Globalisation studies – AO1 + A03:

Definitions of globalisation:

-Robertson: "a concrete global interdependence and consciousness of the global whole"

-Cochrane and Pain: "The emergence of a global economic and cultural system which is incorporation
the people of the world into a single global society".

-Giddens: "The intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa"

–Cohen and Kennedy: "A series of transformations of the world, including changes in the concept of
time and space, interdependent economies, increasing cultural interaction and increasingly shared
problems"

A03: -They fail to link the process to technology.

-Some only refer to one aspect of globalisation (culture).

-They imply globalisation occurs at the same rate worldwide.

-Difficult to determine when the process began

-Is little measurable reference to the extent or pace of the process

-Is an assumption that globalisation is a positive process.

New forms of digital communication:

A01:

Horst and Miller- Digitial communication relates to all forms of binary communication that uses
electronic equipment to pass on information. Digital communication is fast and can take many forms

Statistics:

- More people are active on social media than those who are not. 52% of Americans have a FB, Linkedin
etc profile

-Glott, Schmidt and Ghosh- 13% of wikipedia contributors are women

-News no longer refers to your traditional image/text format. Short video clips and live streaming news
online is becoming very popular.

-40% of consumers think live blogs are more balanced then news pages as they give a range on opinions

-In 2012 Twitter has 500million profiles. Top 3 countries: USA, Brazil and Japan.

-Ethan Kross and Philippe Verduyn- the more someone uses facebook, the less satisfied they are with
their life

-Youthnet- the internet is a 'natural space' for youth aged 16 to 24 and it's fully integrated into their lives.

-45% of young people said they felt happiest when they were online

-75% of young people said they can't live without the internet.

-86% loved how new technology allows them to communicate with people.

96% of 16 to 24 year olds say they use another media device whilst using the internet.

New media: it includes newly developed mediums in which we can access media. EG. Mobile phones,
tablets, iPads etc...

Virtual Communities: refers to the platform where people form a social network based on a shared
interest of identity.

The global village: describes how developments in communication have essentially made the world
smaller. Can communicate with people around the world in seconds.

Networked global society: people form social networks based on family networks, work contacts,
friendship groups and networks linked to hobbies, interests or a religion.

Big Data: refers to the developments in how information is stored and accessed. Resulted in a big
increase in the amount of information available to the public.

Media convergence – Boyle: illustrates how a variety of different media sources can be accessed through
one medium. Example: one mobile phone can allow you access to apps, social media, you can watch TV
shows on it and access the news. It also refers to how different social media platforms can communicate
with each other about your personal information, contacts and websites you have browsed.

A03:

STRENGTHS:

-New forms of digital communication has allowed people to communicate more with other people.

-News can get passed around very quickly. Increased awareness for topics such as poverty. Information
can be shared globally, not just locally. It allows people to be updated on global issues and the events in
countries that they would've never known about otherwise.

-Individuals can have discussions with people around the world with the same identity, hobbies,
interests etc.

-It has allowed communities to defy geographical and social barriers between people.

-Networking can increase an individuals employment opportunities.

WEAKNESSES:

-Some people may not have access to the internet/social media. E.g. developing countries.

-People are becoming too consumed with the internet – it has started to define them.

-It is hard for people with no access to digital communication to meet people with similar interests. It is
also difficult for them to build their own network as they may not have access to sites such as Linkedin.

-Large amounts of information about you is easily accessed online – low security and can be used in the
wrong way.

-As a lot of data about you can be found online, if an employer found something about you that is
inappropriate, it may cost you the job.

Digital communication and social capital:

Marxist view:

-Bourdieu: uses the concept of social capital as the networks and contacts that individuals have.

-Says middle and upper class have greater social capital, which gives them an advantage over the
working class. The contacts they have via digital media increase their employment oppourtunities.
-Toyama: Digital technology allows existing social networks to further prosper, it doesn't create them.

-It is an advantage for the middle class who already have high levels of social capital, but it doesn’t allow
the working class to gain social capital.

-Digital media increases the gap between the rich and poor.

Networked society:

-Castells: we have shifted from an industrial society to a technological society.

-power is based on the ownership of information, not ownership of factories/material goods.

-Because information can be exchnaged digitally, it removes the barriers of time, money and space.
Businesses can make rapid deals and exchange money and information quickly.

-Employees can be brought together for a task then re-dispersed when it's complete.

-Gives the bourgeoisie even more power in society as they have increasing capital and control as a result.

-BUT, poorly educated and low skilled workers are further excluded.

-The working class have little chance of social mobility – increasing the gap between rich and poor.

Changing nature of society:

-Matthews: it is cheaper, quicker and easier to communicate via digital media than it is to meet face-to-
face.

-says social media allows social networks to rapidly increase. Changing the way humans communicate
and form relationships.

-Gauntlett: out society is heavily focused on social networks, it's not what you know, it's who you know
that is more valuable.

-Social capital is more important then having knowledge ourselves because through our network we can
always gather the information we require.

A03:

-Putnam contradicts the idea that digital media increases social capital. Says that media encourages
people to spend more time alone that with their social networks.
-Individuals with no access to digital media can't increase their social network.

THEORIES:

Marxism and digital communication:

-Conford and Robbins: digital communication isn't new. It's a different form of communication whose
effects have been exaggerated by postmodernists.

-Media convergence- there are an increasing number of ways to access the media. Marxists say media
has a greater platform for shaping people's ideas, encourages acceptance of capitalism and the
inequalities that exists.

A03: Media is another way for the ruling class to spread their ideology and control the masses.

Marxist views on Digital media:

Media ownership:

-Conford and Robins: bourgeosie own digital media which allows them to extract greater profit and
ideologically control the masses.

-Bagdikian: non digital media is owned by a few large conglomerates. EG. Rupert Murdoch controls over
one fifth of news consumption in the UK.

Ideological state apparatus:

-Althusser: media is an ideological state apparatus – it’s a tool used by the bourgeoisie to transmit their
ideology.

-Digital media is a key way that the bourgeoisie can manipulate the proleteriat into accepting capitalist
inequalities and being socialised into hegemony (norms and values of the ruling class)

Marcuse:

-Marcuse: people in capitalist societies are controlled and focused around consumption.

-Capitalism has created false needs.

-It's created a need for people to recognise themselves in the items they consume.
-Individuals are in a false consciousness – they are unaware of how media manipulates them to buying
goods which profit the bourgeoisie.

Surveillance:

-Cornford and Robins- digital communication allows the ruling class to monitor the public more subtly.
They say they are doing it to protect the public from terrorism.

-Snowdon Report 2013- it revealed widespread misuse of digital surveillance by the US National Security
Agency. Snowden provided evidence that the US and British government had been accessing personal
and private communications. They said it was in the interest of national security – no evidence to
support this.

-Therefore, Marxists believe that digital media threatens individual freedom.

The culture industry:

-Adorno and Horkheimer- "culture today is infecting everything with sameness".

-Say media produces mass culture- it's unstimulating, dull and homogenous.

-Mass culture leads to people becoming increasingly passive and docile (more ready to accept control).

-People are easily content with the pleasures of this popular culture and resolve any dissatisfaction in life
through consumption of products created as false needs.

-Garside- the average adult spends 8hours and 41minutes a day consuming media – more time then
people spend asleep.

-How we access media is less stimulating. Just have to scroll down through a feed of images.

-Media encourages the masses to consume products which profit the bourgeoisie, they also distract
them from their exploitation.

A03 JUXTAPOSITION WITH PLURALISTS/EVALUATION:

-PLURALISTS argue there are a variety of different people who own the media and it represents a variety
of different voices. It has increased due to social media which allows individuals to easily participate in
discussions, therefore their voice is heard.

-Media is an essential part of the democratic process as the public gain most of their political knowledge
from newspapers and TV.
-Digital media provides forums where everyone can discuss their political opinions, so a variety of
perspectives can be heard. Not just those who are in power.

-Development of digital media has led to the 'de-regulation' of the media. Content is harder to check.

-Individuals are free to post what they want as the government have little ability to control or monitor
this.

-Media audiences are the real power holders as it is their choice whether or not to buy goods.

-If they don’t like to goods or think the media product is biased, then they will not buy it.

-The media supplies what the audience views as newsworthy, not what the owner decides.

-Castells- developments in social media have actually encourages people to challenge the bourgeoisie.

-Social media gives a platform to marginalised voices. They can unite and protest against authority.

Feminists view of digital communication:

-Digital communication has emerged due to criticisms of the digital world excluding women and feminist
views.

-Feminists want to change ideas such as the suggestion that men are the innovators of digital
communication.

-Haraway (1985):

--females must be included in all forms of knowledge relating to technologically based information.

--women were essentialised and bound to their gender identities

--say cyborgs might allow people to transcend their gender and empower women.

-Nakamura (2011):

--women from a range of different ethnic backgrounds are gaining an increasing presence in digital
communication.

Evaluation:

-Some feminists are optimistic about the new forms of communication available for women to express
themselves.

Feminist views on how digital media can liberate women:

-Social media is a good tool to boost the confidence of women and empower them as a group.

-In 2004 Dove found that 2% of women consider themselves as beautiful. In response they launched a
TV advert and website for women to discuss their body issues and promote a healthier body image.

-Cochrane- 59% of Mumsnet users see themselves as feminists. They use the internet to spread the
feminist message and identity.

Fourth wave Feminism:

-Armstrong- digital media is a good way to challenge the beauty myth and highlight how destructive
media images are. It is also good to challenge any sources that judge women on their appearance.

-Valenti- the internet has enabled a shift from 'third-wave' to 'fourth-wave' feminism.

-It allows feminism to be more inclusive: can involve women from all ethnic, class, sexual and national
backgrounds.

-Bates- explains the 'Everyday Sexism Project's' goal (this is an open forum where women could post
their experiences of harassment). It wasn’t to solve sexism, it was the first step of just realising that there
is a problem that needs to be fixed.

-Shows how digital media can give women a voice and how it can highlight key feminist issues so
women's rights can be improved.

Erotic Capital:

-Hakim- she expands on Bourdieu's 3 types of capital and refers to a type called 'erotic capital'.

--It is a combination of "beauty, social skills, good dress sense, physical fitness, liveliness, sex appeal and
sexual competence".

--Both sexes can possess this, but women have more because they work harder for it and are advantaged
as men want more sex then women.

--Says high levels of erotic capital is just as important as qualifications in todays society.

-Bak's research supported this. Spoke about the 'halo effect' surrounding attractive women.

--Attractiveness was more valued by men judging women and not vice versa.

-Hakim- women should use this capital to their advantage and get ahead in business.
Evaluation:

-Many feminists criticise Hakim's approach for being ethnocentric – only applying it to white, middle
class, heterosexual, western women. She ignores how a women's attractiveness can undermine her
intelligence. It over estimates how sexually liberated women are, and how much power sexual
attractiveness gives them. (60% of females reported sexual harassment in the workplace).

Feminist views on how digital media oppresses women:

Reinforcing stereotypes and beauty expectations:

-Tuchman- media reinforces patriarchal stereotypes of women and it doesn’t accurately reflect the social
and economic changes to women's lives over the past century.

-Wolf- the more legal and material barriers women have broken through, the more strictly, heavily and
cruelly images of female beauty have come to weigh. Women in todays society may be worse off than
their unliberated grandmothers in terms of how they feel about themselves physically.

--illustrates how changes in globalisation may have further oppressed women.

--Wolf argues for a relaxation of beauty standards and for women to concentrate on feelings.

-Feminists support a culture where women are accepting of themselves and others and can celebrate
their beauty without being confused by the demands of the patriarchal norm.

Digital media and the exploitation of women:

-Hughes- digital forms of communication offer new ways in which patriarchal ideologies can control
women.

-Trafficking women and kids for sexual exploitation is the fastest growing criminal enterprise in the world
and 98% of sex slaves are female.

-There's a wide variety of sexual exploitation on the internet. Including information about where to buy
prostitutes or brides.

-Sex tourism- where men can buy sex with little punishment.

-Internet offers live sex shows.

-Hughes says sexual exploitation has increased due to the lack of regulation.
-Globalisation has led to the exploitation of vulnerable groups and women are more at risk of being
trafficked.

-Feminists say it's because men largely control the government and legal systems worldwide. What this
means is that the protection of women and kids hasn't been prioritised.

-Arlacki (1997): exploitation isn’t considered a priority in any country.

Postmodernist views of digital media:

-they explore new forms of technology and how we can use it

-these new forms reflect a shift to greater individual choice.

-Collins- to understand society, we must understand chains of interaction between people. We should
also look at how individuals construct their identity through social media using a micro approach.

Social media and Autobiographies:

-Bjorklund- Facebook is like an autobiography.

-Hart- we rewrite out autobiographies on a daily basis. Our identity is created both online and offline.

-Case- Adolescents have 2identites. Mistakes are harder to erase as everything Is visible.

-Elliot- we are pessimistic about the fragmented nature of our identity as a result of sites like Facebook.

-Postmodernist approach: status updates are culturally significant as they are a reflection of thoughts,
therefore it is important in understanding the complexity of creating an identity.

Surveillance:

-Foucault- digital media exposes us to a vertical Panopticon as our actions are visible and traceable. Our
activities are monitored and recorded by social media for targeted advertising. This illustrates how
companies are observing our actions in the pursuit of profit.

-Social media also acts as a virtual Panopticon because we observe and post information publicly. We
judge one another as we share content.

-Want RT's as it affirms our identity.

-Posting online allows us to present ourselves however we want, this assists us in our self creation.
-We may choose to post in order to inform people or spread the word about a certain issue.

-When we post, we make a personal statement in doing so. It is then judged and when our posts are well
received, we feel as if our identity has been validated.

Risk Society:

-Beck- digital media has increased the extent to which we live in a risk society.

-We feel more risks due to 'reflexivity'-when tradition no longer governs our behaviour and we have
more options and choices.

-Have more career choices due to globalisation.

-We are now more aware of other peoples choices and can observe them via social media.

-We feel more pressure as we see the variety of options we have and can see what would've happened if
we made other life choices.

-This illustrates how a risk society is a negative phenomenon as it leads to insecurity.

-We are also more aware of risks because of the increase in risk reporting.

-You can now spread news across large numbers of people very quickly.

-Emergence of global village means local events have a worldwide impact and we are more aware of
threats.

-Beck- says this is called 'risk consciousness'. We are more conscious of the risks we are exposed to.

-Digital media exaggerate the stories to make a profit, which increases moral panic in society.

-We therefore feel insecure and unstable, leading to the creation of a 'risk society'.

Media Saturated Society:

-Baudrillard- society isn't based on the production of material goods, but on buying/selling knowledge in
the form of images and signs.

-He believes that everyday reality and media have become blurred. Individuals believe what they see in
media- but it's not an accurate representation of the real world. - HYPER REALITY.

-He views consumption as a symbolic and meaningful act which can indicate someone's status.

-In a post modern society, people make purchases based on the values associated with products, not
their practical function.

Discourses:

-Foucalt- all knowledge is a discourse- a set of ideas that have become established as knowledge. It is
therefore not necessarily true; it's just defined that way by those in power.

-In a more rational, secularised society a scientific discourse would be used to explain the situation as a
mental illness.

-Truth will change over time as the discourse changes.

-Foucalt- values postmodern society as it has many competing views of the truth.

-Power and knowledge are share ore equally and there is more than one perspective to each issue.

-This means, postmodernity allows marginalised groups to be heard. It is increasing with developments
in digital media as it gives these groups a platform by which they can promote their versions of the truth.

Evaluation:

-A risk society can be seen as a positive as people will be more aware about the decisions they take, and
so they won't take a wrong decision as they have seen the outcome of other people.