is a perfect group.
PROBLEM N-55
(i) For any A ∊ Mm,n(Z) define hi(A) to be the GCD of all i × i minors of A.
If A has maximal rank, show that for any P ∊ GL (m,Z) and Q ∊ GL (n,Z),
the numbers hi(A)=hi(PA)=hi(AQ) for all i.
(ii) Prove that the invariant factors of a matrix A ∊ Mm,n(Z) are
, etc.

ASIDE    e next two problems hove to do wlth the structure of nilpotent

groups.

PROBLEM S-56
(i) Show that a group G is nilpotent if, and only if there exists a series

for some n where each Gi is normal in G and Gi-1/Gi is contained in the

centre of G/Gi.
(ii) Show that the centre of any nontrivial nilpotent group is nontrivial.
(iii) Prove that all p-groups are nilpotent.
(iv) Show that subgroups and quotient groups of nilpotent groups are
nilpotent.
(v) Prove that B(n,Q) is not nilpotent for n ≥ 2 whereas its normal subgroup
U(n,Q) and the quotient group B(n,Q)/U(n,Q) are.
(vi) Prove that a group G is nilpotent if and only if G/Z(G) is nilpotent,
where Z(G) is the centre of G.

PROBLEM S-57
Show that for a finite group G, the following are equivalent:
(i) G is nilpotent,
(ii) every subgroup is subnormal,
(iii) every proper subgroup H is properly contained in NG(H),
(iv) all maximal subgroups are normal,
(v) all p-Sylow subgroups are normal,
(vi) elements of coprime order commute and,
(vii) G is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups.

ASIDE    e Frattini subgroup Φ(G) of a finite group G is defined to be the

intersection of all (proper) maximol subgroups.

PROBLEM N-58
(i) Prove that Φ(G) is the set of 'nongenerators' of G i.e., those elements
which can be dropped from any generating set for G.
(ii) Show that Φ(G) is a characteristic subgroup.
(iii) Prove that Φ(G) is nilpotent.
(iv) For any p-group G, prove that Φ(G)=[G,G] <Gp>.
(v) For a finite abelian p-group A, show that A/Φ(A) is an elementary
abelian group of order pd(A) where d(A) is the minimal number of
generators needed to generate A.

PROBLEM S-59
(i) Show that a subgroup of a finitely generated nilpotent group is aiso
finitely generated.
(ii) Deduce that a finitely generated nilpotent torsion group is finite.

PROBLEM N-60
Let G be a finite p-group for an odd prime p and suppose that G/<Gp> is
abelian. Show that if a1, ... , an generate G, then generate <Gp>.
Further, prove that <Gp>=Gp.

ASIDE        In literature, p-groups with the above property are known as

powerful p-groups. For p=2, one requires that G/<G4 is abelian. is notion
is sort of generalisation of being abelian and proves extremely useful in the
theory of p-groups as well as in the theory of p-adic Lie groups.

e following interesting result is due to Philip Hall.

PROBLEM S-61
Consider the natural homomorphism from AutG to AutG/Φ (G) for any
finite group G; this exists because Φ(G) is a characteristic subgroup. For any
p-group G, look at the kernel K of this homomorphism. Prove that K is a p-
group.

ASIDE    A group in which every nontrivial element of G remains nontrivial

in some finite quotient group, is sold to be residually finite.
For any prime number p, a group is called residually-p if every nontrivial
element of G remains nontrivial in some finite quotient p-group. e first
result below is due to G. Baumslag. e second one can also be proved in a
much more elegant manner if we use profinite groups, as has been shown by
A. Lubotzky.

PROBLEM N-62
(i) Let G be a finitely generated, residually finite residually finite group. Show
that Aut G is aiso residually finite
(ii) Let G be a finitely generated and virtually, a residually p-group for some
prime p. Show that AutG is aiso virtually a residually p-group.
PROBLEM S-63
(i) Prove that a free group F is virtually residually-p for any prime p.
(ii) If G is a finitely generated, residually finite group, prove that every
surjective homomorphism from G to itself is an isomorphism.

ASIDE        Groups with the property in (ii) go under the name of Hopfian
groups.

PROBLEM N-64
Let n be any positive integer and consider the group SL (2,Z/n) :=
. Using the Chinese reminder theorem, prove
that the homomorphism π :SL(2,Z) →SL(2,Z/n) is onto. Here, π sends a
matrix to the corresponding matrix where each entry is reduced modulo n.

ASIDE    ere are examples of rings A and ideals I for which the analogous
homomorphism SL(2,A) → SL(2,A/I) is not onto. A universol example
observed by S. Ramanan and C.P. Ramanujam is A=C[x,y,z,w] and I =(xw –
yz). A proof follows by using the topologicol fact that the 3-sphere is not
homotopically equivalent to the space C2.

PROBLEM N-65
(i) Let l, m, n≥2 be integers. Let p be a prime number which is ≡1 modulo
2lmn. Prove that there exist matrices A, B in PSL(2, Fp) which have orders
l,m such that the order of AB is n.
(ii) Generalize the above result to replace AB with any cyclically reduced
word W(A,B) at the cost of replacing the field Fp with some finite field
containing Fp with p as before.

PROBLEM N-66
If A,B are finite abelian groups, then prove that
 |Hom(A,B)|2 | |EndA| | EndB|.

Here, EndA stands for the group of all homomorphisms from A to itself.

ASIDE    e above pretty observation is due to D. Segal &A. Shalev.

PROBLEM N-67
(i) In any group G, show that

Conclude that in any group of exponent 3, every element commutes with all
its conjugates.
(ii) Use the observation to conclude that any group of exponent 3 must be
nilpotent of class 3, and that its commutator subgroup is perfect. Deduce
that a finitely generated group of exponent 3 must be finite and nilpotent.

ASIDE    e identity in (i) wos observed by A. Malayeri who also showed

that in a free group there are commutators which are not products of two
cubes. e above finiteness result (ii) is known as a positive case of the
Burnside problem. is problem asks whether, in general, a finitely
generated group of finite exponent is finite. Note thot a trivial positive case
is of finitely generated groups of exponent 2 which ore necessarily finite and
abelian. e next problem deals with exponent 4 – another positive case,
although the stronger analogue of (ii) does not hold. ere are
counterexamples known for large exponents.

PROBLEM N-68
(i) We claim that if L is a finite subgroup of a group M of exponent 4 such
that M= <L, x> for some x2∈ L, then M is finite.
(ii) Show that a finitely generated group G in which every element has order
dividing 4 must be a finite 2-group.
PROBLEM N-69
Let T be an automorphism of prime order p of a finite group G such that
T(x)= x if, and only if x=1 .
(i) Show that the function F(g) :=g–1T(g) is a bijection on G.
(ii) Prove that for any g in G, the product g T(g)T2(g) .. Tp-1(g) is the identity.
(iii) Prove that |G| is congruent to 1 modulo p.
(iv) For any prime q dividing the order of G, prove that there is a q-Sylow
subgroup Q of G such that T(Q)=Q.
(v) For any prime q, prove that there is a unique q-Sylow subgroup Q of G
such that T(Q) = Q.
(vi) Let q be a prime. en, show that the q-Sylow subgroup Q fixed by T
contains any q-subgroup of G fixed by T.
(vii) For p = 2, use (i), (ii) to show that G is abelian.
(viii) For p = 3, show that G is nilpotent.

ASIDE    In fact, for a general prime p, the above result holds as wos proved
by the Fields Medallist John ompson in his thesis. One needs the
following deep result due to him : Let p be a prime and let G be a proper
subgroup of a finite group H such that all elements of H outside G have order
p. en, G is nilpotent. However, it does not hold for an automorphism of
general order as seen in the next exercise.

PROBLEM N-70
Consider the elementary abelian 7-group A=<a >×<b>.
(i) If B= < x > is the cyclic group of order 3, prove that the map
(a,b)↦(a2,b4) defines an action of B on A.
(ii) Show that any element of the semidirect product G := B ∝ A is of the
form xi aj bk for some 0 ≤i < 3, 0 ≤ j, k < 7.
(iii) Prove that θ : G → G; a → b, b ↦ a–1, x → x–1 defines an automorphism of
G. Find its order.
(iv) Show that G is not nilpotent.

PROBLEM N-71
Use the invariant factor theorem to prove that any unimodular integral
vector (a1,...a?n) (that is, a vector such that the GCD of the ai's is 1) is the
first column of a matrix in SL (n,Z) for any n ≥ 2. Deduce that SL (n,Z) acts
transitively on the set of unimodular vectors.

ASIDE        It was shown by Boss that the above property does not hold for
general commutative ring. For instance, in the ring A :=R[x,y,z]/(x2+y?2+z2-
1), the vector (x,y,z) is unimodular (that is, there are a, b, c such that
ax+by+cz=1) but the vector cannot be completed to matrix ln SL (n,A). is
is consequence of the topologicol foct thot there is no nowhere vanishing
vector field on the sphere.

PROBLEM N-72
Let be any matrix of trace 0. If (a,b,c) is unimodular,
use the conclusion of the previous problem that this vector can be
completed to a matrix in SL(3, Z), to prove that A=BC – CB for some B, C ∊
M(2,Z). Hence, prove for general a, b, c also that A can be written as above.

ASIDE    is proof is due to Vaserstein. e analogous problem for M(n,Z)

wlth n ≥ 3 is open.

PROBLEM N-73
Let G be any group
(i) Denote by tn the number of transitive actions of G on {1, 2,..., n}. Prove
that an=tn/(n –1)!
(ii) If hn=|Hom(G,Sn)|, then prove that one has the relation

(iii) For the free group Fr, derive Hall's formula

(iv) Prove that a d-generated group G has at the most n(n!)d-1 subgroups of
any index n.
(v) Prove that the number of subgroups of index n in Z2 is σ(n), the sum of
the divisors of n
(vi) Show that application of (ii) to Z2 yields the well-known identity

PROBLEM N-74
Let , where an denotes the number of subgroups of index n in Zr.
en, show for real numbers s>1 that

where , the Riemann zeta function.

PROBLEM N-75
Prove that
where the summation is over all finite abelian p-groups A. Indeed, use the
computation of ζZr above to show that this identity reduces to the special
case of Euler s partition identity

ASIDE        is identity is due to Philip Hall who called it a 'rather curious'
formula. Hall's proof is different and the obove proof uslng the zeta function
of ?Zr is due to Avinoam Mann.

PROBLEM N-76
For any natural number n, let a(n) denote the number of abelian groups of
order n. Show that a(n) is a multiplicative function (that is, show a(mn) =
a(m)a(n) for (m, n) = 1). Further, prove that for every real number t > 1, the
infinite series and the infinite product converge to the
same number.

ASIDE        e ideaof considering the Dirichlet series to study a

number-theoretic sequence ian goes back to Euler, Riemann and Dirichlet,
who proved many properties of prime numbers with this tool. For instance,
it helps us find bounds for as a function of x when x is large. e
above elementary exercise con be used to find an expliclt constant c between
2 and 3 such that tends to zero as x tends to infinity. In other
words, on an average, there are c (an explicitly determined number between
2 and 3) abelian groups of a given order on the average.

PROBLEM S-77
(i) Prove that a group G is solvable if, and only if, there exists a series
for some n where Gi are normal subgroups of G and Gi/Gi+1 is abelian.
(ii) Show that subgroups and quotient groups of solvable groups are
solvable.
(iii) If N is a solvable normal subgroup of a group G such that G/N is
solvable, then prove that G is solvable as well.

ASIDE    One of the most famous, beautiful theorems in finite group theory is

the statement that every group of odd order is solvable. e proof by Walter
Feit and John ompson occupies a whole volume of the Paciific Journal of
Mathematics odd order theorem apart from using many results proved by
earlier. A curiosity is that if one can show that there are no primes p≠q for
which pq –1 divides qp – 1, a part of the proof can be shortened!

PROBLEM N-78
(i) Let G be a finite group such that all its proper subgroups are abelian.
en, prove that G must be solvable.
(ii) Let G be a finite group such that all its proper subgroups are nilpotent.
en, prove that G must be solvable.
(iii) Exhibit a non-solvable finite group all of whose proper subgroups are
solvable.

ASIDE        Many resu|ts on finite groups are natural consequences of the

general representation theory of finite groups. For instance, theorem of
Burnside asserts that any group of order ?prqs for primes p, q is solvable. is
follows naturally using representation and, although proof is available now
which does not need representation theory, it is rather complicated.

PROBLEM N-79
Use the ideas in Problem 73 to prove that in the free product G=Z/2*Z/2,
the number of subgroups of index n is either n or n+1 according as whether
n is odd or even.

ASIDE    One con oiso deol wlth small free products of finite cycllc groups.
For instance, one con prove thot for the group PSL(2,Z) (which can be
identified wlth Z/2*Z/3), the number of subgroups of index n is odd if and
only if n is of the form 2k–3.

ASIDE    ere is a very useful notion known as the transfer homomorphism.

is is defined as follows. Let H ≤G be subgroup of some finite index n in
any group G. If θ : H→A is any homomorphism from H to an abelian group
A, one defines the transfer of θ as follows. Write . en, for any g ∈
G, the cosets ore permuted by the right multiplication, that is, Htig=Ht(i)g.
Here, i→ (i)g is the permutation defined by g. One defines
. Here, we have written the action of θ as a superscript.
e main case where this is useful when A=Hab and θ : H→Hab is the natural
map. e following few problems give some important results which follow
by making use of the transfer when H itself is abelian.
Let H ≤ G and θ be as obove. It is easy to check that θ* is a well-defined
homomorphism from G which does not depend on the choice of the coset
representatives. Further, if the orbits of g ∈ G are
, then

is is easy to see using the coset representotlves sigj; i ≤ k,j ≤ li– 1.

PROBLEM N-80
Show that in any group G, if the centre has finite index n, then [G,G] is finite
and satisfies <[G,G]n>={1}.
ASIDE    e above result is due to I. Schur and hos been generalised by R.
Baer and others in a number of ways.

PROBLEM N-81
Let G be any group in which each conjugacy class is finite. Prove that [G,G]
is a torsion group. Further, if G is also finitely generated, prove that [G,G] is
finite.

PROBLEM N-82
Let G be a finite group and suppose H ≤ G be a p-Sylow subgroup such that
H ≤ Z(NG(H)). en, prove that there exists N ⊴ G such that G = NH and N
⋂ H = {1}.

ASIDE    is is due to Burnside and is sometimes referred to as the Burnside

p-complement theorem, Burnslde p-complement theorem, lt also has
generalisations. Two of them are the Schur-Zossenhaus theorems which are
dealt with in the following two problems.

PROBLEM N-83
Let G be a finite group with an abelian normal subgroup P. Suppose that the
order n of P and its index m are coprime
(i) If, for each element x∈G/P, s(x) is any coset representative, show that the
elements f(x,y):=s(xy)–1s(x)s(y) ∈ P and satisfy the 'cocycle identity'

–1
f(x, yz)f(y, z) = f(xy, z)f(x, y)s(z) .

(ii) Let a be an integer such that ma=1mod n. Prove that, for y∈G/P, the
element
is well defined and that the set of elements h(x)as(x)–1 forms a subgroup H
such that G=PH and P⋂H={1}.
(iii) If, in addition, P is contained in Z(G), then prove that G ≌ P × N.

PROBLEM N-84
Let G be a finite group with a normal subgroup N such that N and G/N have
coprime orders. Show that there exists a subgroup L of order |G/N| in G.
Further, deduce that LN = G and L ⋂ N = {1}.

PROBLEM N-85
Let G be a group such that the set S of all torsion elements of G is a finite set.
en, prove that S is a group.

PROBLEM N-86
Let x1,...,xn be torsion elements in a group such that each conjugacy class
G(xi),i≤n is finite. Prove that <x1,...,xn> is finite.

PROBLEM N-87
Suppose that G is a nonabelian finite group G in which all subgroups are
normal.
(i) Prove that if x, y ∈ G do not commute, then H = < x, y > is a finite,
nilpotent group with [H, H] ≤ Z(H).
(ii) Prove that elements of finite, coprime orders commute.
(iii) If x,y ∈ G are such that 0(x)+O(y) is minimal among noncommuting
elements, then the group Q = < x, y> is isomorphic to the quaternion group
of order 8.
(iv) If Q is as in (iii), prove that G = CG(Q)Q is a torsion group and that
CG(Q) ≌ E × where E is an elementary abelian 2- group and is an
abelian group in which all elements have odd order. Deduce that G must be
a direct product of a quaternion group, an abelian group of odd order and
an elementary abelian 2-group.

PROBLEM N-88
Let θ : G → M be a surjective homomorphism of finite groups. Prove that
there exists a subgroup H of G such that θ(H)=M and the set of primes
dividing |H| is the same as the set of primes dividing |M|.

PROBLEM N-89
(i) If G is a finite group in which there are elements x,y such that xnyn=gn for
some g and some n coprime to |G|. Prove that xy and g are in the same coset
of [G,G].
(ii) In any group G of odd order, the product of all elements (in any order)
lies in [G,G].
(iii) Let G be a finite group whose 2-Sylow subgroups are cyclic. Let j ∈ G be
any element of order 2.
en, prove that the product of all the elements of G taken in any order is in
the set j[G,G] and is nontrivial. Note that the special case G=(Z/p)>* and j =
p – 1 gives us Wilson's theorem.

ASIDE    e exercise (iii) is due to D.Broline generolislng a problem of S.V.

Kanetkar which itself is a generalisation of wilson's theorem. Kanetkar asks
for the proof that the product of all the elements of G in any order is
nontrivial under the same hypotheses.

PROBLEM S-90
(i) Show that if N ⊴ G and both N, G/N are finitely generated, then G is
finitely generated.
(ii) Show that a subgroup of finite index in a finitely generated group is aiso
finitely generated. Hence, deduce that any finite group is finitely presentable.
(iii) Prove that Sn (for n > 1) has a presentation

PROBLEM S-91
(i) Prove that the matrices generate a group
isomorphic to F2. Here e is exponential and one may assume that e is not a
root of a nonzero integral polynomial.
(ii) Prove that Fm ≌ Fn if, and only if, m=n.
(iii) Prove that in the free group F(x,y) on two generators x, y, the subgroup
H generated by ynxy–n;n∈ Z is not finitely generated. Hence, show that
[F2,F2] is not finitely generated.
(iv) Prove that Fn/[Fn,Fn] ≌ Zn.

PROBLEM N-92
Let G = F(x, y) × Z. Consider the subgroups H = < (x, 0), (y, 0)> and K = < (x,
0), (y,1) > of G. Prove that H ⋂ K is not finitely generated.

ASIDE    Problem 55 shows how the abelianisation of any group with a given

presentation may be computed. In fact, oen the only way to know whether
a group given by a presentation is infinite or even nontrivial is by showing
that the abelianisation itself is infinite, nontrivial, etc.

PROBLEM S-93
(i) Let G = < X | R > be a finite presentation of a group. Show that the
abelianisation Gab):= G/[G,G] has the presentation <X | R ∪ {[x,y];x,y ∈ X}>.
(ii) Let G = < X | R > be a finite presentation of a group where |X| > |R|.
en, show that Gab (and therefore G itself) is infinite.

PROBLEM N-94
(i) Consider the matrices in SL(2, Z). Prove
that they generate SL(2, Z).
(ii) By considering the images of S and SX in PSL(2, Z), prove that PSL(2, Z)
is isomorphic to the free product Z/2*Z/3.
(iii) Show that SL(2,Z) =< x, y|x2y–3, x4 >.
(iv) Find the abelianisation of SL(2, Z).

ASIDE    Recall from problem 54 thot SL(n,Z) is a perfect group when n ≥ 3.

is contrasts with the case n=2 above.

PROBLEM S-95
Let K be any field. Consider the subgroups

and

Prove that they are conjugate subgroups in SL(2, K) and generate the whole
of SL(2, K).

PROBLEM N-96
Let K be any field with more than 2 elements.
(i) Prove that if K ≠F2, the group SL (2,K[t]) is generated by matrices of the
form where f, g ∈ K[t], a∈ K*.

(ii) Prove that SL(2, K) and SL(2,K[t]) are perfect groups.

ASIDE    Notice that although the generation by 'elementary' matrices fallows

for SL(2,K[t]) from the division algorithm for K[t], this group is perfect
unlike SL(2,Z) whose commutator subgroup has index 12 as seen in
Problem 94. e main reason here is that unlike Z, the polynomial ring
contains a field.

PROBLEM N-97
(i) Compute the automorphism group of an elementary abelian p-group of
order pr. Deduce that

(ii) For any ∈ > 0;, prove that there exists a prime p and an elementary
abelian p-group G such that AutG has a subgroup A of order coprime to |G|
and such that |A|>|G|2–∈).

ASIDE    e identity in (i) wos observed and generalised by Peter Neumann

to show (using other various deep things like the classification of finite
simple groups) that the order of the outer outomorphism group of group of
order divides the number .
e above observation (ii) hos been used by P. Palfy & L.Pyber (again along
with the classification of finite simple groups) to prove that for any
nontrivial finite group G, and any subgroup A of AutG of order coprime to
|G|, one has |A| <|G|2. is shows the tightness of the bound we have in the
above elementary problem.
PROBLEM N-98
(i) Let G be any group G with Z(G)={1}. Prove that the centraliser of Int G in
AutG is trivial and, deduce that AutG has trivial centre as well.
(ii) A theorem of Wielandt theorem of Wielandt asserts that if A is a finite
group and if B is any subnormal subgroup such that CA(B)={1}, then |A| can
be bounded in terms of |B|. Use this to prove that if G is any finite group
with trivial centre, then the chain of finite groups

stabilises; that is, there is some i such that An = Ai for all n ≥ i.

ASIDE        e nontrivial result below wos proved by Frobenius using the

character theory of finite groups. e proof below by Huppert and two
others due to Isaacs & Robinson and Brauer respectively, to be discussed
later, avold representation theory.

PROBLEM N-99
If G is a finite group and n is a natural number, then, for any conjugacy class
C of G the number a(C,n) of elements g satisfying gn ∈ C is a multiple of
(n|C|,|G|). Prove this important result due to G.Frobenius by induction on
|G|+n using the following steps:
(i) For |C| >1, the cardinality a(C,n) is a multiple of (n|C|,|G|).
(ii) If n = n1n2 with n1,n2 > 1 and (n1,n2)=1, then the truth of the assertion
for n1 and for n2 implies its truth for n.
(iii) If n= pr > 1 for a prime p dividing O(x) with x∈ Z(G), then the assertion
holds for x and for this n.
(iv) Let Z;={y ∈Z(G):(n,O(y))=1}. en the number a(y,n) of all g satisfying
gn = y is the same for each y∈ Z.
(v) e class equation and the previous steps imply Frobenius's theorem.

PROBLEM N-100
For a finite group G and any real number α >0, define

Prove that the cyclic group C of order |G| satisfies aα(C) ≥ aα(G) if α ≤0 and,
aα(C) ≤ aα(G) if α ≥ 0.

PROBLEM N-101
Suppose G is a nontrivial, finite group whose only characteristic subgroups
are {1} and G itself. Prove that G must be a direct product G1 ×...×Gn of
simple groups which are all isomorphic.

PROBLEM N-102
(i) Let G be any finite group and x, y ∈ G such that their conjugacy classes
G(x) and G(y) have coprime cardinalities.
en, prove :

G = CG(x)CG(y), G(xy) = G(x)G(y).

(ii) For any (possibly infinite) group G with finite conjugacy classes G(x) and
G(y) of coprime cardinalities, prove the same assertion.

PROBLEM N-103
Let G be any group in which each conjugacy class has finitely many
elements. Let m(G) be the maximum size. If N ⊴ G, prove that
PROBLEM N-104
(Generalisation of Sylow theorems for solvable groups :)
Let G be a solvable group of order mn with (m,n)=1. en,
(i) there are subgroups of order m;
(ii) any two subgroups of order m are conjugate;
(iii) any subgroup of order dividing m is contained in a subgroup of order
m.

PROBLEM S-105
Let π : G → F be a surjective homomorphism of a group onto a free group of
finite rank. Prove that there exists a subgroup H of G such that G =
Hker(π)> and H ⋂ kerπ={1}.

ASIDE        In the above problem, the some assertion can be mode without
assuming thot π is surjective. To deduce that, one has to use the fact that the
image of π, being a subgroup of a free group, is also free. If this image has
infinite rank also, the proof is the some as above.

PROBLEM N-106
Prove that a finite group in which all nontrivial maximal subgroups are
conjugate, must be a cyclic group of prime-power order.

PROBLEM N-107
Let G be any finite group. Consider the function s2(g) which counts the
number of 'square roots' of g in G. en, prove that

where c is the number of conjugacy classes G(x) for which G(x)=G(x–1).

ASIDE        e above assertion has been conjecturally generalised by R.
Higgins & D. Ballew. eir conjecture asserts that for any n, k, there is a
constant c(n,k) so thot the correspanding sum . e result
below is due to R. Freese and generalises a problem posed by M. Marcus.

PROBLEM N-108
For any σ ∈ Sn, denote by c(σ), the number of cycles (including the cycles of
order 1); this is just the number of orbits of {1,2... , n} under <σ>. Prove the
two polynomial identities

Hence, for all N ≥ n conclude that

PROBLEM N-109
Let G be a finite group and α : G → Sn be a homomorphism. For any positive
integer a, consider a finite set A with a elements and regard San as the
symmetric group on the an elements which are all the n-tuples (a1,..., an)
with ai ∈ A. en, consider the homomorphism β : G → San defined by
β(g):(a1,...,an) → (aα(g)(1),...,(aα(g)(n)).
Given any subgroup H of G, use the fallowing steps to prove that
Here c(K) denotes the number of orbits of K, and the Moebius function μH
corresponding to H is defined on subgroups containing H by μH(H)=1 and
for any subgroup L ⊃ H. What does the above result give in
the special case when G is cyclic of prime power order pr and H is trivial?
(i) For H ≤ G, call (a1,... ,an) exactly H-invariant if g(a1,..., an) = (a1,... ,an) for
some g ∈ G if and only if g∈ H. Show that a subset S of An) admits a G-
bijection with the set G/H of le cosets (that is, there exists a bijection α : S
→ G/H with α(g.s)=g.α(s) for all g ∈ G) if and only if S = G·(a1,...,an), and
(a1,...,an) is exactly H-invariant.
(ii) If e(H) denotes the number of exactly H-invariant elements in An, show
that the number is a positive integer.
(iii) Use these to compute the number of Gem>-orbits.

ASIDE    is group-theoretlc generalisation of Fermat's little theorem is due

to Strunkov.

PROBLEM N-110
Let G be any group in which one has the cancellation property xn = yn ⇒ x =
y for any n ≥ 1 and x, y ∈ G. If Aut (G) is a torsion group, prove that G is
abelian. Further, if G is also finitely generated, show that G ≌ Z.

ASIDE    e above result is due to Colin D. Fox. e observation below due

to M. Auslander can be interpreted in terms of group cohomology.

PROBLEM N-111
Let G be a group and θ ∈ Aut(G) be so that θn= Int (g) for some g ∈ G and
some n ≥ 1. If the fixed point set {x ∈ G :x (θ)=x} is contained in the centre
Z(G), prove that θn2 = Id. Further, in this case show that θn=Id if and only if
g–1g(θ)=x–1 x(θ) for some x ∈ Z(G).
PROBLEM N-112
Let H, K ≤G be subgroups of the same finite index. en, prove that there
exist g1,... ,gnsuch that

ASIDE    is wos proved by O.Ore. Even the cose H=K is interesting.

PROBLEM N-113
Use the following steps to prove the fact that a permutation cannot be
simultaneously a product of an odd number of transpositions as well as an
even number of transpositions.
(i) If there exists such a permutation, then the identity has an expression as a
product of an odd number of transpositions.
(ii) Let k be the least odd number so that Id is a product of k transpositions
as in (i). Let Id =(a,b)... be an expression as a product of k transpositions
such that a occurs the least number of times among all such expressions of
length k. Derive a contradiction by obtaining an expression Id =(a,c)...... as a
product of an odd number ≤ k of transpositions where a occurs a fewer
number of times.

PROBLEM N-114
(i) Let G be a finite group, let H be a subgroup normalized by an element g ∈
G. Assume that any two distinct elements x, y of H are in distinct le cosets
of CG(g). en, prove that every element of H can be expressed as [g,x]
where x ∈ H
(ii) Let n ≥ 2 and consider any finite field Fq. Let U(n,q) denote the group of
all upper triangular matrices with 1's on the diagonal and entries from Fq.
Use (i) to prove that any h ∈U(n,q) can be expressed as [g,x] where g is a
diagonal matrix with distinct entries from .
ASIDE        e fallowing set of four problems leod to beautiful elementary
proof of Frobenius's theorem due to R. Brauer.

PROBLEM N-115
Let N be a finite normal subgroup of a group G. If g ∈G, x ∈ N, prove that
(gx)|N| and g|N| are conjugate by an element of N.

PROBLEM N-116
Let H ≤ G be a finite subgroup of a group G.
(i) For x, y ∈ G, show that xnH = ynH for all integers n if and only if yxnH =
xn+1 H for all integers n. Further, show that

is a subgroup of H normalized by x.
(ii) If xn H = yn H for all integers n, show that x|H| and y|H| are conjugate in
G.

PROBLEM N-117
Let H ≤G be a finite subgroup of a group G. Call x, y ∈ G equivalent with
respect to H if there exists h ∈ H such that x?nH=hynH for all integers n.
(i) Show that any y ∈ G which is equivalent to x with respect to H can be
uniquely expressed as hxzh–1 where z ∈ Hx, and where h runs through a set
of right coset representatives of Hx in H.
(ii) Prove that, for any x∈G, there are exactly |H| elements y which are
equivalent to x with respect to H. Further, show for such x, y that x|H| and
y|H| are conjugate.

PROBLEM N-118
Use the previous problem to prove Frobenius's theorem: In a finite group G,
if C is a conjugacy class and n||G|, the number of elements g such that gn ∈ C
is a multiple of n.

ASIDE    e following results due to I. M. Isaacs and G. R. Robinson give

another proof of Frobenius's theorem without recourse to representation
theory.

PROBLEM N-119
Let G be a finite group and, for any natural number n, denote by fn(G) the
cardinality of the set {x ∈ G : xn = 1}. en, prove:
(i) e number of elements of order n is a multiple of ϕ(n). In particular, for
a prime p such that pk|||G|, one has fpk (G) ≡ 0 fpr (G) ≡ 0 mod pr for all r < k.
More particularly, if fpk(G) ≡ 0 mod pk, then fpr (G) ≡ 0 mod pr for all r < k.
(ii) Let pk||n and let Q be a set of representatives of conjugacy classes of
k
elements y such that y|G|/p = 1. en, fn(G) = .
(iii) If pk|||G|, then fp(k ≡ 0 mod pk.
(iv) If n/ |G|, then fn (G) ≡ 0 mod n.

PROBLEM N-120
(i) Let G be a finite group which has a normal subgroup N whose order is
the smallest prime p dividing O(G). Prove that N ≤ Z(G), the centre of G
(ii) Use (i) to prove that a finite group G, with the property that for each
normal subgroup N of G, the quotient G/N has normal subgroups of all
orders dividing O(G/N), must be nilpotent.
Solutions

SOLUTION 1
(i) If one of G, H (say G is finite and the other (say H is infinite, and if G×H
is cyclic, then there is an isomorphism θ : G×H ≅ Z. But then, for two
different elements a, b of G, we have
|G|θa,0) = θ|G|a,0) = θ0,0) = 0,
which means that θa,0) = 0 and,
|G|θb,0) = θ|G|b,0) = θ0,0) = 0,
which means that θb,0) = 0. us, θ cannot be an isomorphism.
If both G, H are infinite, and if G × H is cyclic, generated by some (g,h,
consider the isomorphism

So, Image (θ = {(gn,hn : n ∈ Z}. So, if r ≠ s are integers, then clearly we cannot
have (gr, hs ∈ Image(θ.
Now, if both G = < g > , H = < h > are finite, of orders m, n respectively, G
× H has order mn. Consider the isomorphism
So, θ( ) = (gr, hr. en, clearly the LCM [m,n] of m and n is in kerθ. As θ is
an isomorphism, this means that in Z/n. us, mn = [m,n]. Hence
(m,n = 1 if G × H is to be cyclic.
Finally, conversely, if (m,n = 1 and G = < g >, H = < h > are cyclic groups
of orders m, n, then the map

is 1–1 since (gr, hr = (1,1) implies that mn|r since (m,n = 1. Being an 1-1 map
of finite sets, θ must be onto also.
(ii) If G = < g > is of order n, a typical element gr has order . e reason is
as follows.

Now, if d|n, clearly < gn/d > is a subgroup of order d. If two subgroups < gr
> and < gs > have the same order, then (n,r = (n,s. Since , there
is some integer u such that modulo . Multiplying by (n,r =
(n,s, we get ru ≡ s modulo n. In other words, < g > ≤ < gr >. Since they have
s

the same order, they are equal.

Let us prove the converse. Suppose G is a finite group which has a unique
subgroup of each order d||G|. Call |G| = n. Now, we claim that G satisfies the
hypothesis in (iii) and then we will give a common argument. For each d|n,
now . If we show that there are at most ϕ(r)
elements of each order r|d, then the le-hand side has cardinality at the most
. So, let r|d and suppose x has order r (if there are no such
elements, we are through). Now, the cyclic group < x > is the unique
subgroup of order r. As before, in this group, there are exactly ϕ(r) elements
of order r. If there were any elements y ∉ < x > which have order r, then we
would have two distinct subgroups < y > and < x > of order r which
contradicts our hypothesis. us, the only elements of order r are all in < x >
and are ϕ(r) in number. is proves our claimed assertion.
(iii) Let |G| = n and d|n.
Consider Nd = # {g ∈ G : Og = d}.
If N(d) ≠ 0, look at some element g with Og = d. As e, g, g2, … gd–1 are
distinct and are solutions of xd = e, these are all the solutions of the equation
xd = e. As elements of order d in G are among these and are ϕ(d) in number,
we have proved that Nd = ϕ(d) if Nd ≠ 0. As every element of G has some
order d dividing n, we have . Since ,
we must have the equality Nd = ϕd for all d|n. In particular, Nn = ϕn ≠ 0.

SOLUTION 2
(i) & (ii) ese are simply a re-statement of Lagrange's theorem for the
groups (Z/p* and (Z/n*.
(iii) In the group (Z/(an–1))*, the integer a has order n. Once again,
Lagrange's theorem implies the divisibility property asserted.
(iv) In the product, each element cancels with its inverse except for those
elements which are their inverses. e only elements of (Z/p* which are
their own inverses are 1 and p–1 because if i2 ≡ 1 mod p, then p|(i–1) or p|
(i+1); so the resultant product is p–1.
(v) Let θ : (Z/p2)* → (Z/p* be the canonical homomorphism. Considering a
as an element of (Z/p2)*, it follows that an ∈ kerθ. Clearly, kerθ has order p
and an is a nontrivial element of (Z/p2)* since p2 by hypothesis.
erefore, an has order p in (Z/p2)*. is means p divides the order of a in
(Z/p2)* and, thus ap–1 ≢ 1 modulo p2.

SOLUTION 3
(i) Evidently, |S| = np–1. For each tuple (g1, … , gp in S, there are exactly p
distinct tuples (g2, … , gp, g1) (g3, … , gp, g1, g2) etc. in S unless g1 = g2 = … =
gp (here is where we use the fact that p is prime). Note that g1 = g2 = … = gp
if and only if = e. us, we have that |S| ≡ # {g : gp = e}mod p.
(ii) If p|n, then p divides np–1 = |S| = # {g : gp = e}mod p. In this case (since ep
= e, there are at least p – 1 elements of order p in G. is proves Cauchy's
theorem.
(iii) If n, then one has gp = e for some g if and only if e = g(n,p = g. us, |S| ≡
1 mod p. is proves Fermat's little theorem.

SOLUTION 4
(i) Let F = Z(D) be the centre of D. Note that F ⊇ Fp, the field of p elements.
If G ≤ D* is a finite subgroup, then the set

is a finite-dimensional Fp–vector space. So, it is a finite division algebra, and

therefore, by a celebrated theorem of Wedderburn, it must be a field K and G
≤ K*. erefore, by (i), G must be cyclic.
(ii) e quaternion group Q = {±1,±i, ±j, ±k} is a non-cyclic subgroup of H*.
(iii) If , then consider the homomorphism

given by .

Here, of course, we have used to denote elements in different groups.

Clearly, θ is 1–1 and, therefore, onto as well as the sets are finite. is is
nothing but the usual Chinese remainder theorem.
 Now, let us consider the restriction of θ above to the subset (Z/n)*
consisting of all with r ≤ n and (r,n = 1. is subset is a subgroup under
multiplication modulo n. Its image under the above θ maps into the subset

Note that θ restricted to this subset is actually a group homomorphism

under multiplication modulo n.
Once again, this is 1–1 as it has trivial kernel because a ≡ 1 mod n if a ≡ 1
mod for all i ≤ r. Hence, being finite a map of finite sets, it is onto as well
and thus,

By problem 1 (i), it suffices to check that (Z/pa* for a prime p is cyclic if and
only if p is odd or p = 2 and a = 1,2.
Of course, (Z/pa * has order pa–1(p–1). Let p be odd first. It suffices to
produce elements g and h of the coprime orders pa–1 and p–1 respectively,
since gh would then have order pa–1(p–1).
By the binomial theorem, if a ≥ 2 and p > 2,

In other words, the element has order pa–1 if p is odd and a > 1.
We shall now show the existence of an element of order p– 1 in (Z/pa* for
p odd and a ≥ 1.
First, in the field Z/p of p elements, every nonzero polynomial has at the
most its degree number of roots by the remainder theorem. us, for each d,
there are at most d elements x of (Z/p* satisfying xd = 1. By what we have
proved earlier, the group (Z/p* must be cyclic. If is a generator, then the
corresponding element rp–1 in (Z/pa* has order some power pk of p.
erefore, in (Z/pa*, the element rpk has order p – 1. us, the problem is
solved when p is odd.
For p = 2, a > 2, we see by the binomial theorem that

Hence, if a ≥ 2, the group (Z/2a)* of order 2a–1 is generated by the element –

1 of order 2 and the element 5 of order 2a–2. Now, if –1 were to be a power of
5, the orders would force –1 = 52a–3 in (Z/2a)*.
en, we would get

–1 ≡ 1 + 2a–1 modulo 2a

which is impossible when a > 2.

erefore, if a > 2, then (Z/2a)* is isomorphic to the direct product of the
group of order 2 and the cyclic group of order 2a–2; so it is not cyclic.
Of course, (Z/2)* is trivial and (Z/4)* is the cyclic group of order 2.

SOLUTION 5
Suppose, if possible, there is an isomorphism θ : Z[1/2] → Z[1/3]. If θ1) =
with r, s ≥ 0 and a ∈ Z odd, then consider θ1/2r+1) = x say. Now 2r+1x = θ1)
= is impossible as a is odd. us, there cannot be any such isomorphism.

SOLUTION 6
(i) Follows because one can get the pairs (i,j for j > modulo H as (–i, –j =
(p – i, q – j.
(ii) Using the isomorphism θ obtained from Chinese reminder theorem, we
have the set
of coset representatives in (Z)/pq* for θ(H). Note that for k > , we have
used the fact that (k mod p, k mod q = (pq – k mod p, pq – k mod q modulo
θ(H).
(iii) We obtain the expression for by multiplying all the elements
of S. We get

Now, let us multiply all the elements of T to get

Multiplying the k's in T modulo p, we have the expression

Simplifying this, we get

Similarly, modulo q, the product of elements of T gives

erefore, the product of elements of T maps to the element

For comparison of the two expressions obtained, let us simplify as

fallows.
erefore, we have that .
is gives us the quadratic reciprocity law for p, q.

SOLUTION 7
We apply the Jordan-Holder theorem to the finite abelian group Z/n. Let

{0} = G0 ≤ G1 ≤ … ≤ Gr = Z/n

be a composition series for Z/n. en the successive factors Gi/Gi–1 are
simple, abelian groups, and therefore, cyclic groups of prime orders. us,
the order n of Z/n is the product of the orders of the various Gi/Gi–1. at is,
n is a product of prime numbers and one can write where pj's are
distinct and there are exactly aj successive factors Gi/Gi–1 of orders pj. Now,
if is another factorisation of n into products of primes, then
consider the normal series

{0} = H0 ≤ H1 ≤ … ≤ Hs = Z/n,

where
the Hi's are defined as follows. H1, … , Hb1 are the subgroups of Z/n
generated, respectively, by .
Similarly, the next b2 of the Hi's are defined as the subgroups generated,
respectively, by .
All the Hi's are defined proceeding in this manner. As each Hi/Hi–1 has
order p, this is a composition series. By the Jordan-Holder theorem, now
comparing the orders of factors, we get uniqueness of prime decomposition
up to order.
SOLUTION 8
(i) Let G act on the set X of le cosets of H. is gives θ : G → sym(X ≅ Sn.
Take N = kerθ. Note that N ≤ H as N acts trivially on the identity coset and
that G/N ≅ θG ≤ Sn.
(ii)By (i), ∃N ≤ H ≤ G with N normal in G and [G : N]|p! Since [G : N]||G| as
well, [G : N] divides the GCD of |G| and p! which is p since p is the smallest
prime dividing |G|. But, H contains N, which implies p|[G : N]. us, [G : N]
= p = [G : H].
(iii) Let us prove by induction that for any nonnegative integer n, one has
xnyn ∈ N. By hypothesis, we have the assertion for n = 1. Assume that xnyn ∈
N for all 1 ≤ n ≤ r. en,

xr+1yr+1 = xxryry = x(xryr)x–1xy ∈ N.

us, for all natural numbers n, we have xnyn ∈ N.

Now, x–ny–n = (ynxn–1 = (ynxnyny–n–1 ∈ N for all nonnegative integers n.

SOLUTION 9
e set A := {(g,s ∈ G × S : g.s = s}can be written as a union of subsets in two
ways – one way is to gather together all g for a particular s and the other is to
reverse the roles of g and s. As , we have a coincidence of
cardinalities as asserted. erefore,

In the last sum, each orbit is counted its cardinality number of times, so, the
right-hand side is the number of orbits.

SOLUTION 10
First, note that HK is a subgroup if and only if HK = KH. Now, if H is not
maximal with respect to this property in G, then choose a subgroup H < G1
< G where G1 is maximal with respect to this property. Again, if H is not
maximal with respect to this property in G1, then there exists H < G2 < G1
such that G2 is maximal with respect to this property in G1. Proceeding in
this manner, since G is finite, we get a chain of subgroups

H < Gr … G1 < G,

where each group K in the chain has the property that for every subgroup L
of the group Q on its immediate right, KL = LK and is maximal with respect
to this property. We claim that whenever K ⊴ Q, this would prove that H is
subnormal in G. If K ⋪ Q, then there is some conjugate qKq–1 ≠ K. Since
KqKq–1) = (qKq–1)K > K and has the asserted property in Q, the maximality
of K implies that KqKq–1) = (qKq–1)K = Q.
So, if we write q = kʹk with kʹ ∈ qKq–1, we have qKq–1 = kʹk Kk–1(kʹ–1 =
kʹKkʹ–1 so that K = (kʹ–1qKq–1kʹ = qkq–1, which is a contradiction.

SOLUTION 11
Write S = {1, … , p}. Suppose N ⊴ G. If s ∈ S and g ∈ G, then Ng.s = (Ng.s =
(gN.s = gN.s. us, |N(g.s)| = |N.s|. As G acts transitively, this shows that all
N–orbits have the same cardinality, say r. As the union of these orbits is S,
r|p. If r = 1, then N fixes each point of S. is means N = {1}. So, if N is
nontrivial, r = p; that is, N acts transitively on {1, … ,p}. Moreover, since the
orbits under a nontrivial N has cardinality p, it follows that p||N|. But then
by Cauchy's theorem, there is an element of order p. An element of order p
in Sp has to be a p–cycle.

SOLUTION 12
(i) First, note that in the definition of ∑ one could have taken the < sign
wherever ≤ appears; the reason is that x = y – z and x = 2y are impossible to
hold in S.
Now, it is clear that σ has the unique fixed point (1, 1, n). Now, we note the
general fact that for any permutation τ of order 2 on a set, the non-fixed
points can be paired off and thus the number of fixed points is of the same
parity as |S|. Applying this to σ, we have that |S| must be odd. Turning this
around and applying the above observation to the permutation τ : (x, y, z) →
(x, z, y), it follows that τ must have an odd number of fixed points.
erefore, τ does have at least one fixed point. Any fixed point of τ is a tuple
(x, y, y) which means that p = x2 + 4y2.
(ii) Evidently, α is an involution with the unique fixed point .
(iii) Clearly, if no element (x, y, y) exists in S1, then the elements can be
grouped in fours as (x, y, z), (x, z, y), (–x, y, z) and (–x, z, y).

SOLUTION 13
Let P1, … , Pn be the various p-Sylow subgroups of G. ey are all
conjugates. Since any conjugate of any one of them, say P1, is a p-Sylow
subgroup, one can identify the set S := {P1, … , Pn} with the conjugacy class
of P1. Now, G acts on S by conjugation; this gives a homomorphism θ from
G to Sn = sym(S. As ker θ is a normal subgroup and G is simple, we must
have either ker θ = {1} or kerθ = G. e latter conclusion implies that gP1g–1
= P1 for all g ∈ G; that is, G = NGP1). Hence P1 ⊴ G. Again, by simplicity, P1
= G. But then S = {P1} i.e., n = 1, which is a contradiction of the hypothesis.
us, we must have that θ is 1–1. us, θG ≅ G is simple. As An ⊲ Sn, we
have that θG ∩ An must be either trivial or the whole of θG. In the former
case, θG has order 1 or 2 as θG/(θG ∩ An ≅ Sn/An ≅ Z/2. However, G cannot
have order > 2 since it has n > 1 p-Sylow subgroups. us, the latter
conclusion holds and θG ≤ An which proves the result.
SOLUTION 14
Now |G| = pa and . Consider any A ∈ T. If A is the union of b of the
Si's, then it is evidently fixed by the G-action. On the other hand, if A
partially intersects the sets S1, … , Sr say, (that is, if ), then
the G-orbit of A has at least pr elements of T. Note that unless A is the union
of b of the Si's, it partially intersects at least two of the Si's and then its G-
orbit has at least p2 elements in T. erefore, the cardinality of T is modulo
p2, the number of A in T which are unions of b of the Si's. In other words,
modulo p2.

SOLUTION 15
Let us compute the order of GL (n,Z/p first. e proof of this is quite similar
to the proof that a finite field has cardinality, power of a prime. Since this is
the group of all invertible linear transformations of the n-dimensional
vector space over Z/p, its elements are in bijection with bases of the vector
space. is bijection is simply by sending any matrix in this group to the
various column vectors. Now, the first column vector can be an arbitrary
nonzero vector; there are pn– 1 choices for it. e secand vector can be any
vector not in the linear span (that is, not a scalar multiple) of the first one;
this gives pn – p choices since there are p scalars. Similarly, by induction, one
sees that the order is

(pn –1)(pn – p(pn – p2)… (pn – pn–1).

e total power of p dividing this number is 1+2+…+(n–1) = nn–1)/2. Now,

|U| = pnn–1)/2 which can be seen by induction on n. us, U is a p-Sylow
subgroup. erefore, by Sylow's secand theorem, P is conjugate to a
subgroup of U. Now, an easy matrix calculation by first principles shows that
a matrix A normalises this subgroup if, and only if, it is an upper triangular
invertible matrix. Its order is (p–1)npnn–1)/2. Now, the number of p-Sylow
subgroups is, by the secand theorem of Sylow, the index of the normaliser of
U. erefore, the number of p-Sylow subgroups is

SOLUTION 16
We are given a finite group G with one of the following two properties: (i)
either that for each n||G|, there are at the most n elements g ∈ G satisfying gn
= e, (ii) or that for each n||G|, there is a unique subgroup of order n. In
particular, in both cases, every subgroup of G is the unique subgroup of that
order. erefore, every subgroup is normal. Let P be the p-Sylow subgroup
for some prime p dividing |G|. If |P| = pn, then consider the elements of P
which are not generators; they have orders pr for some r < n. By the
hypothesis, the number of nongenerators of P is ≤ 1+p+p2+ … +pn–1. is is
evidently < pn and thus P has a generator. In other words, the Sylow
subgroups are cyclic. Let and, let Pi = < gi > be the pi-Sylow
subgroup of G. en, Pi, Pj commute elementwise, because if xi ∈ Pi, xj ∈ Pj,
then [xi, xj] ∈ Pi ∩ Pj = {e}. erefore, the product g1 … gr must have order
|G|.

SOLUTION 17
(i) Let n ∈ NGNGP). en, nPn–1 ≤ nNGPn–1 = NGP. erefore, both P and
nPn–1 are p-Sylow subgroups of NGP. Applying the secand Sylow theorem to
NGP, there exists an element x ∈ NGP such that nPn–1 = xPx–1. But then n–1x
∈ NGP which gives us that n ∈ NGP.
(ii) Let g ∈ G. en, gPg–1 ≤ gNg–1 = N. So, again there are two p-Sylow
subgroups P and gPg–1 of the same finite group N. Applying the secand
Sylow theorem to N, we have an element n ∈ N such that gPg–l = nPn–1. So,
n–1g ∈ NGP which proves that G = NNGP.
SOLUTION 18
Consider the action by le multiplication of G on the set Ω of all subsets of
G with pr elements. Let us write |G| = pnd with n = r and p d. e
cardinality of Ω is the binomial coefficient . It can be shown by
elementary number theory that |Ω| = pn–rd mod pn–r+1 but as we observe
below this aiso fallows from some group-theoretic counting. Break up Ω
into disjoint orbits, say, , where Si ∈ Ω. We claim that for any S ∈
Ω, G = ∪g∈GgS. To see that this claim holds, take any S ∈ Ω and any s ∈ S.
Now, 1 = s–1s∈ s–1S ⊂ G.S. Further, if g ∈ G, then g = g.1 ∈ g.S. us, the
claim is true. Hence, in any orbit, the number of subsets is at least pn–rd and
divides |G| = pnd. is means that exactly one of the two things happen:
either an orbit has exactly pn–rd elements or it has a multiple of pn–r+1
number of elements. Note that |Ω|≢0 mod pn–r+1. Hence, not each orbit can
have cardinality a multiple of pn–r+1. is already proves that there are orbits
with exactly pn–rd elements. Note that, obviously, the orbit of a set S in Ω has
exactly pn–rd elements if, and only if, the corresponding isotropy subgroup
has order pr. Suppose the number of such orbits with exactly pn–rd elements
is t, then |S| ≡ tpn–rd mod pn–r+1. Although, one can prove by elementary
number theory that one could obtain this already from the above
sentence as it is valid for any G of order pnd and applying this to the
correspanding cyclic group, one gets t = 1. Hence,
. us, t ≡ 1 mod p. We note that t is the
number of subgroups of order pr be cause an oribit of cardinality pn–rd has
exactly one subgroup of order pr in it. is proves the result.

SOLUTION 19
(i) We know that there exists a p-Sylow subgroup P containing H. Let

P ≥ C1(P) ≥ C2(P) … ≥ Cr(P) = {1}

be the lower central series for P. But then

P = PH ≥ C1(P)H ≥ Cr (P)H = H ≥ {1}

is a chain with each term normal in the previous term since CiP/Ci+1(P is
contained in the centre of P/Ci+1(P. By Jordan-Holder theorem, one may
refine to get a composition series for P. In a composition series with
successive factors of orders powers of a prime p, each such factor has to be
of order p. us, there are subgroups of P of any order pl for |P| ≥ pl ≥ pm
containing H.
(ii) Note that if m = 0 (i.e., if H = {1}, the assertion is the above result of
Frobenius. Also, if m = n, this is a trivial assertion. Let us first deal separately
with the case n = m+1. Now, if G1, … ,Gr are the various subgroups of order
pm+1 which contain H, then we know from (i) that r > 0. Now, as the index
[Gi: H] = p, which is the smallest (indeed, the only) prime dividing |Gi| it
follows that H ⊴ Gi. In other words, Gi ≤ NGH for each i. erefore, Gi/H ; i
≤ r constitute the list of subgroups of NGH/H which have order p. ey are ≡
1 mod p in number by (i). us, r ≡ 1 mod p and the case n = m+1 is proved
for every m.
We shall prove the assertion for n = m+l;l ≥1 by induction on l. We have
dealt with l = 1 above. Let us take n = m+d+1 where the assertion is assumed
to hold for all n ≤ m+d. Let K1, … ,Kr be the list of subgroups of order pm+d
which contain H. By the induction hypothesis, we know that r ≡ 1 mod p. If
L1,… ,Ls is the list of subgroups of order pm+d+1 which contain H, then we
know from (i) that s ≥ 1. We need to show that s ≡ 1 mod p.
We form the 'containment' matrix A which has r rows and s columns and
the (i,jth entry is 1 or 0 according as to whether Ki≤ Lj or not. Evidently, the
sum Ri of the ith row is just the number of Lj's which contain Ki. Similarly,
the sum Cj of the jth column gives the number of Ki's which are contained in
Lj. Of course, then is the sum of all entries of A. We shall show
that, in fact, each Ri ≡ 1 mod p and that each Cj ≡ 1 mod p. is would prove
that r ≡ s mod p and, since r ≡ 1 mod p by the induction hypothesis, we
would be through.
But, for each i, Ri is just the number of subgroups of order pm+d+1
containing the subgroup Ki of order pm+d. By the first case dealt with
separately in the beginning, this number is ≡ 1 mod p. us, each Ri ≡ 1
mod p.
Now, look at any Cj. is is the number of Ki's contained in Lj and,
therefore, it is aiso the number of subgroups of order pm+d which contain H.
is last description shows, by induction hypothesis, that Cj ≡ 1 mod p.
us, we have proved that

SOLUTION 20
Let (i1 … in–2) and (j1 … jn–2) be two (n–2)-element subsets of {1,2, … ,n}.
Write

{1,2,… ,n} \ (i1… in–2) = (a b,

{1,2,… ,n} \ (i1… in–2) = (c d.

Let σ ∈ Sn map each ir to jr and σa = c, σb = d.

Let τ ∈ Sn map each ir to jr and τa = d, τb = c.

Clearly, σ–1τ = (c d which means exactly one of σ, τ is an even

permutation. at does the job.

SOLUTION 21
(i) We shall show by induction on n that any element σ of An is a product of
two n-cycles, say σ = αβ. As n-cycles are all conjugate in Sn, we will have
then β = τα–1τ–1 so that σ = [α,τ].
For n = 2, An is trivial and the assertion is clear. Assume n > 2 and
suppose that the assertion is known for all m < n. Let σ ∈ An. Write σ1) = t
say. Consider τ = (s t 1) with s ≠ t,1, we have that στ fixes 1. Hence, we may
view στ as a permutation of Sn–1 = Sym{2,… n}. Since στ is an even
permutation, we have by induction hypothesis that στ = σ1τ2 where τ1 τ2 are
(n–1)-cycles which fix 1. Now,

where σ1 = τ1(1 t and σ2 = (1 tτ2(1 t(1 s. Evidently, σ1, σ2 are n-cycles. is
proves (i).
For (ii), merely observe that

(a1 … a2n+1) = (a1 … an+1) = (a1 an+2 … a2n+1).

Finally (iii) follows from the observation that any element of any Sn can be
written as a product of disjoint cycles and these can be re-written as

(a11…a1,r1)(a21…a2,r2)…(ak1…ak,,rk = (a11……ak,rk(ak1…a21 a11).

(iv) For c ∈ F*, consider

θ = τ–c2,0στ1,–cστ1,1/cστ1,–c.

Now, θc = 0, τ0) = c and θx = x for all x ≠ 0,c by straightforward calculation.

erefore, θ represents the permutation (0 c). Since (a b) = (0 a)(0 b)(0 a)
for a, b ∈ F*, all transpositions (x y) with x, y ∈ F are gotten and thus so is
sym(F).
SOLUTION 22
(i) Now τ–iστi = (i+1 i+2) ∀ i = 0,1 … ,n–2 by induction on i.
But (i i+2) = (i+1 i+2)(i i+1)(i+1 i+2),
(i i+3) = (i+1 i+3)(i i+1)(i+1 i+3), etc. us, once again by induction along
with the fact that transpositions generate Sn, imply that σ, τ generate Sn.
For a prime p, all the p-cycles are powers of each other. us, any p-cycle
and any transposition do generate Sp).
(ii) We may assume that τ = (1 2 … n and that σ = (i j with i < j. We claim
that σ and τ generate Sn if and only if (n, j–i = 1.
First, let us assume that (n, j–i = 1. en,

σ1 := τj–iστi–j = (j 2j–i.

Here, the integer 2j–i is taken modulo n and this obvious convention will be
fallowed elsewhere.

en,

σ2 := σσ1σ1–1 = (i 2j–i.

Once again, we consider σ3 := τj–iσ2τi–j which turns out to be (j 3j–2i.

In this manner, we define inductively

σ2r–1 = τj–iτ2r–2τi–j,
σ2r = σσ2r–1σ–1

which turn out inductively to be, respectively,

(j (r+1)j–ri and (i (r+1)j–ri).

Since (n, j–i = 1, we may choose r such that rj–i ≡ 1 mod n. is gives,

σ2r–1 = (j j+1).

We have already seen in (i) that (j j+1) and (1 2 … n generate Sn.

Conversely, suppose that (j–i, n = d > 1. We will show that each θ ∈ < σ, τ
> satisfies θ (i ≡ θj modulo d. is will show that since d > 1, the
transposition (1 2) is not in < σ, τ >. Indeed, it is clear by induction on r that

Hence clearly, θ (i ≡ θj modulo d.

SOLUTION 23
Let, if possible, Sn be identified isomorphically with a subgroup of An+1.
Since the index , we must have that n is odd. Further, since A4
is seen to contain no subgroup of order 6 at all, n is also > 3. Now, the action
of An+1 on the set of le cosets of Sn gives rise to a homomorphism An+1 →
S(n+1)/2. As for any n ≥ 5, it fallows that the above
homomorphism has a nontrivial kernel. is contradicts the fact that An is
simple for n = 5.

SOLUTION 24
(i) Note that each An ≤ A(N) and, indeed, A(N) = An. Suppose {1} ≠ N
⊴ A(N). en, there exists some σ ≠ 1 in N ∩ An for some n. us, σ ∈ N
∩Ak for every k ≥ n since Ar ≤ Ar+1 etc. erefore, N ∩ Ak is a nontrivial
normal subgroup of the simple group Ak for every k ≥ max (n, 5). erefore,
Ak ≤ N for every k ≥ max (n,5). Since ∪k≥max(n,5)Ak = ∪r≥1Ar = AN) we have
N = AN).
(ii) It suffices to prove this for Sn. But, it is easy to see that Sn ≤ An+2 for any
n.
(iii) Consider the matrix . en, clearly M2 = –I and M ≠ I
and M has finite order. Since PSL(2, F := SL(2, F/{±I} is a simple group, any
normal subgroup N of SL(2, F maps either to the trivial subgroup or the
whole group PSL(2, F. So, any normal subgroup N of SL(2, F is either
contained in the centre {±I} or N.{±I} = SL(2, F. Let N be the normal
subgroup generated by the matrix M above. Clearly, it is not contained in the
centre but contains the centre. us, by the above argument, N = SL(2, F.
Note that any element of N is expressible as a finite product of conjugates of
M, each of which has finite order.

SOLUTION 25
(i) Write g–1 = aga–1. If x ∈ G is arbitrary, then x ∈ GgGg = GgGg–1).
erefore,

x = bgb–1cg–1c–1 = b[g,b–1c]b–1 = [bgb–1, cb–1].

(ii) Let t ∈ C be different from 0,1, –1. Consider .

Since we are dealing with the group PSL(2,C) = SL(2, C)/±I, we shall prove
that Gg = Gg–1) and that GgGg ± I = SL(2, C).
First, clearly,

us, it suffices to show the secand assertion.

Now, any x ∈ SL(2 C) is conjugate to a lower trangular matrix by a matrix
y ∈ SL2,C). is can be seen as fOllows. First, it is clear that one can get x to
lower triangular form by some matrix y ∈ SL(2, C). en, one can replace y
by with 1/s2 = dety. Evidently SL(2, C) and does the job.

Since t ≠ t–1, it follows that the conjugacy class Gg consists of all matrices
in SL(2, C) whose eigenvalues are t and t–1.
us, it suffices to show that for any lower triangular matrix
there is z ∈ Gg such that xz has the eigenvalues t and t–1.

If a = 1, then .

is implies also that when

.

If a ≠ ±1 and c ≠ 0, then we take where

With this choice, it is easy to see that xz has trace t+t–1 and determinant 1
which means that the eigenvalues of xz are t and t–1.
Finally, if a ≠ ±1 and c = 0, then we choose

where

is will complete the proof.

SOLUTION 26
Any element of SU(2) looks like with a, b,c, d ∈ R such that
a2+b2+c2+d2 = 1. is reminds us of Hamilton's quaternions. erefore, let
us define the map
Note that the image is contained in the group H1 of "unit" quaternions; that
is, a+ib+cj +dk for which a2+b2+c2+d2 = 1 or, equivalently,

(a + ib + cj + dk–1 = a – bi – cj – dk.

It is trivial to check that θ is a homomorphism. Also, clearly it is 1–1 as well

as onto H1. erefore, SU(2) ≅ H1.
Now, as the group of nonzero elements H* acts on the 3-dimensional real
vector space V generated by i,j,k by conjugation, we may think of SU(2) as
acting on this space. us, we have a homomorphism

ρ : SU(2) → GL(V.

To explicitly evaluate it, we use the isomorphism θ to view SU(2) as H1. For
any , we may compute qiq–1, qjq–1 and qkq–1
where q = θg = a+bi+cj+dk. We arrive at the fallowing matrix with respect to
the ordered basis {i,j,k} :

Now, since g–1 = is obtained by changing b, c, d to their negatives, it is

clear that ρg–1 = ρgt; that is, ρg∈ O(3,R).
Note that if g ∈kerρ, then the correspOnding quaternion q commutes with
i,j, k and, hence, with the whole of H.
In particular, this gives g ∈ ZSU(2)) = {±I}.
Of course, it is clear that –I does indeed belong to kerρ.
 e final assertion le is to show that the determinant of ρg is always 1 is
proved by direct (but messy) calculation. A better way would be to use a
little bit of topology which shows that SU(2) is connected, ρ on SU(2) and
the determinant function on GL(3, R) are continuous, that the image of det
∘ρ is a connected subset of R contained in {±1} and containing I.

SOLUTION 27
Write G for GL(n,K. Fix any g ∈ G. For any b ∈ B, consider the matrix bg.
Suppose the ith row of bg starts with ai zeroes. Note that for any b, and each
i, the numbers ai are between and n–1 since bg is invertible. Let us choose b
= b0 so that the sum a1 + … + an for b0g is maximum possible among the
matrices bg. We claim that for any such choice of b, the numbers a1, … , an
are distinct. Suppose it is not so; let i < j be so that ai = aj. If b1 ∈ B is the
matrix which differs from the identity matrix only at the (i,jth place where it
has some entry t, then b1b0g has all the ak's(k ≠ i the same as for b0g. Also,
the first ai entries of the ith row of b1b0g are also unaffected and, therefore,
remain zero. However, the next entry in the ith row is u+tv where u, v are
the first nonzero entries of the ith and the jth rows of b0g respectively.
Hence, choosing t = – u/v, we have a matrix b1b0 ∈ B for which a1 + … + an
increases at least by 1. is is a contradiction of the choice of b0. So, we must
have that ai are distinct. Since these are n integers between 0 and n–1, these
are the n integers 0 to n–1 in some order. Multiplying by the permutation
matrix w corresponding to the permutation that a1, … ,an is of the numbers
0,… , n–1, we get wb0g has ai = i – 1 for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n. In other words, wb0g ∈
B. is proves the decomposition asserted.
To show that the double cosets are disjoint, we argue as follows. Suppose
w1 = b1w2b2 for some b1, b2 ∈ B and permutation matrices w1, w2. So, b1 =
w1b2–1w2–1. Now, for any matrix g ∈ G and any two permutation matrices w,
wʹ, it is clear that
where σ,σ are the permutations correspanding to w,wʹ.
erefore, in our case which gives us that

As w1w2–1 is a permutation matrix while b1 is an upper triangular matrix, it

follows that w1w2–1 is a diagonal matrix and, therefore, the identity matrix.
is proves uniqueness of the decomposition.

SOLUTION 28
(i) For the moment, let p be any prime. Write A = I + pdB where B ∈ Mn, Z)
and some entry of B is not a multiple of p. It suffices to show that A does not
have prime order because one could apply this to a power of A. Suppose, if
possible, A has order a prime q. First, we claim that q = p. For,

I = Aq = I + qpdB modulo p2d

gives pd divides all entries of B, a contradiction for any d ≥ 1.

Moreover, even if q = p is odd, the same equality reads

I = Ap = I + pd+1B modulo p2d+1

since pd ≥ 2d+1 and ≡ 0 mod p for 1 ≤ r < p.

us, once again we have a contradiction unless p = 2.
(ii) Write A = I + pB, with B ∈ Mn,Z). e characteristic polynomial of A is
χAt = det (tI – A = det (t – 1)I – pB. erefore, χAα = 0 if and only if
. Now, if A has finite order, its eigenvalues are all roots of unity.
Since |α| = 1, we have
us, all the roots of χBt have absolute values < 1. Since χBt is an integral
polynomial whose top coefficient is 1, this implies that χBt = tn; that is, all
the eigenvalues of B are zero. In other words, all eigenvalues of A are 1. As A
has finite order, it must be the identity matrix.
(iii) As seen in (ii), A must have order a power of 2 if it has finite order at all.
First, suppose A2 = I, A ≠ I.
Consider the correspanding homomorphism TA : Zn → Zn; v → vA where v
is written as a row. en, A ≡ I mod 2 and A2 = I imply that TAx = x mod
2Zn and TA2 = I.
erefore,

Zn = {v : TAv = v}⊕{v : TAv = –v}

which gives that A is expressible in the form

M.diag(1,1,… ,1,–1,–1,…,–1).M–1

for some M ∈ GLn,Z.

Finally, let |A| = 2r ≥ 4. We shall prove this is impossible. e identity

A2 = I + 2d+1B modulo 22d

gives that A2 ≡ I modulo 4.

us, if C := A2r–1 = I + 2dB, we have d ≥ 2. en,

I = C2 = I + 2d+1B + 22dB2

which implies B ≡ 0 mod 2d–1, a contradiction.

SOLUTION 29
e basic observation here is that for coprime integers a, b, the number a2 +
b2 cannot have prime factors of the form 4n+3. us, since matrices in H
can be written with a/c and b/c in their lowest terms. Since the determinant
is 1, we have a2+b2 = c2 with (a,b) = 1 for, any common prime factor would
also have to divide c. erefore, elements of H can have entries with
denominators divisible only by 2 and by primes of the form 4n+1. As the
permutation matrices are integral, they do not give rise to any additional
denominators. Hence, the subgroup generated by H along with the
permutation matrices consists of matrices of the form where B is an
integral matrix and d is divisible only by 2 and by primes of the form 4n+1.

erefore, matrices like are in G and are not in the subgroup

generated by H along with the permutation matrices. One can similarly
construct examples of elements in G with denominators divisible by
arbitrary primes of the form 4n+3. us, the subgroup has infinite index.

SOLUTION 30
(i) If G is an abelian group with a minimal set {a1,…,an} of generators, it
follows that G/ < {a2,…,an} is a nontrivial abelian group generated by a
single element. Also, as quotients of divisible groups are divisible, it suffices
to show that an abelian group generated by a single element is not divisible.
is is clear because being infinite, such a group has a generating element a
with ra ≠ 0 for any r. But then the element a cannot be divisible by any n ≥ 2.
(ii) Suppose S ⊂Q be so that Q = < S >. For any 0 ≠ s ∈ S, we consider the
subgroup A = < S \ {s} >. If a ∈ A is any nonzero element, then writing s =
u/v and a = b/c, we have bvs = acu ∈ A.
Write for some d ∈ A and some integer e. erefore, s =
bv(d+es) = bvd + acu ∈ A since d,a ∈ A and b, v, c, u are integers. is means
that
 Q = A +Zs = A = < S \ {s} >.

at is, S \ {s} is aiso a set of generators.

(iii) Suppose, if possible, M < Q is a maximal subgroup. Let a/b ∉ M. By
maximality,

Also, evidently M ≠ {0} and, let us take some 0 ≠ u/v ∈ M.

Consider the rational number writing for some m ∈ M and
integer d, we get

since and as b, u, d, a, v are integers.

is contradiction proves that there are no maximal subgroups in Q.

SOLUTION 31
(i) Suppose G is an injective group, g ∈ G and let n be a positive integer. We
need to show that g = nh for some h ∈ G. Now, θ : na ↦ ag is a
homomorphism from the subgroup nZ of Z into G. By injectivity of G, there
is a homomorphism : Z → G extending the above map. erefore, n (1) =
(n) = g.
Conversely, suppose G is a divisible group. Let A ≤ B be abelian groups
and α : A → G be a homomorphism. We need to check that this extends to a
homomorphism from B to G. Let us apply Zorn's lemma. Consider pairs
(C,αC) where A ≤ C ≤ B and αC extends α. We define a partial order in the
set S of such pairs by (C,αC) ≤ (D,αD) if C ⊆ D and αD extends αC.
e set S is non-empty, since (A,α) is in S. Also, if (Ci,αCi); i ∈ I is a chain
(that is, a totally ordered subset) in S, then take D := ∪ i∈ICi and define αD(a)
= αCi(a) if x ∈ Ci. Clearly, (D, αD)∈ S is an upper bound. us, by Zorn's
lemma, there is a maximal element (M,αM) in S. We claim that M = B.

If M ≠ B, take any b ∈ B,b ∉ M.

If M ∩ Zb = (0), then M + Zb is a subgroup of B properly containing M and

the map m + ab → αM(m) is a well-defined homomorphism. is contradicts
the maximality of (M, αM). Hence, we must have M ∩ Zb ≠ 0. Let a be the
smallest natural number such that ab ∈ M ∩ Zb. erefore, every element of
M + Zb has a unique expression as m + db with 0 ≤ d < a.
Also, since ab ∈ M, we have an element g = αM (ab). As G is divisible, one
can write g = ah for some h ∈ G.
Define β : M + Zb → G by

m + db → αM(m) + dh ∀ 0 ≤ d < a.

en β(m + db) + β(mʹ + dʹb) = αM(m) + dh + αM(mʹ) + dʹh = αM(m + mʹ) +
(d + dʹ)h.

If d + dʹ = qa + e with 0 ≤ e < a, we have

β(m+db+mʹ+dʹb) = β(m+mʹ+qab+eb) = αM(m+mʹ+qab)+eh

αM(m+mʹ)+qg+eh
since αM(ab) = g be definition. erefore, the last expression on the right
side is

αM(m + mʹ) + qah + eh = αM(m + mʹ) + (d + dʹ)h.

Hence, β is a homomorphism.
us, (M + Zb,β) ∈ S and the resultant contradiction proves that M = B.
Hence G is injective.
(ii) Let D ≤ G be a divisible subgroup of an abelian group G. We use the fact
that D is injective. Look at the identity homomorphism from D to itself. By
injectivity of D, this extends to a homomorphism θ from G to D. Note that
this means that θ(d) = d for all d ∈ D.
Look at E := kerθ. If g ∈ G, then θ(θ(g)) = θ(g) as

θ(g) ∈ D. us, θ(θ(g) – g) = 0; that is, θ(g)– g ∈ kerθ = E.

Hence, we have G = D + E. If d ∈ D ∩ E, then d = θ(d) = 0; so G = D ⊕ E.

(iii) Any abelian group G is a quotient A/B of a free abelian group A. If S is a
basis of A, then

and, therefore, D := ⊕s∈SQ is a divisible group containing a group

isomorphic to A. As quotients of divisible groups are also clearly divisible, G
is isomorphic to a subgroup of the divisible group D/B.

SOLUTION 32
Consider H := {g ∈ : S + g = S}; this is a subgroup which is properly
contained in G by the hypothesis. Clearly, the mapping S + g → H + g from
the set of all sets of the form S + x to the group G/H, is well-defined and
onto. Since G/H is a nontrivial divisible group and, therefore, is infinite.
erefore, the set of all sets of the form S+x is infinite as well.

SOLUTION 33
It suffices to check that if h is p-divisible, then there is a p-divisible g
mapping to it. Now, write h = pnhn with hn ∈ H. So, if θ(gn) = hn, then
θ(pngn) = h. erefore, pg1 – pngn ∈ kerθ for all n. As kerθ is finite, we
deduce that infinitely many of the elements pngn give the same element g of
G. us, the element g is p-divisible and θ(g) = h.
SOLUTION 34
First of all, the polar coordinates provide an isomorphism C* ≅ R>0 × S1 ≅
R×S1. So, it suffices to show that R×S1 ≅ S1. Start with any Q-vector space
basis of R which contains 1. Already, we have used Zorn's lemma here
when trying to extend the linearly independent set {1} to a basis. en, the
set

is a basis of the Q-vector space R × R. Once again, it is a consequence of

Zorn's lemma that and are in bijection. Let θ : → be a bijection which
maps (0,1) to 1. en, there is a unique extension of θ to a Q-vector space
isomorphism from R × R onto R. Since θ(0,1) = 1 and is a Q-vector space
isomorphism, it gives an isomorphism of {0} × Z onto Z. erefore, θ gives

(R × R) / ({0}× Z) ≅ R/Z.

Evidently, the le hand side above is isomorphic to R/{0} × R/Z. is
completes the proof, since t → e2iπt gives an isomorphism from R/Z onto S1.

SOLUTION 35
Computing θ(Z/p) for a prime p, gives us an idea of how to proceed. For this
case, it is clearly p–1. Now, for a general n, we get by induction that θ(Z/n) =
Φ(n). So, for a general group G, let us define the, a priori, a new function
α(G) := Number of generators of G. Evidently, α(G) = 0 if G is not cyclic and

α(Z/n) = Φ(n) = θ(Z/n).

Now, each element g of G generates a unique cyclic subgroup < g > and the
number of elements generating the particular cyclic group is α(< g >), we get
Note that we have used the fact that α(H) = 0 if H is not cyclic. Since α({1})
= 1, and since α is defined by the same recursion as θ, we have θ = α.

SOLUTION 36
Recall the notation first. [x, y] := xyx–1y–1 and xy = yxy–1. Also, x–y = yx–1y–1.

(ii) is is easy to verify by induction on r.

Indeed, if [xr, y] = [x, y]xr–1+…+x+1, then

(iii) By putting u = aba–1ca,v = bcb–1ab,w = cac–1bc, we see that the identity

reduces to

uv–1vw–1wu–1 = 1.

(iv) Now, we are in a group with [G,G] ≤ Z(G). So, (ii) gives

[x, y]r = [xr, y]

for any r; that is,

xry = yxr[x, y]r. (1)

We now prove the assertion by induction on n.

using (1) to rewrite ynx in the above expression.
Clearly, this is equal to xn+1yn+1[y,x]n(n+1)/2 which proves (iv).
(v) Let xp,yp ∈ Gp. We want to show that xpy–p ∈ Gp; that is, that it is pth
power. Now, if p is an odd prime, then p(p–1)/2 is a multiple of p and, so

as [G,G] ≤ Z(G).

SOLUTION 37
(i) In G/ < G2 >, every element satisfies x2 = e. But, clearly any group with
this property is abelian (for, xy = x2x–1y–1y2 = x–1y–1 = (yx)–1 = (yx)–1(yx)2 =
yx).
Explicitly, aba–1b–1 = a2(a–1ba)2(a–1b–1)2.
(ii) Let . en, the set {[x, y] : x, y ∈ G} of commutators is just
the set {[gi,gj]; i,j ≤ n} which has at the most n2 elements. By the hypothesis,
n2 < |[G,G]| which means that there are elements in [G,G] which are not
commutators.
(iii) For i ≠ j, let us write Xij for the elementary matrix which differs from
the identity matrix only at the (i,j) th entry, which is 1 here. en, the given
matrix is X13 = [X12, X23]. Suppose X13 = X2Y2 where

and

en, comparing entries

 2a + 2aʹ = 0 = 2c + 2cʹ, 2b + 2bʹ + ac + aʹcʹ = 1

since 4 = 0 in Z/4. us, aʹ = –a or 2 – a and cʹ = –c or 2 – c, each of which

gives the (1, 3)-entry of X2Y2 to be of the form 2d for some d. us, this can
never be 1 and the resultant contradiction shows that X13 is not a product of
two squares.

SOLUTION 38
Write for simplicity

en, clearly m(0, yi, 0).

erefore, [G,G] = {m(0,0,h) ∈ Q[x, y]} which shows that [G,G] ≅ Q[x, y].
Now, for any n ≥ 1, let us consider the particular polynomial
. We claim that m(0,0,h) is not a product of n commutators.
If possible, let this be so. Write

View both sides as polynomiais in x and equate the correspanding

coefficients of powers of x. If fjx = , then we have

Consequently, the linearly independent elements 1, y, … y2n+1 of the vector

space Q[y] are all in the subspace generated by the 2n elements gj(y), vj(y).
is is a manifest contradiction proving thereby that m(0,0,h) is in [G,G]
but, for the h(x, y) above, it is not a product of n commutators.
SOLUTION 39
Let us note that the conjugacy class of any element g is finite as it is bijective
with the set {xgx–1g–1 : x ∈ G} which is finite by hypothesis. erefore, CG(g)
has finite index in G for each element g. Now, let g1,…,gn be generators for
G. en, is of finite index.

SOLUTION 40
Let S = {g ∈ G : θ(g) = g–1}. Write |G| = n; we are given that
|S| ≥ 3n/4.
If x ∈ S, then,

xS ∩ S = {xy : θ(y) = y–1,x–1y–1 = (xy)–1} = x(S ∩ CG(x)).

erefore,

|xS ∩ S| = |S ∩ CG(x)|.

Note that for any g ∈ G, g ∉Z(G),|CG(g)| ≤ erefore, if x ∈ S, x ∉Z(G),

then

Hence, if we have strict inequality that |S| > 3n/4, then we would have a
contradiction because then |xS\S| + |S| > n. is means that when |S| > 3n/4,
each x ∈ S is in Z(G). us, |Z(G)| > 3n/4 which gives |Z(G)| = |G|; that is, G
is abelian.
If |S| = 3n/4, then, for each x ∈ S \ Z(G), we must have equality
everywhere in (A).
 In particular, CG(x) is contained in S and has order n/2 for such x. If S ⊂
Z(G), then |Z(G)| ≥ 3n/4 which means that Z(G) = G; that is, G is abelian.
en, we would have S to be a group, i.e., S = G, which is a contradiction of
our present hypothesis that |S| = 3n/4. us, there does exist an element x ∈
S\Z(G). As observed above, for this x, the centraliser CG(x) is of order n/2
and is contained in S. erefore, θ(y) = y–1 for all y ∈ CG(x). So, for y, z ∈
CG(x),

(yz)-1 = θ(yz) = θ(y)θ(z) = y-1z-1.

In other words, CG(x) is abelian. is completes the proof.

SOLUTION 41
First, note that [G : Z(G)] ≥ 4 because if G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G must be
abelian. Indeed, if gZ(G) generates G/Z(G), then any x ∈ G is of the form gizi
for some zi ∈ Z(G). ese clearly commute. us, we have . Now,

We have written G(x) for the conjugacy class of x. As |G(x)| ≥ 2 for each x ∈
Z(G), we get

SOLUTION 42
(i) For any g ∈ G, the inner automorphism Int g is an automorphism of N, as
N ⊲ G. As C is characteristic in N, such an automorphism leaves C stable;
that is, gCg–1 = C for all g ∈ G.
(ii) Let A ⊲ B ⊲ C be such that A is characteristic in B and B is characteristic
in C. Any σ ∈ AutC gives an automorphism σB ∈ AutB simply by restriction,
as B is characteristic in C. But, then σ(C) = σB(C) = C as C is characteristic in
B.
(iii) In the abelian group Z × Z, all subgroups are normal but the subgroup
Z × {0} is not characteristic. e automorphism which takes any (a, b) to (b,
a) does not leave this subgroup stable.

SOLUTION 43
Let . en, since we may write for some integers a, b.
Take . Of course, g1 g2 = g2g1 = g. We shall check that g1,
g2 have orders and n1 respectively.

Now, .

Moreover, if , then we get gbn1d = 1; so O(g)|bn1d. is gives

however (p1, b) = 1 as seen from . us, which proves that
.
Similarly, so that n1|O(g2). If , then so that
.
Hence n1|l as (n1, a) = 1. is implies that O(g2) = n1.
Now, we may proceed by induction with g replaced by g2. Ultimately, we
will have elements xi, i ≤ r which are powers of g and have orders such
that g = x1 … xr.
 Finally, we show that such an expression is unique. If g = y1…yr is another
expression where yi has order and commute pairwise, then they commute
with g. As xi's are powers of g, the xi's and the yj's all commute pairrwise. So,

has order dividing as seen from the le side and at the same time has
order dividing as seen from the right side. us, x1 = y1. Proceeding
by induction, we get xi = yi for all i.

SOLUTION 44
We shall use the Jordan-Holder theorem. Let

{1} = M0 ⊲ M1… ⊲ Mr = M

be a composition series for M. Since we are given that M ≅ G/N, we have

subgroups G1,…, Gr = G such that Mi ≅ Gi/N under the above isomorphism.
So, Gi ⊲ Gi+1 for each i and aiso N ⊲ G1. erefore,

{1} = G0 ⊲ N ⊲ G1 ⊲ G2 … ⊲ Gr = G

is a normal series for G. We claim that it is a composition series. We need to

check that the successive factors are simple.
N is given to be simple. Also, G1/N ≅ M1 is simple. For i > 1,
is simple. Hence, the above normal series is,
indeed, a composition series for G. However, we have a normal series for G,
viz.

{1} = M0 ⊲ M1 … ⊲ Mr = M ⊲ G.

us, by the Jordan-Holder theorem, this admits a refinement which is a

composition series. Looking at the length of the composition series of G
written above, it fallows that the last normal series is, indeed, a composition
series. But its successive factors are Mi/Mi–1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ r and G/M. Since the
earlier composition series has successive factors N, G1/N, Gi/Gi–1 for 1 < i =
r, and since Mi/Mi–1 ≅ Gi/Gi–1 for 1 < i ≤ r and M1/M0 = M1 ≅ G1/N, the
only possibility le is that G/M ≅ N.

SOLUTION 45
(i) For any x, y ∈ G, we have

xyθ(x)θ(y) = xθ(x)yθ(y)

so that yθ(x) = θ(x)y which means that θ(x) is in Z(G) for any x.
Using the fact that g ↦ gβ(g) is a homomorphism where β(g) = gθ(g), we get
that β(x) = xθ(x) is in Z(G). Hence x ∈ Z(G) for any x.
(ii) Put α(g) = g2θ(g); then for any x, y,

xyxyθ(x)θ(y) = α(xy) = θ(x)θ(y) = xxθ(x)yyθ(y).

at is,

yxyθ(x) = xθ(x)y2∀ xy. (1)

Notice that, in particular, for x = y, we get

x2θ(x) = θ(x)x2 ∀x.

Now g ↦ g4θ(g) = g2α(g) is a homomorphism. is gives us

yxyα(x) = xθ(x)y2 ∀ x, y.

at is,

yxyx2θ(x) = x3θ(x)y2. (2)

Cancelling off yxy from the le-hand sides of (1) and (2), we get

θ(x)-1 x2θ(x) = y-2θ(x)-1x2θ(x)y2.

since we observed that g2 and θ(g) commute. us, the above equality
reduces to

x2 = y–2x2y2.

at is, squares of elements commute. is gives immediately from (1) that
xy = yx for all x, y.

SOLUTION 46
bm
Write al + = 1 for some integers a, b. As any g ∈ G is expressible as g =
(ga)l (gb)m, it suffices to prove that xl ym = ym xl for all x, y ∈ G. Now,

Similarly,

bm
(xlym) = (ymxl)bm.

Multiplying the two equalities, we get the asserted equality.

SOLUTION 47
For x, y ∈ G, we have

xyθ(x)θ(y) = θ(x)θ(y)xy

which gives
 yθ(x)θ(y)y–1 = x–1θ(x)θ(y)x.

us,

yθ(x)y–1 = θ(x)x–1θ(y)xθ(y)–1 = θ(x)[x–1, θ(y)]. (1)

Applying (1) to x–1, we have

yθ(x)–1y–1 = θ(x)–1 [x,θ(y)].

Taking inverses, we have

yθ(x)y–1 = [θ(y),x]θ(x). (2)

From the right-hand sides of (1) and (2), we have that x–1θ(x) commutes
with θ(y)xθ(y)–1.
Hence x–1θ(x) commutes with yθ(x)y–1 also.
As this holds for all y ∈ G, it fallows that x–1θ(x) commutes elementwise
with the normal subgroup N(x) := < x, θ(x) >N by x and θ(x).
erefore, x–1θ(x) ∈ Z(N(x)) which is an abelian normal subgroup of G.
As Z(N(x)) is trivial by hypothesis, it fallows that θ = Id.

SOLUTION 48
(i) If G/N is a finite, non-cyclic group, then it is the union of its proper cyclic
subgroups. e inverse images of these in G are proper subgroups and cover
G.
(ii) Step I: Whenever a group , then we claim that at least one of
the Hi's is of finite index.
We prove this by induction on the number r of different Hi's. If r = 1, then
H1 = … = Hn so that which gives [G : H1] = ≤ n.
Suppose now that r >1 and that the assertion of step I holds when the
number of different Hi's is less than r. Renaming, we may assume that H1 =
H2 = … = Hk and that this is different from each of Hk+1,…, Hn. e number
of different subgroups among Hk+1,…, Hn is r–1. Now,

If , then [G : H1] = ≤ k. erefore, we suppose there is some

. us, evidently H1g does not intersect . In other
words,

Hence, for each j ≤ k, we have

erefore,

As the number of different subgroups occurring is r–1, we have [G : Hi] < ∞

for some i between k+1 and n. erefore, by induction on r, we have step 1.
Now, we proceed with the proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume
that with some Hi's having infinite index; otherwise, we are
through.
Rename so that H1,…, Hr have infinite index and the others — Hr+1,…, Hn -
have finite index.
Note that if , then [G : H0] < ∞. Also, each right coset of any of
Hr+1,…, Hn is a finite union of right cosets of H0. So, we may write

for some elements xj of G.

If , then we may restore the right cosets of the subgroups
Hr+1,…, Hn and the assertion is proved.
Suppose not. en, once again, we argue as in step 1; namely, choose
some x ∈ G such that . en, . In other words,

Hence, for all j ≤ s. us,

is is a contradiction of step I since each Hi for i ≤ r has infinite index in

G. is completes the proof.
(iii) By (i), we need only check that if G is a union of finitely many proper
subgroups, it has a finite, non-cyclic group as a quotient. Let
where Hi are proper subgroups. By (ii), we may assume that each Hi has
finite index in G. But then is of finite index and, therefore, contains a
normal subgroup N of finite index in G. As , and Hi/N are
proper subgroups of the finite group G/N, G/N cannot be cyclic.
(iv) By (ii), if for proper normal subgroups Hi, then we may
assume that each Hi is of finite index. Further, we may assume that the
decomposition is irredundant, i.e., we cannot drop any Hi. Consider G/H1.
en, the images of Hi, i ≥ 2 are proper normal subgroups whose union is
the whole of G/H1. So, if we prove the assertion for finite groups, it would
fallow that G/H1 admits of a quotient isomorphic to Z/p×Z/p for some
prime p. us, this would be true for G itself. Hence, we have reduced the
proof to finite groups G. Now, we may assume that Hi are maximal normal
subgroups. Again, since the quotient group G/(∩iHi) admits a covering by
proper normal subgroups (the images of Hi's), it suffices to prove that
G/(∩iHi) admits of a quotient isomorphic to Z/p×Z/p for some prime p.
us, we may assume that ∩iHi is trivial.
Let I ⊂ {1,2,…,n} be a maximal subset such that ∩i∈IHi ≠ {1}. Renaming, we
may assume that I = {1,2,…,k} for some k < n.
We first observe that k ≠ n – 1. Otherwise, we may choose some x ∈ Hn
which is not in ∪i<nHi and some y ∈ ∩i<n Hi. Note that y ∉ Hn as ∩i≤n = {1}.
Evidently, then the element xy cannot be in any of the Hi's which contradicts
the fact that G = ∪i≤nHi. erefore, k < n – 1. By maximality of k, we have
that T = ∩i≤kHi is a normal subgroup with T∩Hj = {1} for all j > k. Let k < l <
m ≤ n. Since Hl, Hm are maximal, the normal subgroups THl = THm = G.
erefore, G ≅ T × Hl T × Hm. So, T commutes with Hl as well as with Hm;
thus T commutes with HlHm = G. So, T ≤ Z(G). But, T ≅ G/Hl is a simple
group as Hl is maximal. Hence T ≅ Z/p for some prime p. e proof is
complete because

SOLUTION 49
Let N ≤ G be a cyclic group of finite index. We may assume that N ⊴ G of
finite index. As G is infinite (being torsion- free), N is the infinite cyclic
group. Now, each element g ∈ G acting by conjugation on N is an
automorphism of N. Since Aut N ≅ ±I, we have either gng–1 = n for all n ∈ N
or gng–1 = n–1 for all n ∈ N. Now, as G/N is finite, some gr ∈ N and since g
commutes with gr, it fallows that g acts by the identity automorphism on N.
In other words, N ≤ Z(G). us, Z(G) has finite index in G. erefore, [G, G]
is finite. Being torsion-free, this implies that [G, G] = {1}. So, G is abelian.
Hence, G is a finitely generated abelian group containing N ≅ Z as a
subgroup of finite index. us, G itself is infinite cyclic.

SOLUTION 50
(i) Define α : H α N → G by

(h,n) ↦ hn.

en,

Further, if α((h,n)) = 1, then n = h–1 ∈ N ∩ H = {1} so that α is 1–1.

As G = HN, clearly α is aiso onto.
We have shown that G ≅ H α N. If β : G/N → Aut (N) is defined by gN =
hN ↦ θ(h), clearly then G ≅ G/N α N.
(ii) Let s : G/N → G be a homomorphism such that π ∘ s = Id. Consider the
subgroup H = Image(s) of G. We claim that G = HN and H ∩ N = {1}.
To see this, suppose n = h = s( ) ∈ N ∩ H. en,

1 = π(n) = π(s( (g)) =

which implies that n = s( ) = 1 as well.

Finally, we only need to show that G = HN.
If g ∈ G, consider the element h = s(π(g)) ∈ H.
 Now, π(h) = π(s(π(g))) = π(g) which implies that g = hn for some n ∈ kerπ
= N.
erefore, G = HN.

SOLUTION 51
(i) If G ≅ Zn, then clearly the images of the canonical unit vectors ei in Zn
form a basis for G. Conversely, if G has a basis of n elements g1,…, gn, then
the mapping gi ↦ ei extends to a well-defined homomorphism because any
element of G is a unique integral linear combination of the gi's. Also, clearly
it is 1–1 and onto.
(ii) We need only show that if a free abelian group Gm having a basis of m
elements is isomorphic to a free abelian group Gn having a basis of n
elements, then m = n.
Look at the set S(m) := Hom(Gm, Z/2) of all homomorphisms from Gm to
Z/2. It has cardinality 2m since each basis element can be sent to either
element of Z/2 and these prescriptions define different homomorphisms.
Similarly, S(n) has cardinality 2n. Fix an isomorphism θ : Gm → Gn. en, it is
clear that the map

is a bijection. us 2m = 2n and hence m = n.

SOLUTION 52
e proof is carried out by induction on n using the division algorithm as
fallows. It is clear for n = 1. Assume n > 1 and that the theorem holds for m
< n. Correspanding to any basis of G, there is a positive integer with the
property that it is the smallest positive integer that occurs as a coefficient in
the expression of elements of H in terms of this basis. is positive integer
can depend on the basis and let l1 be the smallest such with respect to all
bases of G. Let v1,…, vn be a correspanding basis for G such that
. Dividing all the ai by l1, we have ai = qil1 + ri with 0 ≤
ri < l1. Evidently, and is another
basis of G. By the minimality of l1, we must have ri = 0 for all i ≥ 2. us,
writing w1 for . Look at the subset H0 of H which have
coefficients of w1 to be zero in terms of the basis w1, v2,…, vn of G. Clearly,
H0 is a subgroup of H such that H0 ∩ Zv = {0}. Also, if h ∈ H, write
. Once again, dividing the bi's by l1, say, bi = mil1 + si with 0
≤ si < l1, we have . us, by the minimality of l1 we
get s1 = 0 i.e., h – m1v ∈ H0. us, H = H0 ⊕ Zv. Now, H0 is contained in the
subgroup . By induction hypothesis, G0 has a basis w2,…, wn
and there exists r ≤ n such that H0 has a basis of the form d2w2,…, drwr with
d2|d3|…|dn. Clearly, therefore, H itself has rank r ≤ n and l1w1, d2w2,…, dnwn
is a basis for H. We have only to show that l1|d2. Once again, writing d2 = cl1
+ d with 0 ≤ d < l1, we notice l1w1 + d2w2 = l1(w1 + cw2) + dw2sub> ∈ H
where w1 + cw2, w2,…, wn is a basis of G. us, minimality of l1 forces d = 0
i.e., l1|d2. e proof is complete.

SOLUTION 53
Suppose the matrix statement holds. Let H be a subgroup of a free abelian
group G of rank n. en, H is aiso free abelian of rank m ≤ n (this we are
assuming known through other arguments). Let α : Zm → H and β : G → Zn
be isomorphisms. If i : H ≤ G denotes the inclusion map, we have that the
composite map β ∘ i ∘ α correspands to a matrix A ∈ Mn,m (Z) with respect
to the canonical ordered bases of Zm and Zn. e matrix statement gives us
P ∈ GL (n, Z) and Q ∈ rmGL (m, Z) such that
where di|di+1.
Hence, the bases

{v1,…,vn} = {Pe1,…,Pensub>}

of Zn and

{w1,…,wm} = {Qe1,…,Qem}

of Zm are so that

{β–1 (v1),…,β–1 (vn)}

is a basis for G and {α(w1),…,α(wm)} is a basis for H.

Now, note that the matrix identity above implies that AQ (ei) = P (diei)
where ei on the le side are in

Zm and those on the right side are in Zn.

at is, βα(Qei) = diP(ei).

So, we have βα(wi) = divi, which means that the bases {β–1 (v1),…,β– (vn)} of
G and {α(w1),…,α(wm)} of H are as asserted in the invariant factor theorem.
Conversely, let us assume that the invariant factor theorem holds.
Consider any A ∈ Mn,m (Z) of rank max(m,n). Without loss of generality, we
shall take m ≤ n for, otherwise, we could take the transpose. Now, A defines
a homomorphism
 TA : Zm → Zn ; v ↦ Av.

Now the image of TA is a free abelian group generated by the n vectors Ae1,
…, Aem.
Since the matrix A has rank m, the vectors Ae1,…, Aem are linearly
independent vectors over Q. erefore, they are linearly independent over Z
aiso. In other words, Image TA is free abelian subgroup of Zn of rank m.
By the invariant factor theorem, let us choose bases {v1,…, vn} of Zn and
{d1v1,…,dmvm} of Image TA such that di|d+1. Call Awi = divi for all i ≤ m.
Let P ∈ GL (n, Z) denote the matrix effecting the change of basis from the
canonical basis to the vi's. Similarly, let Q ∈ GL (m, Z) be the matrix
effecting the change of basis from the canonical basis to the wi's.
en, P–1 AQ(ei) = divi for all i ≤ m. In other words, P–1 AQ has the form
asserted.

SOLUTION 54
e proof of the invariant factor theorem clearly shows the generation of GL
(n, Z) by the above matrices. Also, as the matrices diag (±1,…,±1) normalise
the groups < I + Eij > for each i ≠ j, we can write each element of GL (n, Z)
as a product of matrices of the form Xi,j, i ≠ j fallowed by a single matrix of
the form diag (±1,…,±1).
Now, if g ∈ SL(n, Z), then the matrix diag (±1,…,±1) occurring at the end
in the above expression has an even number of –1's.
So, it suffices to check that the above diagonal matrices with two –1's are in
< Xijsub>; i ≠ j >.
is can be seen from the fallowing identities in the correspanding 2 × 2
matrices:
Finally, if n ≥ 3, then Xij = [Xik, Xkj] for i, j, k distinct. is proves that SL(n,
Z) is perfect for n ≥ 3.

SOLUTION 55
(i) We know that GL(n, Z) is generated by the matrices of the form Xij = I +
Eij; i ≠ j and the matrices diag (±1,…,±1). eisewhere. We shall check for each
r that

hr(AXij) = hr(XijA)

for all i ≠ j ≤ n.
By the previous problem, we need to consider only A of the 'diagonal'
form with nonzero entries d1,…, dm with di|di+1.
erefore, it is clear that hr(AD) = hr(DA) for D = diag(±1,…, ±1).
Now, for such A, we have, if i > m that AXij = A and, if i ≤ m, AXij = A + A
´ where A´ is a matrix whose only nonzero entry is di at the (i,j)th place.
Clearly, hr(AXij) = hr(A).
Similarly, we see aiso that hr(XijA) = hi(A). erefore, we have (i).
For (ii), we merely note that for 'diagonal' matrices A as above, with
di|di+1, the numbers hi(A) = d1…di. us, the invariant factors are successive
quotients of the hi's.

SOLUTION 56
(i) If G is nilpotent, then by our definition, the lower central series
 G ≥ C1 (G) ≥ C2(G) ≥ …Cn (G) = {1}

for some n. Evidently, Ci+1(G) ⊲ Ci(G) and Ci(G)/Ci+1(G) is contained in the

centre of G/Ci(G) by the very definition.
Conversely, let

G = G0 ⊇ G1 ⊇ … ⊇ Gn = {1}

for some n where each Gi is normal in G and Gi–1/Gi is contained in the

centre of G/Gi.
Note that C0 (G) = G = G0. We prove by induction that for any r ≤ n, Cr
(G) ≤ Gr. If we assume Cm(G) ≤ Gm for m < n, then Cm+1(G) = [G,Cm(G)] ≤
[G,Gm] ≤ Gm+1 as Gm/Gm+1 is contained in the centre of G/Gm+1. erefore,
the inductive proof fallows, and shows that Cn(G) = {1}.
(ii) e penultimate term Cn–1 (G) in the lower central series

G ≥ C1(G) ≥ C2(G) ≥ …Cn(G) = {1}

is contained in the centre.

(iii) Note first that any p-group G has a nontrivial centre Z (this fallows by
using the conjugation action of the group on itself). Applying induction, we
may assume that = G/Z is nilpotent. Evidently, Ci(G) ≤ i for all i where Ci
(G/Z) = i/Z. If Cn( i) = 1, then we have Cn(G) ≤ Z; so Cn+1(G) = 1. us, G
is nilpotent.
(iv) It is clear that for any H ≤ G, we have Cr (H) ≤ Cr(G) for every r, by
induction. us, subgroups of nilpotent groups are aiso nilpotent.
Let N ⊲ G and let Cn(G) = {1}. Consider the series

G/N ≥ C1(G)N/N ≥ …Cn(G)N/N = {1}.

Clearly, each Ci(G)N/N ⊲ G/N and let us check that any successive factor
is contained in the centre of . Now, [G/N, Ci(G)N/N] =
[G,Ci(G)]N/N ≤ Ci+1(G)N/N. us, the above series shows that G/N is
nilpotent by (i).
(v) Call B = B(n, Q) and U = U(n, Q) for simplicity.
An easy matrix computation shows that [U, U] ≤ U and that [U,U] consists
of matrices which have the entries (1, 2), (2, 3),…, (n … 1, n) to be zero.
By induction, one can easily show that Cr(U) consists of matrices whose
(i,j) th entries for i < j ≤ i + r – 1 are all zero. Hence, Cn(U) = {1}.
Clearly, B = TU with T ∩ U = {1} where T ≤ B is the subgroup of diagonal
matrices. Also, U = ker(det : B → Q*) is a normal subgroup. Since T is
abelian, it is nilpotent.
However, B is not nilpotent since [B,B] = U and [B,U] = U by the same
computation as above.
(vi) We already know that quotient groups of nilpotent groups are nilpotent.
So, we assume that G/Z(G) is nilpotent and show that G must be nilpotent.
Using (i) for G/Z(G), we have normal subgroups Gi of G containing Z(G)
such that

G/Z(G) = G0/Z(G) ⊇ G1/Z(G)…⊇Gn/Z(G) = {1}

where Gi–1/Gi is contained in the centre of G/Gi. Consider the series

G = G0 ⊇ G1 … ⊇ Gn = Z(G) ⊇ Gn+1 = {1}.

Evidently, Gn/Gn+1 is contained in (in fact, equal to) the centre of G/Gn+1.
us, G is nilpotent.

SOLUTION 57
Let G be nilpotent and H ≤ G. Suppose

G ≥ C1 ≥ C2 ≥ … Cn = {1}

be its lower central series. Since, we have that Ci/Ci+1 is contained in the
centre of G/Ci+1, it fallows that

G = GH ≥ C1H ≥ …CnH = H

is a chain of subgroups where each term is normal in the previous one. us,
H is subnormal in G; that is, (i) implies (ii).
Now, suppose (ii) holds. Let H < G. We have a series

H = H0 ⊲ H1 ⊲ … Hr = G.

If i is the smallest number for which Hi > H, it fallows that Hi ≤ NG(H) and
Hi H. is proves (ii) implies (iii).
For a maximal subgroup, M ≠ NG(M) shows that NG(M) = G i.e., M is
normal. us (iii) implies (iv).
Assume (iv). If P is a p-Sylow subgroup which is not normal, then NG(P)
≤ M for some maximal subgroup M. Since M is normal, we get for any g ∈
G, gPg–1 is again a p-Sylow subgroup of gMg–1 = M. us, by Sylow's secand
theorem applied to M, there is some m ∈ M with gPg–1 = mPm–1, i.e., m–1g ∈
NG(P) ≤ M. Hence g ∈ M, a contradiction, since a maximal subgroup, by
definition, is a proper subgroup. Hence (iv) implies (v).
Assume (v) holds; that is, the Sylow subgroups are normal. We shall show
first that elements of orders powers of different primes commute. Let O(x) =
pr and O(y) = qs where p ≠ q are primes. If P, Q are the unique p-Sylow
subgroup and the unique q-Sylow subgroup, then x ∈ P and y ∈ Q. As xyx–1
y–1 ∈ P ∩ Q = {1}, we have xy = yx.
 Now, we deal with the general case. We saw in Problem 43 that in any
finite group, every element can be written as commuting elements of prime
power orders dividing the order of the element. Let g, h ∈ G be elements in
our group which have coprime orders m, n. en, g = x1…xr, h = y1…, ys
where xi's commute among themselves, yj's commute among themselves and
each of them has prime power order. Also O(xi)|O(g) = m and O(yj)|O(h) =
n which are coprime. us, each xi and each yj commute. Hence gh = hg.
us, (v) implies (vi).
Suppose now that elements of coprime orders commute. We write

Let Pi be any pi-Sylow subgroup of G ; 1 ≤ i ≤ r. en, since [Pi, Pj] = {1} for i
≠ j, the product P1 … Pr is a group. As the orders of Pi's are pairwise
coprime to each other,

|P1…Pr| = |P1|…|Pr| = |G|.

Hence G = P1…Pr and , which means that G ≅ P1 × … × Pr.

So, we have proved that (vi) implies (vii).
Finally, since p-groups are nilpotent, (vii) clearly implies that P1 × … Pr is
nilpotent; that is, (i) fallows.

SOLUTION 58
(i) Let G = < S > and s ∈ S ∩ Φ(G). It suffices to show that s ∈< S\{s} >. Now,
if H = < S\{s} > < G, then there is some maximal subgroup M of G
containing H. But then S\{s} is contained in M as well as s ∈ M. is means
that G = < S > ≤ M, which is a contradiction. us, we have shown that
elements of Φ(G) can be dropped from any generating set for G.
 Conversely, suppose g ∈ G be such that whenever < S ∪ {g} > = G, we have
< S > = G. Let, if possible, M be a maximal subgroup not containing g. en,
< M ∪ {g} > = G. By the hypothesis, this gives < M > = M = G, a
contradiction. Hence all maximal subgroups contain g and (i) is proved.
(ii) Since Φ(G) is the intersection of all maximal subgroups of G, and since
any automorphism permutes maximal subgroups of G, it fallows that Φ(G)
is a characteristic subgroup of G.
(iii) By the previous problem, it suffices to prove that the p-Sylow subgroups
of Φ(G), for any p, are normal in it. By the Frattini argument (problem 17
(ii)), we have G = Φ(G)NG(P).
In particular, NG(P) ∪ Φ(G) generate G which implies that NG(P) = <
NG(P) > = G; that is, P ⊲ G.
In particular, P ⊴ Φ(G).
(iv) Let M1…, Mr be the (proper) maximal subgroups of G. Consider their
images in the elementary abelian group G/[G,G] < Gp > . ey are maximal
subgroups and every maximal subgroup of G/[G,G]< Gp > is the image of
one of these. Of course, two different Mi's may have the same image. Note
that the intersection of all maximal subgroups in an elementary abelian p-
group is trivial. is is so because an elementary abelian p-group is
isomorphic to Z/p×…Z/p, and in this group, the subproducts with one
factor being the trivial groups are maximal subgroups and intersect in the
identity. erefore,

Conversely, note that in p-groups, all maximal subgroups are of index p.

is means that in our p-group G, < Gp > ≤ Φ(G). Also, since maximal
subgroups M in G are necessarily normal, G/M is an abelian group (of order
p) and so, [G,G] ≤ M. us, [G,G] ≤ Φ(G) as well. is proves that
 Φ(G) = [G,G]< Gp > .

(v) By (iv), it fallows that the Frattini subgroup of an abelian p-group A is

simply Ap. erefore, clearly A/Φ(A) = A/Ap is an elementary abelian p-
group. If A/Ap has order pr, then it can be generated by r elements x1Ap,…,
xrAp say. erefore, A = < Ap, x1,…, xr > .
However, Ap is the set of nongenerators and, therefore, A = < x1,…,xr >
which implies that r ≥ d(A). However, it is obvious that for any abelian p-
group A, the elementary abelian p-group A/Ap is a direct sum of at the most
d(A) copies of the group of order p; so |A/Ap| = pr ≤ pd(A). erefore, we
have d(A) = r.

SOLUTION 59
(i) Let S be a finite set of generators of a nilpotent group G. Consider the sets
S0 = S, Si+1 = {aba–1b–1 : a ∈ S, b ∈ Si} for all i ≥ 0. Of course, each Si is a
finite set. Since G is nilpotent, there is some n so that Sr = 1 for all r ≥ n. For
each i ≥ 0, consider the subgroup Gi of G generated by the set ∪r≥iSr . As Sr =
1 for r ≥ n, each Gi is finitely generated. It is clear that [G,Gi] = Gi+1 since S,
Si, Si+1 generate G, Gi and Gi+1 and Si+1 = {aba–1b–1 : a ∈ S, b ∈ Si}. In
particular, each Gi is normal in G and the subgroup Gi/Gi+1 is central in
G/Gi+1. Now, if H is any subgroup of G, then (H ∩ Gi)/(H ∩ Gi+1), being a
subgroup of the finitely generated abelian group Gi/Gi+1, is finitely
generated. Since H ∩ Gn = 1, this gives inductively that each H ∩ Gi is
finitely generated. In particular, H = H ∩ G0 = H ∩ G is finitely generated.
(ii) Look at the lower central series of G. As Cn(G)/Cn+1(G) is a subgroup of
the finitely generated, nilpotent group G/Cn+1(G), this subgroup is finitely
generated as well. But, this is an abelian, torsion group and is, hence, finite.
us, G itself is finite.
SOLUTION 60
We have already seen that the Frattini subgroup Φ(P) = [P,P] < Pp > for any
p-group P. By our hypothesis, Φ(G) = < Gp > . We have aiso seen earlier that
for any group, a subset is a generating set if and only if it generates the group
modulo its Frattini subgroup. erefore, since we are interested in the
question of whether a certain subset of < Gp > generates it, we may quotient
out by the Frattini subgroup, and assume that Φ(< Gp >) = {1}. In particular,
[Gp, Gp] = {1} = <<Gp >p>. Hence [G,G]p ≤ <<Gp <p> = {1}. We may assume
that [[<Gp >,G],G] = {1}. erefore, [ [G,G],G] ≤ [< Gp >,G] = Z(G). In other
words, G is nilpotent, of class 1 or 2. We may assume that G is nilpotent of
class 2; the result is clear for abelian G. Now, for any a, b ∈ G, we have
already seen (since [G,G] = Z(G)) that

(ab)p = apbp[b,a]p(p–1)/2 = apbp.

e latter equality is because [G,G]p = {1}. In other words, the map a ↦ ap is

a homomorphism from G onto < Gp >. us, generate < Gp > if a1,
…,an generate G.

SOLUTION 61
We show that any element of K having prime order must have order p. is
would show by Cauchy's theorem that p is the only prime dividing the order
of K. Let θ ∈ K have some prime order q. Note that θ ∈ K means by
definition that θ(x)Φ(G) = xΦ(G) ∀xΦ(G) ∈ G/Φ(G). us, for each x ∈ G,
we have θ(x) ∈ xΦ(G). Fix generators g1,…, gn of G. Consider the set

Ω:= {(g1f1,…gnfn) : fi ∈ Φ(G)}.

en (θ(g1)θ(f1),…,θ(gn)θ(fn)) ∈ Φ for any (g1 f1,…gnfn) ∈ Ω. Note that this

gives an action of the group < θ > on Ω. Moreover, if (g1f1,…gnfn) ∈ Ω is
fixed by θ, then we have that θ(gi) = gi for all i since a subset X of G generates
it if, and only if, its image modulo Φ(G) generates G/Φ(G). us, < θ > is a
group of order q acting without fixed points; hence each orbit has order q. In
other words, |Ω| is a multiple of q. us q divides |Φ(G)|n; that is, q = p.

SOLUTION 62
(i) Let θ ∈ Aut (G) be a nontrivial element; suppose θ(g) ≠ g for some g ∈ G.
en, the element x := θ(g)g–1 ≠ 1.
Since G is residually finite, there exists H ≤ G of finite index such that x ∉
H.
As G is finitely generated, it has only finitely many sub-groups of any
given finite index. In particular, the set of sub-groups {σ(H) : σ ∈ Aut (G)} is
a finite set since each of them has index [G : H]. Letting

it follows that C is a characteristic subgroup of finite index in G such that x

∉ C.
Consider the homomorphism Aut (G) → Aut (G/C.
We claim that the finite quotient group Aut (G/C) of Aut (G), is such that θ
maps to a nontrivial element of it. is would prove that Aut (G) is
residually finite.
Now, if θ were to map to the identity, this precisely means that θ(h)h–1 ∈
C for every h ∈ G. As this does not hold for h = x, we have the assertion.
(ii) As G is virtually residually-p, there is a subgroup G' of finite index in G
which is residually-p. By taking the intersection of all the finitely many
subgroups σ(G') as σ runs through Aut G, we get a characteristic subgroup
G0 of finite index in G which is residually-p. If Aut (G0) is virtually
residually-p, so is Aut (G) as seen by pulling back via the restriction
homomorphism from Aut (G) to Aut (G0). Without loss of generality, we,
therefore, assume that G itself is residually-p. Let H be any characteristic
subgroup of p-power index in G. Consider the p-group P = G/H. Now,
where Φ(P) denotes the Frattini subgroup of P. Moreover, by
problem 58, the number r of copies of Z/p is bounded independently of H;
indeed, r ≤ n, where n is the minimal number of generators of G. Now, by
the previous problem,

ker Aut(P) → Aut(P/Φ(P)))

is a p-group. Note that Aut(P/Φ(P)) ≅ GL(r, Z/p, and that there are only
finitely many homomorphisms from Aut(G) to GL(n,Z/p), since there are
only finitely many subgroups of index bounded by the order of GL(n,Z/p) in
the finitely generated group Aut G. Call to be the intersection of the
kernels of all the homomorphisms from Aut(G) to GL(n, Z/p. We claim that
is residually-p. Let σ ∈ , σ ≠ id. So, there is g such that σ(g)g–1 ≠ id. Let H
be a characteristic subgroup of p-power index in G such that σ(g)g–1 ∉ H;
then σ ∉ ker(Aut(G) → Aut (G/H). Call P = G/H. Consider, now, the
composite

By the choice of , the image goes into N := ker(Aut(P) → Aut (P/Φ(P))),

a p-group. Since the image of σ is nontrivial in Aut(P), ker( → N) is normal,
of p-power index in , and does not contain σ. is completes the proof.

SOLUTION 63
(i) Let p be any group. Let g ∈ F be a nontrivial element and suppose
where xi are basis elements (not necessarily distinct), each ai ≠ 0
and xi ≠ xi+1.
Let d be an integer bigger than the power of p dividing the product a1…
an. We consider the (finite) p-group P consisting of all (n + 1) × (n + 1)
upper triangular matrices with entries from Z/pd and all diagonal entries 1.
 Of course, the matrices I + Eij for i < j generate P where Eij has only the
one nonzero entry 1 at the (i, j)th place.
Of course, to define a homomorphism from F to P, we need to specify
only the images of the basis elements but we also need for our purpose to
ensure that the element g maps to a nontrivial matrix.
erefore, it is natural to gather together, for each basis element x of F, all
the i's such that xi = x and define

In the last expression, the factors on the right side commute since
consecutive xi and xi+1 are unequal and Ei,i+1Ej,j+1 = 0 unless i + 1 = j.
erefore, for a basis element x occurring in g,

Let us check whether θ(g) = I is possible. Note that

We see that E1,2, E2,3,…, En,n+1 occur in that order and their coefficients are
precisely the integers a1,…an.
erefore, since Ei,jEj,k = Ej,k = Ei,k, the coefficient of E1,n+1 is the product
a1…an which is not zero in Z/pd by the choice of d. Hence θ(g) ≠ I and so, F
is residually-p.
(ii) Let G be any finitely generated, residually finite group. Suppose θ : G → G
be a surjective homomorphism which has a nontrivial element g in the
kernel.
 Let N ⊲ G be of finite index such that g ∉ N.
Since G is finitely generated, there are only finitely many different
homomorphisms θ1,…,θn from G to G/N. Note that the composite map α =
β ∘ π : G → G, where π : G → G/Ker(θ) is the natural map and β : G/Ker(θ) →
G is induced by θ, is such that α maps g maps to the identity.
Also, since θi ∘ α : G → G/N;i ≤ n are distinct, these are just the θi in some
order. is means that every homomorphism from G to G/N maps g to the
identity. is contradicts the fact that the natural homomorphism maps g to
a nontrivial element. erefore, θ must be an automorphism.

SOLUTION 64
Let a, b, c, d ∈ Z such that ad – bc ≡ 1 mod n. Write ad – bc = 1 + qn. Note
that (c,d,n) = 1. We would like to change a, b, c, d mod n so that ad – bc
becomes 1.
First, let us suppose that (c, d) = 1. Consider aʹ = a + un and bʹ = b + vn
where u, v are to be chosen such that aʹd – bʹc = 1.
Now aʹd – bʹc = ad – bc + (ud – vc)n = 1 + (q + ud – vc)n.
Since (c,d) = 1, we may choose u, v with q – vc – ud; this gives aʹd – bʹc =
1 and we are done.
So, we only have to prove that the above supposition holds. Let p1,…,pr be
the set of all primes which divide d. If each pi|n, then clearly, none of the pi's
divide c since (c, d, n) = 1. In such a case, evidently, (c, d) = 1.
So, let us suppose that some of the pi's do not divide n; let p1,…,pk be the
subset of these primes. We note that (n, p1,…pk = 1. By the Chinese
remainder theorem, choose an integer x ≡ c cmod n and x ≡ 1 mod p1…pk.
en, clearly p1,…pk x.
 Also, writing x = c + ln, we have that the other pi's which divide n cannot
divide c + ln as (c, d, n) = 1. Hence (c + ln, d) = 1 and we are done.

SOLUTION 65
(i) Let K be any field. If A, B ∈ SL2(K) have the same trace ≠ ±2, then they
have the same order. is follows from the fact that A and B have the same
characteristic polynomial and, hence, the same eigenvalues λ, λ–1. Since
these eigenvalues are necessarily distinct, A and B are conjugate in GL2 over
an algebraic closure of K. Let us start with l, m, n ≥ 2. Let K = Fp with p a
prime ≡ 1 modulo 2lmn. Consider G = PSL2 (K). Let λ ∈ K* be a primitive
2lth root of unity. Note that since 2l ≥ 4, one has λ ≠ λ–1 so that the matrix
∈ SL2(K) has order 2l, for any arbitrary α ∈ K. In particular,
has order 2l in SL2(K). Similarly, there exists μ ∈ K* of order
has order 2m for any t in K. Now,

. Look at its trace λμ + λ–1 μ–1 + t. One can obtain any

given element θ of K as trace(AB) by solving for t ∈ K. Choosing θ to be the
trace of an element of order 2n ≥ 4 in SL2(K), we have got hold of A and B in
SL2(K) such that AB has order 2n in SL2(K). Evidently, the images of A, B
and AB in G = PSL2(K) have orders l, m, n respectively.
(ii) Note that W can be taken to be of the form Ar1Bs1…ArkBsk with 0 < ri < l
and 0 < si < m. We proceed as before by starting with a prime p ≡ 1 mod
2lmn. Once again, we choose of order 2l in SL2(K) and
which is of order 2m ∈ SL2(K) for any t in K. Let us write
and for any d > 0. en, an easy calculation shows
that
where we have denoted by O(td) a polynomial of degree at most d over Fp.
us trace W(A, B) is a nonconstant polynomial in t over Fp since M(si) ≠ 0
≠ L(rj) as μ2si ≠ 1 λ2rj. We choose any root of this polynomial in . en, λ,
μ, t lie in a finite field Fp and A, B, W(A, B) have orders l, m, n respectively in
PSL2(Fp).

SOLUTION 66
We note first that if we write A = ⊕pAp and B = ⊕pBp where Ap and Bp are
p-subgroups for various primes p, then Hom(A,B) ≅ ⊕pHom(Ap,Bp). Also
End (A) ≅ ⊕p End(Ap).
erefore, it suffices to prove the assertion for p-groups A, B for any
prime p.
Moreover, note that if an abelian p-group A is the sum of r cyclic p-
groups, then A/pA is a vector space over Z/p of dimension r.
If B is the sum of s cyclic groups, then

To prove our assertion for p-groups, we shall argue by induction on |A|. If

either A or B is trivial, the assertion is obvious. So, we assume that neither is
trivial. Look at the subgroups pA and pB and observe that we have
homomorphisms

Here α is defined by sending any homomorphism θ : A/pA → B to the

homomorphism θ ∘ π where π : A → A/pA is the natural homomorphism.
 Also, β is defined by sending any homomorphism θ : A → B to the
homomorphism which maps any pa to pθ(a).
Clearly, the composite map β ∘ α is the zero map. In other words, Image α
≤ kerβ. We claim that they are actually equal. Indeed, let θ ∈ kerβ. en,
pθ(a) = 0 in B for all a ∈ A. consider the homomorphism ɣ : A/pA → B
defined as a + pA ↦ θ(a). By the above property of θ, this is a well-defined
homomorphism and clearly, α(ɣ) = θ. erefore, we have proved that Image
α = kerβ.
Hence, the isomorphism Hom(A,B)/ker(β) ≅ Image(β) implies that

and, therefore, divides

As the order of a homomorphic image of a group divides the order of the

group, the above number divides

If a, b denote, respectively, the number of cyclic summands of A and B, then

and

SOLUTION 67
(i) e identity is easily verified and the conclusion about groups of
exponent 3 is obvious from it.
(ii) We first note that from the statement that groups of exponent 3 are
nilpotent, it follows from Problem 59 that if the group is also finitely
generated, it must be finite. erefore, we proceed to prove the first
assertion.
For convenience, for any x ∈ G, let us write Cx for the set consisting of all
products of conjugates of x and x-1. Note from (i) that any two elements of
Cx commute. Moreover, C x is stable under conjugation by any element.
Finally, observe that for any x1,…,xn ∈ G, we have [x1,…,xn] ∈ C(xi) for all i
≤ n. In particular, for any g ∈ C(xi) for some i, we have

We shall now consider the elements of the form [x, y, z]; these evidently
generate C3(G) in any group. e idea is to prove that these are contained in
the centre; that is, we shall show that

[x,y,z,w] = 1 ∀ x, y, z, w.

First, look at any [x, y, z]; we know that

[x,yz] = [x,y][x,z]y

(in any group) by problem 36. Similarly,

[xy,z] = [y,z]x[x,z].
 erefore

Since [x,z] (and therefore [x, z]y) are in C(z), the above expression
becomes

[x,yz,z] = [x,y,z] (1)

Similarly,

Since [x,y] ∈ C(y), as we observed in the beginning of the proof,

that is,

[x,yz,y] = [x,z,y] (2)

Now, for each x, y, z,

by (1) and (2). But, notice that [x,y,z] ∈ C(y). Hence

1 = [x,z,y] [x,y,z] (3)

But, by the first observation.

From this and (3), we have

[x,y,z] = [z,x,y].

Changing the roles of x, y, z, we have

[x,y,z] = [z,x,y] = [y,z,x] (4)

Let us use this repeatedly to look at [x,y,z,w].

Let us note the final identity

[x,y,z,w] = [x,y,w,z]-1 (5)

erefore, using (5) and repeatedly using (4) as well as the basic identity
[u,v] = [v,u]-1, we have

erefore, C3(G) ≤ Z(G) and G is nilpotent. Note also that [[x,y],[z,w]] = 1

which means that [G, G] is abelian. is proves the assertion.

SOLUTION 68
(ii) We first deduce this from (i). We proceed by induction on the minimal
number n of generators needed. Trivially, if n = 1, then |G|≤4. Suppose n > 1
generators g1,…,gn generate a group G of exponent 4 and that the (n - 1)-
generated group H = < g1,…,gn-1 > is finite.
Consider .
From (i), we can conclude that K is finite and so G is finite.
(i) As x2 ∈ L, any element of M can be written as

with li ∈ L nontrivial for 1 < i < n.

We shall show that if n is minimal for such an expression, then n ≤ |H| + 2.
e idea is to get many expressions of length n for g and deduce that if |L|
is small compared to n, two such expressions coincide and give rise to a
cancellation within the expression and that this would yield for g an
expression of smaller length. For any l ∈ L, we have

1 = (xl)4 = xlxlxlxl

which implies

where .
us, we see that in the expression

we may replace any which leads to the expression

In other words, li-1 has got replaced by but the length remains n. We
could repeat this as follows.
 Change l2 to , then l3 to so that l2 has now got changed to
.
Following this with the change l4 to changes l2 to .
We can change until ln-1 to and so, inductively we see that l2 can be
changed to any one of

or

according as to whether n is odd or even and 2d or 2d + 1 can increase until

n.
Note that each expression has n elements from L and that as varies from d
= 2 onwards, these are n - 2 elements of L in number. If n - 2 >|L|, two of
these expressions are equal.
If

with d' > d, then we may cancel off common terms from both sides and
conclude that a nontrivial expression of the form

to be the identity element.

But, since it is possible to get an expression for g of the same length n
where l2d+2 is changed to the above expression representing the trivial
element, it means that this part can be cancelled off and we can get an
expression of smaller length. is contradiction shows that n - 2 ≤ |L|.
erefore, |M| ≤ |L||L|+2.
SOLUTION 69
(i) Now, x–1T(x) = y–1T(y) for some x, y if and only if T fixes yx–1; that is,
when x = y. us, the map x ↦ x–1T(x) is 1 - 1. Being a map of finite sets,
this is onto as well.
(ii) From (i), an arbitrary element of g can be written as g = x–1T(x) so that
we get

gT(g)…T(g)p-1 = 1.

(vii) Taking p = 2, this gives T(g) = g–1 for all g. As T is an automorphism, G

is abelian.
(iii) Consider the subgroup Z of Aut (G) generated by T. is is a cyclic
group of order p acting on G. Each orbit has cardinality dividing p and, as T
fixes only the identity element, each orbit other than that of 1 has p
elements. So, |G| has 1 mod p number of elements.
(iv) Look at the action of Z on the set S of all q-Sylow subgroups of G. Again,
the orbits which are not fixed points under Z, have order p. So, if there is no
fixed point in S, then the number of elements in S would be a multiple of p.
But, we know that the number of elements in S (i.e. the number of qSylow
subgroups) is a divisor of |G|. us, p would divide |G|, a contradiction of
(iii).
(v) Note that if T(Q) = Q, then T(N) = N where N is the normaliser of Q in
G. Now, if T fixes another qSylow subgroup gQg–1, then rewriting T(gQg–1 =
gQg–1, we have g–1T(g) belongs to N. But, applying (i) to N itself, any
element of N is of the form x–1T(x) for some x in N. So, g–1T(g) = x–1T(x),
which gives g = x belongs to N. So, gQg–1 = Q.
(vi) Let R be any q-group in G which is fixed by T. Let S be a q-group which
contains R and is maximal with respect to this property (i.e., S is fixed by T,
contains R and is not contained in a strictly larger qgroup which is T-fixed).
We claim that R = Q. For this, first look at the normaliser N(S) of S in G.
Since (S) = S, we have also T(N(S)) = N(S), clearly by (v) applied to the
subgroup M of N(S) which is Tfixed. Now, S is a qsubgroup of N(S), say,
yMy–1 where y is in N(S). But then S = y–1Sy is contained in M. By
maximality property of S, we get S = M i.e., S is a q-Sylow subgroup of N(S).
But, any Sylow subgroup of a subgroup in any group is the intersection of
the subgroup with a Sylow subgroup of the big group. So, we have a qSylow
subgroup L of G such that S = N(S) intersection L. In other words, = NL(S),
the normaliser of S in L. But, in a qgroup (indeed, in any nilpotent group),
the normaliser of a proper subgroup contains the subgroup properly. So, we
have S = L. In other words, S is a q-Sylow subgroup of G itself. By
uniqueness of the Tfixed qSylow subgroup of G itself. us, we have shown
that R is contained in = P.
(viii) Now, we prove the result for p = 3.
Now x T(x)T2(x) = e for any x in G. So, T(x–1 x–1 = (x T(x))-1 = T2 (x) from
the above. Putting y = x–1, we get T(y)y = T2(y–1) = (T2 (y))-1. us, both
yT(y) and T(y)y are equal to (T2(y))-1. In other words, every element x in G
commutes with the element Tx. Similarly, x commutes with T2(x also.
Now, to prove the result, let us consider any prime q and the unique q-
Sylow subgroup Q of G which is Tfixed. Let g be any element of G which has
qpower order. Consider the subgroup Q' is generated by the three elements
g, T(g) and T2 (g). Clearly, Q' is Tfixed. Also, since g, T(g), T2(g) commute
among themselves, Q' is a q-group. erefore, by (vi), Q' is contained in Q.
us, Q contains all elements of G of q-power order. Hence, Q is the unique
q-Sylow subgroup of G. So, it is normal. is proves the result for p = 3.

SOLUTION 70
(i) We note first that σ : (a,b) ↦ (a2,b4)) is an automorphism of A. e
reason is that both a ↦ a2 and b ↦ b4 are isomorphisms on a group of order
7 as 7 is coprime to 2 as well as to 4. en, B ↦ Aut(A);xi ↦ σi is a 1-1
homomorphism as (a,b) ↦ (a2,b4) is of order 3.
(ii) is clear as B normalises A.
(iii) We see that

since b7 = 1.
For any two elements g = xiajbk and h = xuavbw of G, let us simplify gh =
xiajbkxuavbw for u = 0,1,2 and write it in the form in (ii).
by using (1). us, once again θ(gh) = θ(g)θ(h).
Finally, let u = 2 and consider θ(gh).

and

erefore, θ is a homomorphism which is clearly 1-1 since θ(g) = 1 if and

only if i = j = k = 0. Hence, θ is an automorphism because it is a 1-1 map on
a finite set to itself.
Also, θ2 (xiaj bk) = θ(x-ibja-k) = xi b-ka-j = xia-jb-k for any xi ajbk ∈ G. So,
clearly, θ4 is the identity map. erefore, θ has order dividing 4. Since θ2 (a)
= a–1 ≠ a, we have that θ2 cannot be the identity map. erefore, θ has order
4.
(iv) We shall show that G has trivial centre. If is in the centre, then
za = az gives .
erefore, x-iaxi = a which forces xi = 1 (we know that xax–1 = a2 ≠ a and
x2ax-2 = a4 ≠ a). So, z = ajbk. Now, xz = zx gives

Hence a3j = 1 = b15k; that is, aj = 1 = bk as 3, 15 are coprime to their order 7.

Hence z = 1. In other words, Z(G) = {1}, which shows that G is not nilpotent.

SOLUTION 71
Clearly, the first assertion implies the second since it shows that any
unimodular vector can be transformed to (1,0,…,0) by an element of SL (n,
Z). Let us prove the first assertion.
Start with any unimodular vector a := (a1,…,an) Consider the subgroup H
:= < a >≤ Zn, the group of row vectors. Let {v1,…,vn} be a basis of Zn and
{d1v1} be a basis of H as given by the invariant factor theorem. As < d1v1 > =
H = < a >, we have d1v1 = ±a.
is means that d1 divides each ai which implies by the unimodularity of
a that d1 = ±1. Changing the sign of v1 if necessary, we may suppose that d1
= 1.
If g ∈ GL(n,Z) corresponds to the change of ordered bases from the
standard basis {e1,…,en} to {v1,…,vn}, then ge1 = v1 = a; that is, the first
column of g is a.
If det g = -1, we just change the signs of entries in the second column of g
to get a matrix g1 in SL(n,Z) whose first column is a.
SOLUTION 72
If (a, b, c ) = 1, let P ∈ SL(3, Z) be a matrix whose first row is

SOLUTION 73
(i) If ρ : G → Sn is any transitive representation, then the subset H := {g → G :
チ (g)(1) = 1} is a subgroup of G, of index n. Conversely, if H ≤ G is a
subgroup of index n in G, the set G/H of le cosets has n elements and G
acts transitively on it. ere are (n-1)! ways to identify G/H with the set 1, 2,
, n} where the coset H is identified with 1. us, an = tn/(n-1)!.

(ii) For each 1 ≤ k ≤ n, there are ways to choose the orbit of 1, tk

transitive actions on it, and hn-k actions on its complement. is proves the
relation
Rewriting the relation in terms of the an, one has

(iii) is immediate from (ii).

(iv) If G is d-generated, then . Hence .
(v) Now, any subgroup H of Z2 is of the form gZ2 for some g ∈ M(2,Z). It is
of finite index if g ∈ GL(2, Q). Note that H = gZ2 = gxZ2 for any x ∈ GL(2,
Z). We claim that x can be chosen so that gx is of the form where a >
0,0 ≤ c < d. Now, if such that au + bv = (a,b). en,
and gx is of the form . By multiplying by
matrices like , we may assume that gx is of the form with
a1, d1 > 0. Now, multiplying on the right by a matrix of the form , we
get where we may assume that 0 ≤ c1 + d1l < d1. erefore, we
have shown that any subgroup H of finite index is of the form gZ2 where
, with a, d > 0 and 0 ≤ c < d. Clearly, the index of H is
ad. We claim finally that gZ2 = hZ2 for another matrix ,
with a1, d1 > 0 and 0 ≤ c1 < d1 if and only if g = h. To see this, suppose g–1 h
∈ GL(2, Z). is gives a1 = a, d1 = d and d|(c1 - c). As 0 ≤ c1, c < d, we get c1
= c as well. erefore, the number of subgroups of index n is the number of
matrices of the form , with d|n and 0 ≤ c < d. us, for each divisor
d|n, there are exactly d subgroups of index. erefore, .
(vi) We claim that hn(Z2) = n!p(n). e reason is as follows. x can be
arbitrarily chosen in Sn, and y chosen in its centraliser CSn)(x), so that
. is yields us the
identity
SOLUTION 74
If H ≤ Zr, [Zr : H] < ∞, then we have seen earlier (in Problem 53) that H =
gZr, for some g ∈ Mr(Z) ∩ GLr(Q). Moreover, .
erefore, detg |-s where C is the set . One
can take for C the set of lower triangular matrices where the entries aij are
nonnegative integers satisfying aij <aii for all i > j, and with aii ≥ 1. A simple
counting gives the expression in the problem.

SOLUTION 75
Note that .
If A is a finite abelian p-group and d(G) (the minimal number of generators
needed to generate A, then we have already seen (in Problem 58) that A/Ap
is an elementary abelian group of order pd(A). If d(A) = r, then one can write
A = G/H where G ≅ Zr. But, clearly . erefore, A ≤ Gp.
us, finite abelian groups A with d(A) = r correspond to subgroups H of G
with G/H a p-group and H ≤ Gp. Hence, the number of these H ≤ Gp which
have index pr+k in G is the number of subgroups of index pk in Gp. Since Gp
≅ G, this last number is just apk as in the problem above. Let us write
. Decomposing finite abelian groups into prime-power order
groups, it follows that has an Euler product expansion and fp(s) is its p-
part, i.e., . Using the computation of the zeta function in the
theorem,

Now, one can count this in another way. We claim that given an abelian p-
group A with d(A) = r, the number of subgroups H ≤ G with G/H ≅ A is
given by the number . Here Epi (G,A) denotes the set of
epimorphisms and thus, Epi (G,A)| is the number of ordered rtuples which
generate A. To verify the above assertion, look at the mapping which
associates to each epimorphism α : G → A, its kernel H. Suppose α, β have
the same kernel H. en, evidently, they define isomorphisms from G/H
onto A. us, one has an automorphism θ : A → A where . Note
that β = θ ∘ α. Conversely, for any automorphism θ ∈ Aut(A), and any
epimorphism α : G → A, the epimorphism β = θ ∘ α has the same kernel.
is proves the claim made above.
As mentioned above, an rtuple generates A if, and only if, it generates it
modulo Ap. As A/Ap is elementary abelian of order pr, the number of r-
tuples generating it is (pr - 1)(pr - p)…(pr - pr-1). If |A| = pr+k, then |Ap| = pk
and so, the number of r tuples in A generating it is (pk)r(pr - 1)(pr - p)…(pr -
pr-1). erefore, we have

where the sum is over all abelian A of order pr+k with d(A) = r.
Sum over all k, to get

where the sum on the right is over all abelian p-groups A with d(A) = r.
erefore, we have

Now, Euler's identity above shows that the right side is just . is
completes the solution.

SOLUTION 76
If G is an abelian group of order mn where (m,n) = 1, then consider the
various Sylow subgroups of G. If Pi (with i ≤ r are Sylow subgroups
corresponding to the primes dividing m and Qj (with j ≤ s are Sylow
subgroups corresponding to the primes dividing n, let us consider H = P1…
Pr and K = Q1…Qs. Clearly, H, K ≤ G have orders m, n respectively. Since H
∩ K = {1} and HK = G, we have G ≅ H × K. Conversely, if A, B are abelian
groups of coprime orders m, n, then G := A × B is an abelian group of order
mn in which the corresponding H and K can be identified with the
subgroups A × {1} and {1}× B respectively. erefore, a(mn) = a(m)a(n) for
(m,n) = 1.
Now,

e product above is over all primes. is is further equal to

where pk(n) denotes the number of partitions of n in which each part is at

most k.
us, the limit is

Also,

where p(r) denotes the number of partitions of r and we take p(0) = 1 for
convenience.
 is proves the result.

SOLUTION 77
(i) Evidently, the derived series is a series as asserted and, so any solvable
group has such a series.
Conversely, suppose G admits a finite series as above. We prove by
induction that Dr(G) ≤ Gr for all r. at would prove Dn(G) = {1}. e
assertion holds for r = 0. Supposing Dr(G) ≤ Gr, we have

as Gr/Gr+1 is abelian. is proves (i).

(ii) & (iii) Suppose G is solvable. Start with a series for G as in (i). e
subgroups Hr = GrN/N form a series for G/N as in (i), and since Hn = {1}, it
follows that G/N is solvable. Of course, any subgroup K of G must be
solvable as the terms of its derived series are contained in the corresponding
term of the derived series for G.
Conversely, suppose N ⊴ G and G/N are solvable. Let

and

be series for N and G/N as in (i). But then

is a series for G as in (i). us, G is solvable.

SOLUTION 78
(iii) A5 is not solvable but all its proper subgroups are.
(i) Let, if possible, G be a minimal counterexample. In other words, G is not
solvable while all its proper subgroups are abelian and there are no groups of
smaller order with this property. en |G| > 1 obviously. If M ≠ N are
maximal proper subgroups, then the subgroup < M, N > = G. So, if M ∩ N ≠
{1}, then any common element commutes with both M and N, i.e., is
contained in Z(G). But, then G/(M ∩ N) would be a smaller counter-
example. erefore, we suppose that M ∩ N = e for all maximal, proper
subgroups M ≠ N. We claim that there is a maximal subgroup M which is
normal in G.
Suppose NG(M) ≠ G, i.e., NG(M) = M for all maximal proper subgroups
M. Writing |G| = l and |M| = m, we have that the number of conjugate
subgroups gMg–1 is [G : NG(M)] = l/m. As any two of them intersect trivially,
we get that the union of the conjugate subgroups xMx–1 has cardinality (m -
1)l/m + 1 < l. us, there are elements of G not in any xMx–1 and there is a
maximal proper subgroup of G different from any xMx–1. If N is any such
maximal subgroup (of order n say), then the various conjugate subgroups
gNg–1 being maximal subgroups, intersect the conjugates of M trivially. In
other words, the number of elements in the union of all the conjugate
subgroups of M and of N are (m - 1)l/m + (n - 1)l/n + 1 = 2l - l/m - l/n + 1 >
l as m, n ≥ 2. is contradiction proves that there is indeed some maximal
proper subgroup M which is normal. But then G/M is a smaller counter-
example contradicting the minimality of G. erefore, there are no counter-
examples and the proof is complete.
(ii) Again, let G be a minimal counter-example. Evidently |G| 1. If G has a
nontrivial proper nontrivial normal subgroup N, then G/N and N would
both be solvable by minimality. erefore, G would be solvable, a
contradiction of the assumption. So, we suppose that G is simple. G is
nonabelian by the assumption. By the above counting argument, any two
distinct maximal subgroups must intersect. If M, N are two different
maximal subgroups, then they are nilpotent and, so is M ∩ N ≠ {1}.
erefore, M ∩ N has a nontrivial centre. However, G = < M, N > , which
implies that Z(M ∩ N) is a nontrivial normal (even central) subgroup of G.
is is a contradiction. Hence there are no counter-examples.

SOLUTION 79
Recall from problem 73 that if hn denotes the number of homomorphisms
from a finitely generated group G into Sn and if an is the number of
subgroups of index n in G, then

an + b1an-1 + … + bn-1a1 = nbn,

where br := hr/r!.
It is also convenient to take b0 := 1 and rewrite this in terms of the
generating functions as :

(is formulation is known as Dey's formula).

Now, hn(Z/2*Z/2) = hn(Z/2)2 since hn (H * K) = hn(H)hn(K) for any H, K.
Now, it is easy to see by induction on n that

for any prime p.

So, for p = 2, we get

which can be rewritten in terms of as

ncn = cn-1 + cn-2 (2)

Now,

e recursion (2) for the cn's gives

On the other hand,

cn + cn-1 = (n+1)cn+1

implies, by squaring, an expression for cncn-1. Eliminating cncn-1 from the

two equations (and recalling that ,
we get

is yields for the generating function that

e above generating functions in (1) show clearly that an = n or n + 1

according as n is odd or even.

SOLUTION 80
Let H = Z(G) and consider the transfer of the identity map on H. Since

and since each term is in H, we have

As , we get

us, η : G → Z(G);g ↦ gn is a homomorphism. As Z(G) is abelian, [G,G] ≤

ker(η). Now, if , then [G,G] is generated by the elements [ti,tj].
Since [G,G]/([G,G]∩Z(G)) ≤ G/Z(G), [G,G]∩Z(G) is of finite index.
erefore, it is an abelian group which is finitely generated. As this is
contained in the kernel of η, we have that it is finite and satisfies (
[G,G]∩Z(G))n = {1}. Hence [G,G] is also finite and satisfies [G,G]n = {1}.

SOLUTION 81
We first assume that G is finitely generated. Let x1,…,xn be generators. en,
as the conjugacy classes G(xi) are finite, the centralisers CG(xi) are of finite
index in G for i ≤ n. Clearly, then is of finite index in G. We
saw above that [G,G] is finite.
Now, let G be a general group with the property that all conjugacy classes
are finite. Let x ∈ [G,G]. en, evidently since only finitely many elements of
G are involved in the expression for x, we have a finitely generated subgroup
F of G such that x ∈ [F,F]. As F also must have the property that all
conjugacy classes are finite, the subgroup [F, F] is finite as proved above.
erefore, the order of x is finite.

SOLUTION 82
As in the previous problem, we consider the transfer corresponding to the
identity map on H. As before, we have
and each term is in H.
Now, we claim that si and xli commute. Now, and, so commutes
with H. Hence, gli commutes with . is means that both H and
are p-Sylow subgroups of CG(gli). ey are, therefore, conjugate in CG(gli);
say . is gives . As H ≤ Z(NG(H)), we have that
commutes with H. Hence csi and, hence si itself, commutes with gli ∈ H. is
proves the claim above and shows that the transfer is simply the
homomorphism g ↦ gn where [G : H] = n. If m is chosen to satisfy mn ≡ 1
mod |H|, it follows that the homomorphism fixes H. en
N := kerτ satisfies the assertion.

SOLUTION 83
(i) For x, y ∈ G/P, the elements s(x)s(y) and s(xy) represent the same coset;
therefore,

s(xy)-1s(x)s(y) = f(x, y) ∈ P.

Also, associativity implies

and

e right-hand sides give us the cocycle identity.

(ii) Note that h(x) is well-defined as P is abelian and the orders of the terms
does not matter. In the cocycle identity, if we vary x ∈ G/P and multiply all
the m expressions, we get
Raising this to the ath power and observing that all terms commute, we get
(since |P| = n

at is,

is can be rewritten as

is proves that the set N of all the elements h(x)as(x)-1 forms a group H.
Moreover, the map x ↦ h(x)as(x)-1 from G/P to H is an isomorphism
because if x is in the kernel, then s(x) = h(x)a ∈ P which means that the coset
x corresponding to s(x) is the identity coset. us, H ≅ G/P. Also H ∩ P is
trivial as P, H have coprime orders. us, PH is a group with P ∩ H = {1}
and PH has mn = |G| elements thereby proving that G = PH.
(iii) is immediate from (ii) since elements of P and N commute.

SOLUTION 84
Note first that the last statement follows from the first since the subgroup L
∩ N must be trivial (as its order divides two coprime numbers) and |L||N| =
|G|. us, let us prove the first statement.
Write n = |N| and m = |G/N|. We shall apply induction on |G|. At some
point, we shall reduce the assertion to the previous result where the normal
subgroup is abelian. e assertion is evident if n = 1. Suppose n > 1 and that
the assertion holds for all groups G' of order < |G| with a normal subgroup
N' such that |G'/N'| is coprime to |N'|. Let p be any prime divisor of n. Now,
any p-Sylow subgroup P of N is a p-Sylow subgroup of G as |N| is coprime to
|G/N|. In fact, we claim that the p-Sylow subgroups of G are already
contained in N. To see this, look at NG (P). As N ⊲ G, all the G-conjugates of
P are contained in N. erefore, the numbers of p-Sylow subgroups in G and
in N are equal. In other words,

[G : NG(P)] = [N : N ∩ NG (P)].

Writing the le-hand side as

[G : N][N : N ∩ NG (P)] = [G : NG (P)][NG (P): N ∩ NG (P)]

we obtain [G : N] = [NG (P) : N ∩ NG (P)] = m.

As , we have that NG (P))/P has order less than
|G| and applying the induction hypothesis to it for the normal subgroup N ∩
NG (P))/P, we conclude that NG (P) has a subgroup H containing P such that
|H/P| is of order m = [NG ( P): N ∩ NG (P)]. Look at the centre Z(P) of P. As
it is a characteristic subgroup of P ⊲ NG (P), it follows that Z(P)⊲ NG (P).
Note that Z(P) ⊂ H; so Z(P) ⊲ H. As , one can apply the
induction hypothesis to the group H/Z(P) and obtain in it a subgroup
K/Z(P) of order m. Finally, if we consider the group K and its abelian normal
subgroup Z(P), the previous result applies to yield a subgroup L ≤ K of order
m. us, the proof is complete.

SOLUTION 85
Consider H = < S >, the subgroup of G generated by S. is is finitely
generated. Note that S = S–1. Also, if h = s1. . .sn ∈ H, then the centraliser CG
(h) contains the subgroup CG (s1)∩. . .∩CG(sn) which is of finite index in G
as each CG(si) is (the last statement is because each conjugacy class G(si) –
being a subset of S – is finite). Now, the centre Z(H) of H is the intersection
of all CH(s), s ∈ S. So, Z(H) has finite index in H and so, [H,H] is finite
(indeed, it has been shown in an earlier problem that if Z(H) has index n,
then < [H,H ]n > is trivial). Further, the group H/[H,H] is a finitely
generated abelian group, generated by torsion elements. Hence it is finite.
us, H itself is finite. So, if a, b ∈ S, the element ab ∈ H has finite order and
so, ab ∈ S. Hence S = H.

SOLUTION 86
Let G = < x1,. . ., xn >. Suppose d is the LCM of the orders of x1,. . ., xn. en,
xd = 1 for all conjugates of all the xi's. Each element of G is a word in the xi's.
e trick here is to also include the finitely many conjugates of the xi's in G
and regard this appended set y1, ... ,ym as a set of generators for G. e idea
is that the minimal length of any element of G in terms of the yi's will be
bounded in terms of m and d.
We claim that any element has an expression in the yi's of length ≤ m(d –
1).
Start with any x = g1 . . . gr where each gi is some yj. Now, if each yi occurs
less than d times, then r < m(d – 1). Hence, we suppose r > m(d – 1) and
conclude that some yi occurs at least d times in the expression above.
If gj is the first term in the expression which equals yi, we consider hk = yi-
1 g y for all k < j. en, we have
k i

x = yi h1 h2. . .hj–1 gj+1. . .gr.

Using this repeatedly, we can bring d of the yi's one by one to the le. Each
time, the expression has the same length r as before. erefore, at the dth
step, since yid=1, we have an expression for x which has length r-1.
erefore, if we had an expression of minimal length in the yi's to start with,
it must be that all the yi's occur less than d times. Hence, we have proved the
claim. is shows, in fact, that |G| ≤ mm(d–1).
SOLUTION 87
Before starting, let us recall the basic notation that in any group [x, y]
denotes xyx–1 y–1 and xy denotes yxy–1. Also, recall from Problem 36 that in
a group A with [A,A] ≤ Z(A), we have, for every n,

(xy)n = xn yn [y,x] n(n–1)/2.

Let us start the proof now.

(i) Since X =< x >, Y =< y > are normal subgroups, the commutator c = [x,y]
∈ X ∩ Y. So, c = xa = yb for some a, b. Hence c commutes with both x and y.
Note also that c ≠ 1 implies a, b ≠ 0, ±1.
Hence c ∈ Z(H) where H =< x, y >. Moreover,

xyx–1 = cy ⇒ xlyx–l = cly, xlym x–l = clmym.

erefore, [H,H] =< c > ≤ Z(H). is means that H is a nilpotent group.
Moreover, since ca = [x,y]a = [xa,y] = [yb,y] = 1, we have that c is of finite
order. Also, then x, y have finite order as c = xa = yb. By Problem 59 (ii), H
must be finite as well.
(ii) If x, y do not commute, then as above c = xa = yb. But, if x, y have
coprime orders, the orders of xa and yb are coprime as well. is means that
c = 1, which is a contradiction.
(iii) Let x, y be noncommuting elements for which O(x)+O(y) is minimal.
Let p be any prime dividing O(x). en, O(xp) < O(x) which means that xp
and y must commute by the minimal choice of x, y. But, if c = [x,y], we know
that c commutes with x, y and so cp = [x, y]p = [xp,y] = 1. is means that O
(c) = p.
Analogously, for an arbitrary prime q dividing O(y), we have O(c) = q.
us, it follows that O(x), O(y) are powers of a prime p and O(c) = p.
 Now, c = xupr = yvps for some r, s > 1 and u, v coprime to p. Writing x1 = xu
and y1 = yv, we have O(x1) = O(x) and O(y1) = O(y) since these are powers of
p.
Note [x1,y1] = [x, y]uv = cuv has order p.
Also, O (x) = O(x1) = pr+1 and O(y) = O(y1) = ps+1 from the fact that O(c)
= p.
To fix notation, suppose r ≥ s without loss of generality.
Consider . en, by the commutator identity in Problem 36
recalled above,

e exponent of c above is a multiple of p if p is odd. If p = 2, the exponent is

again a multiple of 2 unless r = s = 1.
Since O(c) = p, we have that y2ps = 1 unless p = 2 and r = s = 1.
But, [x,y2] = [x,y1]–1 = ([x, y]–1 )v = (c–1)v ≠ 1.
erefore, x, y2 do not commute and we must have O(y2) ≥ O(y) by the
choice of x, y. Hence O(y2) ≥ O(y) = ps+1 which gives y2ps ≠ 1. erefore, we
must have p = 2 and r = s = 1. at is, O(x) = O(x1) = pr+1 = 4 = O(y1) =
O(y). Also, c = x12 = y12.
Note that [x1,y1] ≠ 1 means that x1 y1 x1–1, which must be in the group <
y1 >of order 4. So, x1y1x1–1, must be y1–1 as it has the same order as y1. In
other words, < x1, y1 > is isomorphic to the quaternion group of order 8.
Finally, < x, y > is a homomorphic image of < x1, y1 > since x1 = xu and y1
= yv with u, v odd. As < x, y > is nonabelian, it must be isomorphic to the
quaternion group of order 8.
(iv) Write C = CG (Q) and suppose that g ∈ G\CQ. en g does not commute
with at least one of x and y. Let us say yg ≠ y. Since |y| = 4, we must have yg =
y–1; therefore gx commutes with y. us gx cannot commute with x; for
otherwise gx ∈ C. e same argument shows that gxy commutes with x: but
clearly gxy also commutes with y; so gxy ∈ C and g ∈ CQ. It follows that G =
CQ. If g ∈ C, then [x,gy] = [x,y] ≤ 1 and by (i), gy has finite order. erefore,
g has finite order and G is a torsion group. Now, we show that the elements
of C of order a power of 2 form an elementary abelian 2-group.
Suppose that g ∈ C has order 4. en [x,gy] ≠ 1 and (gy)4 = 1, which
implies that (gy)x = (gy)–1. us [gy,x] = (gy)–2 = g–2 y–2. But [gy,x] = [y,x] =
y–2; so g2 = 1, which is a contradiction. We have shown that C has no
elements of order 4; that is, the order of any element of 2-power order, is 2.
Hence, the elements of C of 2-power order form an elementary abelian 2-
group E. Also, as we have already shown, the elements of odd order
commute among themselves and elements of coprime orders commute.
us, C = E × where is the set of elements of odd order in C.
Hence G = CQ = (QE) × O. Since E is elementary abelian, we can write E =
(Q ∩ E) × E1 for some subgroup E1. us G = (QE)× = Q × E1 × .

SOLUTION 88
Suppose H ≤ G is minimal with respect to the property that θ(H) = M. We
first observe that H ∩ kerθ ≤ Φ(H). Suppose this is not so, and let M0 be a
maximal subgroup of H not containing H ∩kerθ. en, H =M0(H ∩ kerθ) by
the maximality of M0 in H. But then θ(M0) = θ(H) = M, which contradicts
the choice of H as a minimal subgroup of G with this property. erefore,
indeed H ∩ kerθ ≤ Φ(H).
Now, suppose that p is a prime dividing |H| but not dividing O(M), if
possible. If P is any p-Sylow subgroup of H, then P ≤ H ∩ kerθ which means
that P ≤ Φ(H), which is a nilpotent group. erefore, P is the unique p-
Sylow subgroup of H; thus, it is normal in H. By the Schur–Zassenhaus
theorem, there is a subgroup K of H such that KP = H and K ∩ P = {1}. But
then θ(K) = M, which is a contradiction of the minimal choice of H.

SOLUTION 89
(i) We need to show that the images of xy and g in the abelian group
G/[G,G] are equal. Write an+b|G| = 1. en, in the abelian group G/[G,G],
we have

xy = (xy)an+b|G| = (xy)an = ((xy)n)a

= (xn yn )a = (gn )a = gan = gan+|G| = g.

(ii) Let z be the product of all elements of G in some order. As before, let us
compute in the abelian group G/[G,G] and keep in mind that the order in
which elements are multiplied is irrelevant. Each element cancels with its
inverse and there are no nontrivial elements cancelling off since G and, a
fortiori, G/[G,G] has odd order. us, z is trivial in G/[G,G].
(iii) Let S be a 2-Sylow subgroup containing j. Note that j is the only element
of order 2 (also called an involution) in S as S is cyclic. Similarly, each 2-
Sylow subgroup (being cyclic) contains a unique involution and the
conjugacy of 2-Sylow subgroups gives us the conjugacy of all involutions of
G. Hence, the set I of all involutions of G has cardinality [G : CG (j)]. As S ≤
CG (j), the index n: = [G : CG (j)] is a divisor of [G : S] and, is odd. Now, if g
is the product of all elements of G in some order, then g[G,G] is an element
of the abelian group Gab = G/[G,G], which does not depend on the order of
the factors defining g.
Now,
where J : = {x ∈ G : O(x) ≠ 2}. Since x ∈ J ⇒ x–1 ≠ x ∈ J, it follows that

Further, since j has n conjugates and

yjy–1 [G,G] = j[G,G]. Hence,

as n is odd.
Finally, we show that j ∉ [G,G]; this will imply that 1 ∉ j[G,G] and that [G,G]
≠ j[G,G]. We know from an earlier exercise that there is a normal subgroup
N of G such that G = NS and N ∩ S = {1}. As G/N ≅ S is abelian, [G,G] ≤ N.
is shows that j ∉ [G,G] since j ∈ S and N ∩ S = {1}.

SOLUTION 90
(i) If x1,. . ., xr ∈ N generate N and y1N,. . . , ysN generate G/N, then clearly
x1,. . . , xr, y1,. . ., ys generate G. Indeed, if g ∈ G, then
which means that for some words w, w0.
us, g is a word in the xi's and the yj's and their inverses.
(ii) Let H ≤ G be of finite index and write G = ⊔ni = 1 H gi where g1 = 1.
en, for each g ∈ G, there is a corresponding permutation i ↦ (i)g of {1, 2, ,
n} such that Hgig = Hg(i)g. Here, we have denoted by (i)g the action of g on i;
this is convenient because we have adopted the convention of applying g first
in a product gg1.
Now, we have gig = h(i,g)g(i)g for some h(i,g) ∈ H. Let X be a finite set of
generators for G. We claim that the elements h(i,x), x ∈ X ∪ X–1 generate H.
Let h ∈ H. Write h = x1. . .xr with xi ∈ X ∪ X–1. Now,
h = g1h = g1 x1. . .xr = h(1,x1)g (1)x1 x2 . . .xr
= h(1,x1)h((1)x1,x2)g (1)x1x2 x3. . .,xr
= h(1,x1)h((1)x1,x2). . .h((1)x1. . .xr–1,xr)g (1)x1. . .xr

= h(1,x1)h((1)x1,x2). . .h((1)x1. . .xr–1,xr)g (1)h.

Note that h = g1h ∈ Hg(1)h implies that Hg (1)h = H; that is, g (1)h = g1 = 1. is
proves the assertion that H is finitely generated.
To deduce the assertion that any finite group G is finitely presentable, we
write a surjective homomorphism θ : F → G from a free group F of finite
rank. Since F is finitely generated and ker θ is of finite index |G| in F, what
we proved shows that ker θ is finitely generated as well. us, if R is a finite
set of generators for ker θ and X a finite basis of F, then G = < X|R >.
(iii) Let G be a group defined by the presentation stated. If πi = (i i+1) ∈ Sn,
then clearly the πi's generate Sn and satisfy the relations stated. erefore,
there is a surjective homomorphism from G onto Sn. So, |G| ≥ n!. So, it
suffices to show that |G|≤ n! for this would show that the above
homomorphism has to be an isomorphism. We shall show that |G| ≤ n! by
induction on n > 1. is is clear for n = 2. Assume n > 2 and that the
subgroup H of G generated by x1,. . ., xn-2 has order ≤ (n-1)!. We shall show
that [G:H] ≤ n.
Consider the right cosets H, Hxn-1, Hxn-1 xn-2,. . ., Hxn-1 . . . x1. We claim
that right multiplication by any xl permutes these right cosets. is would
imply that for any word w in the xi's is in one of these cosets and since any
element of G is a word in the xi's, we would have [G:H] ≤ n.
Let us consider (H xn–1 xn–2. . .xk)xl for different k, l.
If k ≥ l +2, then xk xl = (xk xl )-1 = xl xk and, we know that all the x's in the
bracket commute with xl. erefore, if ≥ l +2, we get

(Hxn-1 xn-2. . .xk)xl = Hxl xn-l xn-2. . .xk = Hxn-l xn-2 xk

since xl ∈ H for all l ≤ n-2.

 If k < l, then since xl commutes with all the xm for |m-l|>1, we can move xl
to the le and get

(Hxn-1 xn-2 ...xk)xl = Hxn-1 xn-2. . .xl xl-1 xl xl-2 . . .xk.

Now, we rewrite the relation (xl xl-1 )3 = 1 to get xl xl-1 xl = xl-1 xl xl-1 since all
xi's have order 2. Using this, the above equality reduces to

(Hxn-1 xn-2 . . .xk)xl = Hxn-1 xn-2. . .xl+1 xl xl-1 xl xl-2 . . .xk

= Hxn-l xn-2. . .xl+1xl-1 xl xl-1 xl-2. . .xk

= Hxl-lxn-l xn-2. . .xl+1 xl. . .xk

= Hxn-1 xn-2. . . . . .xk
as xl-1 ∈ H for l ≤ n-1.
Now, we are le with the cases k = l and = l +1.
In the first case,
(Hxn-1xn-2 . . .xk) xk = Hxn-l xn-2 xk+1.
In the second case,

(Hxn-1 xn-2 . . .xk)xk-1 = Hxn-l xn-2 xk xk-1.

erefore, the proof that [G:H] ≤ n is complete.

SOLUTION 91
(i) We need to show that any nontrivial reduced word in X, Y does not give
the identity matrix.
We shall show by induction that any matrix of the form

Xa1 Yb1 . . .Xar Ybr

with ai, bi nonzero integers, has (1, 1)th entry and (2, 1)th
entry q(e), where p(e), q(e) are (possibly constant) polynomials in e with
integer coefficients and degrees strictly less than r.
As e does not satisfy any nonzero integer polynomial, the above inductive
assertion can easily be seen to prove that nontrivial reduced words in X and
Y do not give the identity matrix. Indeed, if a word of the form

YbO Xa1 Yb1 . . .Xar Ybr

with r > 0 , is I, then

Xa1 ) Yb1 . . .Xar Ybr = Y-bO

which is impossible since the le side does not have 1 at the (1, 1)th place.
Similarly, the other words are also dealt with. Now, let us prove the inductive
assertion.
Clearly, which shows the assertion holds for r = 1.
Suppose n > 1 and that

Xa1 Yb1 . . .Xan Ybn

has (1, 1)th entry and (2, 1)th entry q(e) where p(e), q(e) are
(possibly constant) polynomials in e with integer coefficients and degrees
strictly less than n. en,

where p1, q1 are integral polynomials in e with degrees less than n+1. is
proves the inductive assertion.
(ii) e proof is the same as for free abelian groups in Problem 51; here, we
look at the set S(m) := Hom(Fm, /2) of all homomorphisms from Fm to
/2. Once again, it has cardinality 2m since each basis element can be sent to
either element of /2 and define different homomorphisms. Similarly, S(n)
has cardinality 2n. Fixing an isomorphism θ : Fm → Fn, it is clear that the map

αnm :S(n) → S(m); ϕ ↦ ϕ 0 θ

is a bijection. us 2m = 2n and hence m = n.

(iii) Clearly, each element of the subgroup H is uniquely expressible as a
reduced word in the elements ynxy-n;n ∈ . us, H is not finitely generated.
(iv) Write Fn = < x1,. . ., xn| θ > , and notice that [Fn,Fn] = < [xi,xj ]; i ≠ j > N.
us,

SOLUTION 92
Now, one can write the presentation < x, y, z|[x,z], [y,z] > for G. One can
identify H with the subgroup of G generated by x and y and K with the
subgroup of G generated by x and yz. As z commutes with x, y in G, a word
w in x, y, z is in the intersection of the subgroups H and K if and only if the
sum of the exponents of z in w is zero. However, note that for any word in K,
the sum of the exponents of y and of z are equal. Hence H ∩ K is the
subgroup of G generated by all ynxy–n;n ∈ Z. is was seen in the last
problem to be infinitely generated.

SOLUTION 93
(i) Let θ : F(X) → G with kerθ = < R >N.
Consider α = π ∘ θ : F(X) → Gab where π : G → Gab is the natural map.
Note that R ∪ {[x,y];x,y ∈ X} ⊂ kerα.
If f ∈ kerα, then θ(f) ∈ kerπ = [G,G] = < ([x,y]);x, y ∈ X > .
erefore, f–1w ∈ kerθ where w ∈< [x,y];x, y ∈ X >. Hence, f–1w is a product
of conjugates in F(X) of elements of R. erefore, f is a product of conjugates
of elements of R and elements of the form [x,y] as x, y ∈ X. is proves that
kerα = < R ∪ {[x,y];x,y ∈ X} >.
(ii) Let X = {x1,…,xr}, and R = {w1,…,ws}.
If the sum of the exponents of xj in the word wi is the integer aij, then a
presentation of Gab is

In other words

where A = (aij) is the As A is a rectangular matrix, this is infinite. In fact, if

d1,…,ds are the invariant factors of A, then is infinite since
r > s.

SOLUTION 94
(i) We shall prove, equivalently, that S and A := S–1 X–1 generate SL(2, Z).
Note that .

Now, start with any . We shall show that le and right
multiplications by powers of X and Y lead to ±I by the usual Euclidean
division algorithm.
For any integer l, we have . is shows us that one can
divide a by c and replace a by its residue mod c.
Similarly, one can see that by le multiplication by some Yl, one can reduce c
mod a. Repeating these finitely many times, the division algorithm implies
that one of a and c becomes zero; the other has to be ±1 as the determinant
is always 1.

and g2 = Xb or –X–b
Since –I = S2, the assertion follows.
(ii) Since S2 = –I also represents the identity element in PSL(2, Z), the image
s of S has order 2 in PSL(2, Z).
Also, the image b of in PSL(2, Z) has order 3 as (SX)3 = –
I.
We know that the elements s, b generate the whole group; so, we need only
show that no matrix

SBa1 SBa2…SBar )

with each ai either 1 or 2, can be the matrices I, –I.

Since SB = –X and SB2 = Y, it follows that any word in the positive powers of
SB and SB2 is a matrix in which a, b, c, d are of the same sign.
erefore, if b ≠ 0 , then the corresponding entry –b –d of SBg and b of SB2g
are non-zero as well. Similarly, if c ≠ 0, the corresponding entries of SBg and
SB2g are nonzero. Since SB and SB2 have the property that either the (1,2)th
entry or the 2, 1)th entry is nonzero, any word g in their positive powers has
this property; hence g can not be the identity matrix.
(iii) follows from (ii) by sending x to S and y to SX.
(iv) Now,

e invariant factors of the subgroup < 2e – 3f, 4e > above are the invariant
factors of the matrix . e latter is computed by computing
h1(A) = 1 = d1 and h2(A) = 12 = d1d2. Clearly, d1 = 1 and d2 = 12. erefore,
the abelianisation of SL(2, Z) is the cyclic group of order 12.

SOLUTION 95
Let

If a = 0, then we see that

Since

it follows that g ∈ < U+, U– > in this case.

On the other hand, if c = 0, then we see that

Since
it follows in this case also that g ∈ < U+, U– >.
Finally, if ac ≠ 0, then

Since this is of the forms considered earlier, < U+, U– > = SL(2,K).
Finally, to show that U+, U– are conjugate, write, for any t ∈ K,

Note that Y(–t) = wX(t)w–1 where

SOLUTION 96
(i) e fact that the above matrices generate SL(2,K[t]) easily follows by
using the division algorithm for K[t]. Let us carry it out.

erefore, when either a(t) = 0 or c(t) = 0, we are done.

Suppose a(t)c(t) ≠ 0. Let us write

a(t) = q(t)c(t) + r(t)

with either r(t) the zero polynomial or degr < deg c.

en,

If r(t) is not the zero polynomial, one can write

c(t) = q1(t)r(t) + r1(t)

with either r1(t) zero or of degree less than deg r(t).

But then

In this manner, we could keep dividing the (1, 1)th entry by the (2,1)th entry
and vice versa, accomplished by le multiplication by a matrix of one of the
above forms. Aer finitely many steps, we arrive at a matrix

where either a1(t) = 0 or c1(t) = 0.

We have dealt with both these cases above. us, we have proved the
assertion on matrices of certain special forms generating SL(2,K[t]).
(ii) By the previous problem, SL(2, K) is generated by U+ and its conjugate
subgroup U–. Hence, if we prove that U+ ≤ [SL(2,K),SL(2,K)], it will prove
that SL(2, K) is perfect.
As |K| > 2, there exists a ∈ K* with a2 ≠ 1. en,
proving that SL(2, K) is perfect.
Finally, we prove that SL(2,K[t]) is perfect.
For a ∈ K* with a2 ≠ 1, note that

Since

the matrices are commutators

too.

SOLUTION 97
(i) If G = ⊕Z/p is an elementary abelian p-group, then every group
automorphism is also Z/plinear. So, if |G| = pn, then Aut G ≅ GL(n,Z/p). To
show the identity above, let us note that

(pa – 1)(pa – p)…(pa – pa–1)

is just the order of the automorphism group of the elementary abelian p-

group of order pa. Let us denote this by θ(a).
Now, consider GL(a+b,Z/p). e subset of all those matrices whose top right
a × b blocks consist of zeroes, is a subgroup H. Its order is clearly pab times
the product of the orders of GL(a,Z/p) and GL (b,Z/p). us, the fact that
this order divides the order of GL(a+b,Z/p) gives us the identity.
(ii) Let p be any prime to start with. Let G be an elementary abelian p-group
of order pp–1. en, Aut G ≅ GL(p – 1,Z/p). If A ≤ AutG is the subgroup of
monomial matrices (that is, matrices with each row and each column having
exactly one non-zero entry), then |A| = (p – 1)p–1(p – 1)! which is coprime
to |G|. Now, if p is large enough, then

erefore, since log |G| = (p – 1) log p, we get

for large enough p.

SOLUTION 98
(i) Now, Int G is a normal subgroup of Aut G and is isomorphic to G since
Z(G) = {1}. We will show that any element θ ∈ AutG commuting with every
element of Int G must be trivial.
Recall that x(Int(g)) = g–1xg for all x, g.
If θ = Int(g)θInt(g)–1, then for any x ∈ G, we have

x(θ) = gθ(g–1xg)g–1.

So, y = x(θ) satisfies

y(Int(g)) = y(Int(θ(g)g–1)).

As y = x(θ) can be any element of G, we get that θ(g)g–1 ∈ Z(G) = {1}.

Since this holds for all g ∈ G, θ is the identity automorphism.
(ii) Consider the chain
 A0 := G ⊴ A1 := Aut(G) ⊴ A2 = Aut(A1) ⊴……

Now, by (i), we have that CAi+1(Ai) = {1} for i ≥ 0. We show that CAi(A0) =
{1} for all i. In fact, we show that CAi(Aj) = {1} for all i > j by induction on i –
j. By hypothesis, this assertion holds for i – j = 1.
Suppose i – j > 1 and consider CAi(Aj). By induction hypothesis,

CAi–1(Aj) = CAi(Aj+1) = {1}.

Now, as Aj+1 normalises Aj, it normalises also CAi(Aj). at is,

[Aj+1,CAi(Aj) ≤ CAi(Aj).

Also, as Aj+1 ≤ Ai–1, we have

Hence,

In other words,

Hence, we have shown by induction that

In particular, CAi(A0) = {1}. By Wielandt's theorem, since G = A0 is a

subnormal subgroup of each Ai, the orders of all the Ai's are bounded by |A0|
= |G|. Hence, the chain of automorphism groups stabilises.

SOLUTION 99
Before proceeding, note that induction is trivially started with the trivial
group.
(i) Suppose C = C(x) has cardinality > 1; then x ∉ Z(G). Also, then CG(x) ≠
G. We note that for any y = hxh–1 ∈ C, the number a(y,n) = a(x,n) because gn
= x ⇔ (hgh–1)n = y. erefore, a(C,n) = |C|a(x,n). Now, let us apply the
induction hypothesis to CG(x) and its corresponding conjugacy class of x,
which is simply {x}. Note that if g ∈ G with gn = x, then g ∈ CG (x) as g
commutes with gn. erefore, the induction hypothesis gives that a(x,n) is a
multiple of (n,|CG(x)|) = (n,|G|/|C|). us, we have that a(C,n) is a multiple
of (n|C|,|G|).
(ii) If D := {g ∈ G : gn1 ∈ C}, then {g ∈ G : gn ∈ C} = {g ∈ G : gn2 ∈ D}. As n1,
n2 > 1, we get by induction hypotheses that a(D, n2) ≡ 0 mod (n2|D|,|G|) and
|D| = a(C,n1) ≡ 0 mod (n1|C|,|G|). is clearly implies that a(C,n) ≡ 0 mod
(n|C|,|G|).
(iii) With n = pr > 1 and x ∈ Z(G) with p|O(x), we claim that if gn = x, then
O(g) = prO(x) and that |{gi : gin = x}| = n. e first of these assertions would
imply that prǁG| and, so (n,|G|) = n; the second one implies that n divides
a(x,n). So, let us prove the claimed assertions.
Now, the second one follows from the first because gin = x ⇔ xi–1 = 1; that
is, i ≡ 1 mod O(x). Now, if gi = gj for some i = 1+rO(x), j = 1+sO(x), then gi–j
= 1 so that i–j is a multiple of O(g) = nO(x). is means that r–s is a multiple
of n. Hence, the set of powers gi with gin = x consists of all gi with 0 ≤ i < n
and its cardinality is, therefore, n.
So, it suffices to prove the first assertion that O(g) = nO(x). Now,
O(g)|nO(x) since gnO(x) = xO(x) = 1. Write O(g) = psd where p d. Now,
As p|O(x), we must have s > r and O(x) = ps-rd. erefore, O(g) = prO(x)
which proves the assertion.
(iv) Let y ∈ Z; hence (n,O(y)) = 1. erefore, the map g ↦ gn from < y > to
itself is a homomorphism without kernel. Hence it is onto also. One can
write y = ymn for some m < O(y). Now,

{g : gn = y} = {g : gn = ymn}
= {g : (y–mg)n = 1} = ym{t : t ∈ G, tn = 1}.

erefore, a(y,n) = |{t : t ∈ G, tn = 1}|. In other words, this number is

independent of y ∈ Z.
(v) Finally, for each n, we write the group into a union of sets of elements g
for which gn belongs to its various conjugacy classes. Let, as before, Z = {y ∈
Z(G) : (O(y),n) = 1}. erefore,

Using induction on |G|+n and the steps (i) to (iv), we have that
(n|Ci|,|G|)|a(Ci,n) for each Ci ⊈ Z. Hence, from the above class equation, we
must have (n,|G|)|a(Z,n) as (n,|G|) divides the le hand side as well as each
term in the sum. But, we observed in (iv) that a(Z,n) = |Z|a(y,n) for each y ∈
Z. Hence, (n,|G|)||Z|a(y,n) for each y ∈ Z. Now, since each element of Z has
order coprime to n, Z forms a group because, if y, z ∈ Z, then yz ∈ Z(G) and
O(yz)|O(y)O(z). Moreover, Z has order coprime to n for, if not, there is a
prime p|n and an element y ∈ Z of order p by Cauchy's theorem. Hence, we
get (n,|G|)|a(y,n) for each y ∈ Z also. e proof is complete.

SOLUTION 100
We know from Frobenius's result above that in any finite group G, the
number of elements g satisfying gr = 1 is a multiple of (r,|G|). Let us use this.
 In any finite group G, we shall produce for each rǁG|, a set Sr of ϕ(r)
elements g satisfying gr = 1 and such that the various Sr are disjoint. If we do
this, then we can map the elements of Sr bijectively onto the set of elements
of order r in the cyclic group of order |G|. Since O(g) ≤ r for each g ∈ Sr, we
will get that aα(G) ≤ aα(C) if α ≤ 0 and aα(G) ≥ aα(C) if α ≥ 0 where C is the
cyclic group of order |G|.
To produce Sr, we work by induction on r. Firstly, choose S1 = {1}.
Suppose the sets Sd for all divisors d < r of |G| have been chosen. Now, the
above fact implies that the set {x ∈ G : xr = 1} has at least r elements. e sets
Sd;d|r, d < r have been chosen from this set and contribute
elements. us, there are ϕ(r) elements
from the set {x ∈ G : xr = 1} which are still le over and Sr can be chosen.
is completes the proof.

SOLUTION 101
If G is simple, we are through; so assume that there is a nontrivial normal
subgroup N of minimal possible order. Let us consider all possible
subgroups of G which are isomorphic to a group of the form N1 × … × Nr
where Ni ⊲ G and Ni ≅ N for some r ≥ 1. Let M be such a subgroup where r
is maximum possible. Now, since Ni are normal and their images generate
M, we have M ⊴ G. We claim that M is actually a characteristic subgroup of
G. To see this, start with any σ ∈ AutG. Evidently, σ(Ni) ⊲ G and σ(Ni) ≅ N.
erefore, if some σ(Ni) ⊈ M, then σ(Ni)∩M is a normal subgroup of G with
order less than that of σ(Ni) ≅ N. is forces σ(Ni)∩M = {1}. But then < M,
σ(Ni) > ≅ M × σ(Ni) is a group of the same form as M but with r + 1 factors.
is is a contradiction of the choice of M. us, we must have that σ(Ni) ≤
M for each i. erefore, σ(M) ≤ M and, so M is a characteristic subgroup of
G. As M is nontrivial, this gives by the hypothesis that M = G. Finally, N
must be simple because any normal subgroup of N is also normal in N1 × …
× Nr = G.

SOLUTION 102
(i) Let p be any prime dividing |G| and let pn be the highest power of p
dividing it. If p /| |G(x)|, then pnǁCG(x)|. If p| |G(x)|, then p |G(y)| and,
therefore, pn||CG(y)|. Hence G = CG(x)CG(y). Now, clearly G(xy) ⊆ G(x)G(y).
Conversely, let axa–1byb–1 ∈ G(x)G(y). en,

axa–1byb–1 = acxc–1 a–1 bdyd–1 b–1

for any c ∈ CG(x), d ∈ CG(y). Since G = CG(x)CG(y), we may write a–1b = cd–
1 for some c ∈ C (x), d ∈ C (y). But then c–1a–1bd = 1 and thus, axa–1byb–1
G G
= ac(xy)c–1a–1 ∈ G(xy).
(ii) If G is infinite and G(x), G(y) are finite, we have that CG(x, y) := CG(x) ∩
CG(y) is of finite index in G. So, we can choose a normal subgroup N of
finite index in G which is contained in CG(x, y). Working in the finite group
G/N, we have the same assertions.

SOLUTION 103
Let n ∈ N have m(N) conjugates and let gN ∈ G/N have m(G/N) conjugates.
en,

Also, if we denote G/N by and gN by , we have

us,
Taking x = g or gn, we get

SOLUTION 104
We use induction on |G|. Let P be a minimal normal subgroup. en, it is a
p-group for some prime p. Write |P| = q say.
First assume that p|m. en, evidently q|m. By the induction hypothesis,
G/P has a subgroup H/P of order m/q. en, of course, H has order m. Let K
be a subgroup of order d dividing m. en, KP is a subgroup of G of order
dividing qd. In particular, (|KP|,n) = 1. So, |KP|/P divides m/q. By the
induction hypothesis, there exists x ∈ G such that KP/P ≤ xP(H/P)(xP)–1 =
xHx–1/P. us, KP ≤ xHx–1 and both (ii) and (iii) follow.
Now, we suppose that p m. en p|n. By the induction hypothesis, G/P
contains a subgroup L/P of order m. en, of course, |L| = mq. Look at P as a
normal subgroup of L. Its order is coprime to its index m in L. us, by the
Schur-Zassenhaus theorem, L contains a subgroup M of order m. erefore
(i) is proved.
Now, if Q is a subgroup of G of order r dividing m, then QP/P ≅ Q is a
subgroup of order r in G/P. By induction hypothesis applied to G/P, there is
y ∈ G so that yP(QP/P) (yP)–1 ≤ L/P. us, yQy–1 ≤ L and has order r. But
yQy–1 is conjugate to a subgroup of a complement Mʹ of P in L. In other
words, Q is conjugate to a subgroup of Mʹ (which has order m. erefore,
(ii) and (iii) are also proved.

SOLUTION 105
Let {x1,…,xn} be a basis of F. Choose arbitrary 'lis' gi in G of the xi's; that is,
let π(gi) = xi. en, the mapping xi ↦ gi extends to a unique homomorphism
s : F ↦ G as F is free on the xi's. Consider the subgroup s(F) of G. Note that π
∘ s is the identity homomorphism from F to itself as it is identity on the xi's.
erefore, for g ∈ G, the elements g and s ∘ π(g) have the same images under
π. So, g = hn for some n ∈ kerπ and h ∈ s(F). erefore, G = s(F)kerπ. If g =
s(f) ∈ s(F) ∩ kerπ, then

1 = π(g) = π(s(f)) = f

which gives g = s(f) = 1.

SOLUTION 106
If G is a nontrivial group which has no nontrivial maximal subgroups, it is a
cyclic group of prime order. So, let us assume that G does have nontrivial
maximal subgroups. By hypothesis, if H is one such, then all nontrivial
maximal subgroups are of the form gHg–1. Trivially, each element of G which
is not a generator of G generates a proper subgroup and, must lie in some
maximal subgroup. Hence, if G is not cyclic, we would have G = ∪g∈GgHg–1.
is is easily seen to be impossible. Indeed, if we write , then for
each g ∈ G, there is some i for which g ∈ giH; so, , which
means . In other words, if , then .
However,

as the conjugates always have the common element identity. erefore, G

must indeed be cyclic. If p ≠ q are two distinct primes dividing |G|, then the
subgroups of orders |G|/p and |G|/q are both maximal subgroups which are
not conjugate. Hence |G| is the power of a single prime.

SOLUTION 107
Note that s2(g) ≠ 0 if, and only if, g = x2. erefore, we need to compute
.
 If x1,…,xn ∈ G are all the different 'square roots' of x2, then
. In other words, the sum we want to compute is simply
the number of pairs (not ordered) y, z in G such that y2 = z2.
Now, if y2 = z2, then y2z–1 = z; that is, y(yz–1)y–1 = zy–1. us, the element
yz–1 is conjugate to its inverse.
Calling w = yz–1, the various elements t for which twt–1 = w–1 are the
elements of the coset xCG(w).
erefore,

Here, we have written w ~ w–1 to denote that w is conjugate to w–1.

Now, for a conjugacy class G(w) with w ~ w–1, if G(w) = {w1,…,wn}, then
|CG(wi)| = |CG(w)| for all i. Hence,

where c is the number of conjugacy classes G(w) in G for which w ~ w–1.

is proves the assertion.

SOLUTION 108
Note that the binomial identity follows simply by putting x = N. So, let us
prove the polynomial identities. We shall apply induction on n.
ey are evident for n = 1. Assume that they are true for n ≥ 1 and let us
prove it for n + 1. Look at the first identity for n. We have

en,
Now,

Where

Note that each τ ∈ In+1 restricts to a unique σ ∈ Sn and c(σ) = c(τ) – 1.

Moreover, for each r < n+1, as τ runs over Ir, the elements σ := τ(n+1 r)
run over Sn. Note that c(σ) = c(τ). erefore,

us, we have proved the first identity. e second is exactly similar.

SOLUTION 109
(i) Our first aim is to count the number of subsets S of An which admit a
Gbijection with the set G/H of le cosets of H. In the language of
representation theory of finite groups, this amounts to counting the
multiplicity of the representation induced on G by the trivial representation
of H in the representation An of G. Let S ⊂ An be such a subset and let π :
G/H → S be a G-bijection. As G acts transitively on G/H (i.e., any two le
cosets are permuted by some element of G, this must hold for the subset S
also. is means that S is simply a G-orbit in An, say, S = G · (a1,…,an). We
may assume that π(H) = (a1,…,an) where H is the identity coset. Now, π(gH)
= g(a1,…,an) for all g ∈ G. Since π is well-defined, it follows that (a1,…,an) is
an H-invariant element. Furthermore, if g(a1,…,an) = (a1,…,an) for some g
∈ G, then gH = H i.e., g ∈ H. In other words, (a1,…,an) is exactly H-
invariant. Conversely, suppose that (a1,…,an) is exactly an H-invariant.
en, if we define

then θ is well-defined as (a1,…,an) is H-invariant and it is 1–1 since (a1,

…,an) is exactly H-invariant. Evidently, θ is onto. is proves (i).
(ii) We wish to count the number of these G-orbits. us, we have to
scrutinise the exactly H-invariant elements and decide when two such give
the same G-orbit. Suppose, (a1,–,an) and (b1,…,bn) = x(a1,…,an) are both
exactly H-invariant for some x ∈ G. Since gH ↦ g(b1,…,bn) = gx(a1,…,an) is
well-defined, we must have ghx(a1,…,an) = gx(a1,…,an) for all h ∈ H. In
other words, x–1hx fixes (a1,…,an) for any h ∈ H. As (a1,…,an) is exactly H-
invariant, one obtains x–1hx ∈ H ∀ h ∈ H, i.e., x–1Hx = x, i.e., x ∈ NG(H), the
normaliser of H in G. Of course, for x, y ∈ NG(H), we have x(a1,…,an) =
y(a1,…,an) if and only if y ∈ xH. Hence, the number of subsets of An which
admit a G-bijection with G/H is where e(H) denotes the number of
exactly H-invariant elements in An. In particular, the number is a
positive integer.
is could give us useful information if we can compute e(H) explicitly.
First, note that since each H-invariant element is exactly K-invariant for a
unique subgroup K containing H, one has , the total number
of H-invariant elements. Also i(G) = e(G). Now, it is easy to compute i(K) for
any subgroup K of G as follows. If the orbits of K in An correspond to the
sets of subscripts I1, I2,…,Ic(K), then and c(K) is the
number of K-orbits. Clearly, then (a1,…,an) ∈ An is K-invariant if and only if
for each j, all the ai's for i ∈ Ij are equal. us, i(K) = |A|c(K) = ac(K).
Now, the expressions for any H, yield, by the inclusion-
exclusion principle that e(H) = , where the Moebius function
μH is defined on subgroups containing H by μH(H) = 1 and
for any subgroup L ⊃ H. erefore, we have obtained that

Combining this with the observation above that the number is a

positive integer, we obtain:

e particular case when G ≅ Z/>pr and H = {1} gives us the identity

SOLUTION 110
Note first that if xyn = ynx for some n ≥ 1, then yn = xynx–1 = (xyx–1)n; so y =
xyx–1.
Now, let x, y ∈ G. Since Aut(G) is a torsion group, the element Int(y) has
finite order, say n ≥ 1. en, yn ∈ Z(G) and, therefore, xyn = ynx. By the
observation above, xy = yx. us, G is abelian.
If G is also finitely generated, then it must be free abelian since there are
no nontrivial torsion elements. Writing G ≅ Zr, we have Aut(G) ≅ GL(r,Z).
Clearly, this is a torsion group if, and only if, r = 1.

SOLUTION 111
Now, for any x ∈ G, we have x(θn) = x(Int(g)) = g–1xg. So, x(θn+1) = (g–1xg)
(θ) = g(θ)–1x(θ)g(θ).
In other words, for y = x(θ), we have
 y(Int(g)) = y(θn) = y(Int(g(θ))).

As x runs through G, so does y and, we get g–1g(θ) ∈ Z(G). Call this element
z.
So, we have g(θ) = gz. e subgroup H generated by Z(G) and g is abelian
and le stable by θ as Z(G) is a characteristic subgroup of G.
As θn is inner conjugation by g, we have g(θn) = g. at is, the element

gg(θ)g(θ2)…g(θn–1)

is fixed by θ. By hypothesis, this is an element of Z(G).

On the other hand,

gg(θ)g(θ2)…g(θn–1) = gnw

2
for some w ∈ Z(G). Hence, gn ∈ Z(G) as well. is just means that θn ) = Id.
Further, suppose θn itself is the identity. en, g ∈ Z(G).
Conversely, if g–1g(θ) = x–1x(θ) for some x ∈ Z(G), then xg–1 is fixed by θ.
is gives by hypothesis that xg–1 ∈ Z(G). erefore,

Id = Int(x) = Int(g) = θn.

SOLUTION 112
Writing G as a union of the double cosets KgH, it is necessary and sufficient
to write each double coset in the form asserted since each double coset KgH
is a union of right cosets of K in G and also a union of le cosets of H in G.
We note the two bijections:
Here, the notation is explained as follows. If B is a subgroup of a group A
and if S is a subset of A which is a union of le cosets of B in A, then one has
written S/B to denote the set of le cosets of B contained in S. Similarly, if T
is a subset of A which is a union of right cosets of B, then one has written
B\T to denote the set of right cosets of B contained in T.
It is easy to verify that the above are bijections. Note that the right sides of
these bijections count cosets of subgroups in groups (and not merely sets).
If there is a bijection,

where i = 1,…,r, then we see that

erefore, we only have to establish a bijection between K/(K∩ gHg–1) and

(H ∩ g–1Kg)\H.
Now, we note that K/(K ∩ gHg–1) is in bijection with g–1Kg/(g–1Kg ∩ H).
Now, since H, K have the same finite index in G, so do the subgroups H
and g–1Kg of G. us, it suffices to show that the subgroup g–1Kg∩H has
finite index. But, this is true since both H and g–1Kg do.

SOLUTION 113
(i) Let σ be such a permutation. en, clearly σ–1 is another such. So, if we
take an expression of σ as a product of an even number of transpositions and
an expression of σ–1 as a product of an odd number of transpositions, we
have an expression of the identity permutation as a product of an odd
number of transpositions.
(ii) Look at the second occurrence of a. Since (c,d)(a,e) = (a,e)(c,d) for
disjoint transpositions and since (c,d)(a,c) = (a,d)(c,d), one can bring a next
to (a,b) without changing either k or the number of times a occurs. Now, we
have Id = (a,b)(a,d)……for some d. If d = b, we have an expression of Id as
an odd number k – 2 < k of transpositions which is a contradiction of the
choice of k. So b ≠ d and we get Id = (a,b)(a,d)… = (a,d)(b,d)… which has
length k and a occurs a fewer number of times. us, we have a
contradiction and the result follows.

SOLUTION 114
(i) Consider the mapping θ : H → H given by h ↦ [g,h]. is is 1–1 because
ghg–1h–1 = gkg–1k–1 implies that h–1k ∈ CG(g) which, in turn, implies that k =
h by the hypothesis. Since H is finite, this is onto as well.
(ii) Take G = GL(n, Fq) and g = diag(t1,…,tn), where ti ∈ are distinct.
en, it is seen that CG(g) = {diag(s1,…,sn) : si ∈ }. If x, y ∈ U(n,q) lie in the
same le coset of CG(g), then x–1y would be a diagonal matrix in U(n,q)
which implies that x = y. By (i), we get the result.

SOLUTION 115
Put |N| = n and fix g ∈ G, x ∈ N. We need h ∈ N so that h–1(gx)nh = gn i.e., so
that h–1 (gx)nhg–n = 1.
e first easy observation we shall make is that there is at least some
natural number r for which (gx)r and gr are conjugate under an element of
N. In fact, it will be easily seen that every element h of N conjugates some
power (gx)r to gr.
 To see this, simply consider all the elements of the form h–1(gx)ihg–i for i
≥ 0.
As (gx)ig–i ∈ N for all i, we have

h–1(gx)ihg–i = h–1(gx)ig–i(gihg–i) ∈ N.

As N is finite, there exist i > j ≥ 0 so that

h–1(gx)ihg–i = h–1(gx)jhg–j;

that is,

h–1(gx)i–jh = gi–j.

Let r = r(h) be the smallest natural number for which

h–1(gx)rh = gr.

erefore, (gx)rhg–r = h.
We see that
e le-hand side has cardinality mr(h1) while the right-hand side is
precisely the set of elements h1z where z ∈ CN(gr(h1)). As CN(gr(h1)) is a
subgroup of N, it has for cardinality a divisor of n. us, r(h1)|n. As
, we also have .
e proof is complete.

SOLUTION 116
(i) Suppose xn+1H = yxnH for all n ∈ Z. en, x–n+1yxn ∈ H for all n ∈ Z.
Now,

is means that xnH = ynH for all n.

Conversely, suppose xnH = ynH for all n ∈ Z. en,

which means that xn+1H = yxnH for all n.

Now, it is evident that Hx is a subgroup of H normalized by x.
(ii) Now, we assume that x, y are related as above and show that their |H|th
powers are conjugate.
As Hx is a subgroup of H which is normalized by x, < Hx, x> >⊴ G. Now, as
y = xx–1y and x–1y ∈ Hx, we conclude by the previous problem that x|H| and
y|H| are conjugate.

SOLUTION 117
(i) Let x ∈ G. We shall show that any y ∈ G which is equivalent to x with
respect to H can be uniquely expressed as hxzh–1 where z ∈ Hx and where h
runs through a set of right coset representatives of Hx in H.
 Let us show that any y equivalent to x has an expression as asserted above.
Now, there is h ∈ H such that xnH = hynH = (hyh–1)nH for all n. By the
previous problem, we have xn+1H = (hyh–1)xnH for all integers n.
So, (hyh–1 )–1x ∈ Hx; that is, hyh–1 ∈ xHx. is gives an expression as
asserted.
For uniqueness, suppose that hxz1h–1 = xz2. en,

x–1hx = z2hz1 ∈ HxhHx.

As x normalises Hx, we get x–nhxn ∈ H for all n. In other words, hxnH = xnH
for all n; that is, h ∈ Hx. us, the uniqueness is also proved.
(ii) By (i), there are clearly |H| elements which are equivalent to x with
respect to H. If y is equivalent to x, then there exists h ∈ H with xnH = hynH
= (hyh–1)nH for all n ∈ Z. By the previous problem, x|H| and (hyh–1)|H| are
conjugate, which means that x|H| and y|H| are conjugate. is completes the
proof.

SOLUTION 118
Write and let Pi be a pi-Sylow subgroup. If x ∈ G, and i ≤ r, note
that the elements y which are equivalent to x with respect to Pi are such
that and are conjugate. erefore, xn and yn are also conjugate. In
other words, for each i ≤ r, the set {x : xn ∈ C} is a union of equivalence
classes with respect to Pi and, therefore, has cardinality a multiple of .
us, this cardinality is a multiple of n.

SOLUTION 119
(i) e relation x ~ y ⇔ 〈x〉 = 〈y〉 is an equivalence relation. e equivalence
class of x looks like {xi/(i, O(x)) = 1}; it has ϕ(O(x)) elements. Writing the set
of elements of order n as a union of equivalence classes (of elements of order
n), the assertion follows. Further, if pk/|G| and r < k, then fk(G) – fpr(G) is the
number of elements of orders pr+1,…,pk in G. As ϕ(pr+1) = pr(p – 1), ϕ(pr+2)
= pr+1 (p – 1), etc., we have that the number of elements of orders pr+1,…,pk
is certainly a multiple of pr. e last assertion is obvious.
(ii) By Problem 43, we have each g = xy uniquely where xy = yx and O(x) is a
power of p and (O(y),p) = 1. us, g ↦ (x, y) gives a bijection between G and
ordered pairs (x, y) for which (O(y),p) = 1 and x ∈ CG(y) has p-power order.
So, .
Hence is constant where y varies through its conjugacy
k
class, and as this conjugacy class has [G : CG(y)] elements, yn/p = 1 we have
CG(y)]fpk (CG(y)).
(iii) e proof is by induction on |G|. It is vacuously true for G = {1}.
Assume for all proper subgroups H that fpr(H) ≡ 0 mod pr where prǁ|H|.
en, by (i), fpl(H) ≡ 0 mod pl if pl/|H|.
Now, apply (ii) with n = |G|. We get

Look at any of the proper subgroups CG(y) for y ∈ Q\Z(G). If p ℓ ǁ|CG(y)|,

with ℓ ≤ k, then [G : CG (y)] ≡ 0 mod pk–ℓ and, p ℓ |fp ℓ (CG (y)) by induction
hypothesis.
Note fp ℓ (CG(y)) = fpk (CG(y)). erefore each term in the sum above is a
multiple of pk. As pkǁG| we have pkǁQ∩Z(G)|fpk (G). But p | ∩ Z(G)| for, if it
did then it would have an element y of order p which would also satisfy
. is is a contradiction, as . erefore pk|fpk)(G).
(iv) Let nǁG|. We write for distinct primes pi. en, it suffices to
show that . Now, by (ii), fn(G) is expressible as a sum of terms of the
form for subgroups H. By (iii), each such H (including G itself)
satisfies where . erefore divides .
us divides the sum which is fn(G).

SOLUTION N-120
(i) e inner conjugation action of G on N gives a homomorphism θ from G
to Aut N. Since N has order p, Aut N ≅ (Z/p/Z)* which has order p – l.
erefore, since Imθ has order dividing O(G) as well as dividing p – l, it
must be trivial by the choice of p. us, N ≤ Z(G).
(ii) e hypothesis gives that G itself has normal subgroups of all orders
dividing O(G). If p is the smallest prime divisor of O(G), this means there is
a normal subgroup N of order p. By (i), this is central. erefore, Z(G) ≠ {1}.
As G/Z(G) satisfies the same hypothesis that G does, it follows by induction
on the order that G/Z(G) is nilpotent. By Problem 56 (vi), G itself must be
nilpotent.
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