CHAPTER 7: PHYSICAL AND fat shows a slow, steady and may

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN decline during preschool.

EARLY CHILDHOOD. The chubby baby often looks much
leaner by the end of early childhood.
Girls have more fatty tissues rather than
EARLY CHILDHOOD - Defined as the boys that have a more muscle tissues
period from birth to eight years old,
Growth patterns vary individually. Think
is a time of remarkable growth with
about our preschool years, we may
brain development at its peak.
notice that some childrens are taller,
Children are highly influenced by the shorter, fatter or leaner than us, some
environment and the people that are strong and some are weak, but
surrounds them. much of the variation was due to
hereditary, however environmental
experiences are also involved, and the
PHYSICAL CHANGES two most reasons for height differences
are ethnic origin and nutrition. The
Physical growth in infancy is dramatic. urban, middle-socioeconomic status and
Eventhough physical growth in early the first born children are taller than
childhood slows, it is not difficult to those low-socioeconomic status, rural
distinguish young children from infants. and the later born children. African
Much developments are continue below American children are taller than
the surface in the brain. In terms of American white children.
cognitive development, you learned that
infants make amazing progress in their BRAIN
attention, memory, concept fomation, One of the most important development
and languange skills. You will also learn during early childhood is the continuity
in this chapter that this information development of the brain and nervous
processing skills continue to show system, brain continues to grow in early
remarkable advances in early childhood. childhood, but it does not develop
rapidly as were in infancy.

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE When the child reaches 3 years old, the
brain size is three- quarters of its adult
The average child grows 2 and half size.By 6 years old childs brain reached
inches in height and gains between 5 about 95 percent of its adult size.
and 7 pounds a year during early
childhood. As the preschool child The development that occurs inside the
grows older, the percentage of height brain continues through the remaining
increases and weight decreases with childhood and adolescent years.
additional years. Some of the brain interior change due to
The girls are smaller and lighter than the increase of dendritic connection as
boys during preschool, the difference well as myelination.
continues until puberty. During Myelination is the fatty protective
preschool years, both boys and girls coating that surrounds nerve fibres-a bit
slim down as their bodies lenghten, by like the insulation on an electrical wire,
the end of preschool years most protecting the fragile nerve fibres,
children lost their top-heavy look. Body myelin allows message to travel quickly
along the nerves without being lost or They take considerable pride in showing
interrupted. how they can run across a room and
jump, for the 3-year-old the activity is a
MYELINATION has the effect of source of considerable pride and
increasing the speed and efficiency of accomplishment.
information traveling through the
nervous system. Myelination is At 4 years of age, children are still
important in the development of a enjoying the same kind of activities, but
number of children’s ability, myelination they have become more adventurous.
in the areas of the brain related to hand- They scramble over low jungle gyms as
eye coordination is not complete until they dis- play their athletic prowess.
about 4 years of age.
At 5 years of age, children are even
Children’s brain undergo dramatic more adventuresome than when they
anatomical changes between the ages were 4. It is not unusual for self-assured
of 3 and 15. Children’s brains 5-year-olds to perform hair-raising
experiences rapid, distinct, spurs of stunts on practically any climbing object.
growth. The amount of brain material in Five-year-olds run hard and enjoy races
some of tissue as unneeded cells are with other kids and their parents.
purged and the brain continues to
reprganize itself. The scientist have
revealed that the overall size of the Fine Motor Skills
brain does not show dramatic growth in
the 3-to 5 year age range, however At 3 years of age, although children
what does dramatically change are the have had the ability to pick up the tiniest
local patterns within the brain. The most objects between their thumb and
rapid growth takes place in the frontal forefinger for some time, they are still
lobe areas involved in planning, and somewhat clumsy at it. Three-year-olds
organizing new actions, and in can build surprisingly high block towers,
maintaining attention to tasks. placing each block with intense
concentration but often not in a
completely straight line. When 3-year-
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT olds play with a simple jigsaw puzzle,
they are rather rough in placing the
pieces. Even when they recognize the
hole a piece fits into, they are not very
Gross Motor Skills precise in positioning the piece. They
The preschool child no longer has to often try to force the piece.
make an effort simply to stay upright By 4 years of age, children’s fine motor
and to move around. As children move coordination has improved substantially
their legs with more confidence and and become much more precise.
carry themselves more purposefully, Sometimes 4-year-old children have
mov- ing around in the environment trouble building high towers with blocks
becomes more automatic because, in their desire to place each of
the blocks perfectly,they may upset
those already stacked.
At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple
movements, such as hopping, jumping, By age 5, children’s fine motor
and running back and forth, just for the coordination has improved further.
delight of performing these activities.
Hand, arm, and body all move together susceptibility to disease. Exercise and
under better command of the eye. physical activity also are very important
aspects of young children’s lives.
SLEEP
Overweight Young Children
Experts recommend that young children
get 11 to 13 hours of sleep each night Being overweight has become a serious
(National Sleep Foundation, 2010). health problem in early childhood.A
Most young children sleep through the recent national study revealed that 45
night and have one daytime nap. Not percent of children’s meals exceed the
only is the amount of sleep children get recommendations for saturated and
important, but so is uninterrupted sleep. trans fats, which can raise the
It sometimes is difficult to get young cholesterol levels and increase the risk
children to go to sleep as they drag out of heart disease (Center for Science in
their bed- time routine. A recent study the Public Interest, 2008), this study
found that bedtime resistance was found that one-third of children’s daily
associated with conduct problems or caloric intake comes from restaurants,
hyperactivity in chil- dren. twice the percentage consumed away
from home in the 1980s. 13 major fast-
Children can experience a number of food chains exceeded 430 calories—
sleep problems, including narcolepsy one-third of what the National Institute
(extreme daytime sleepiness), insomnia of Medicine recommends that 4- to 8-
(difficulty going to sleep or staying year-old children consume in a day.
asleep), and nightmares. One estimate Nearly every combination of chil- dren’s
indicates that more than 40 percent of meals at KFC, Jollibee, McDonalds are
children experi- ence a sleep problem at too high in calories.
some point in their development.
Researchers have found children who Young children’s eating behavior is
have sleep problems are more likely to strongly influenced by their caregivers’
show depression and anxiety than behavior.When caregivers eat with
children who do not have sleep children on a pre- dictable schedule,
problems.Also, a recent study revealed model eating healthy food, make
that preschool children who tended to mealtimes pleasant occasions, and
have bad dreams were characterized by engage in certain feeding styles,young
a difficult temperament at 5 months of children’s eating behavior improves.
age and anx- iousness at 17 months of Distractions from television, family
age. Yet another study revealed that arguments, and competing activities
children who had sleep problems from 3 should be minimized so that children
to 8 years of age were more likely to can focus on eating. A
develop adolescent problems, such as sensitive/responsive caregiver feeding
early onset of drug use and depression. style, in which the caregiver is nurturant,
And research indicates that short sleep provides clear information about what is
duration in children is linked with being expected, and appropriately responds to
overweight. children’s cues, is recommended.
Forceful and restrictve caregiver
NUTRITION AND EXERCISE behaviors are not recommended. A
Eating habits are important aspects of restrictive feeding style is linked to
development during early children being overweight.
childhood.What children eat affects their The Centers for Disease Control and
skeletal growth, body shape, and Prevention (2010) has categories for
obesity, overweight, and at risk for being one hour of unstructured free play
overweight. These categories are (National Association for Sport and
determined by body mass index (BMI), Physical Education, 2002). The child’s
which is computed by a formula that life should be centered around activities,
takes into account height and weight. not meals.Following are some recent
research studies that examine young
The percentages of young children who children’s exercise and activities:
are overweight or at risk for being over-
weight in the United States has • Observations of 3- to 5-year-old
increased dramatically in recent children during outdoor play at
decades, and the percentages are likely preschools revealed that the preschool
to grow unless changes occur in children were mainly sedentary even
children’s lifestyles. A recent study when participating in outdoor play.
revealed that from 2003 to 2006, 11
percent of U.S. 2- to 19-year-olds were • Preschool children’s physical activity
obese, 16 percent were overweight, and was enhanced by family members
38 percent were at risk for being engag ing in sports together and by
overweight. parents’ perception that it was safe for
their children to play outside.
The risk that overweight young children
will continue to be overweight when they • Incorporation of a “move and learn”
become older was documented in one physical activity curriculum increased
study. In the study, 80 percent of the the activity level of 3- to 5-year-old
children who were at risk for being children in a half-day preschool
overweight at 3 years of age were also program.
at risk for being overweight or were Malnutrition in Young Children From
overweight at 12 years of age. Another Low-Income Families
study found that children’s weight at 5
years of age was significantly linked to Malnutrition is a problem for many U.S.
their weight at 9 years of age. Yet children, with approximately 11 million
another study revealed that the preschool children experiencing
prevalence of being overweight malnutrition that places their health at
remained stable from 4 to 11 years of risk. One of the most common
age for children with lean parents but nutritional problems in early childhood is
more than doubled across this time iron deficiency anemia, which results in
frame for children with obese parents chronic fatigue (Bartle, 2007). This
(17 percent to 45 percent). problem results from the failure to eat
adequate amounts of quality meats and
Childhood obesity contributes to a dark green vegetables. Young children
number of health problems in young from low-income families are the most
children. It may caused type 2 diabetes likely to develop iron deficiency anemia.
in children as young as 5 years of age.
EXERCISE
ILLNESS AND DEATH
Routine physical activity should be a
daily occurrence for young children. Young children’s are active and
Guidelines recommend that preschool exploratory nature, coupled with being
children engage in two hours of unaware of danger in many instances,
physical activity per day, divided into often puts them in situations in which
one hour of structured activity and they are at risk for injuries.
In the United States, motor vehicle rate is the result of a wide range of
accidents are the leading cause of factors, including the nutritional health
death in young children, followed by and health knowledge of mothers, the
cancer and cardiovascular dis- ease. In level of immunization, dehydration,
addition to motor vehicle accidents, availability of maternal and child
other accidental deaths in children healthservices, income and food
involve drowning, falls, burns, and availability in the family, availability of
poisoning. clean water and safe sanitation, and the
overall safety of the child’s environment.
Children’s safety is influenced not only
by their own skills and safety behaviors The devastating effects on the health of
but also by characteristics of their family young children occur in countries where
and home, school and peers, and the poverty rates are high (UNICEF, 2010).
community’s actions. The poor are the majority in nearly one
of every five nations in the world. They
Parental smoking is another major often experience lives of hunger,
danger to children. An increasing malnutrition, illness, inadequate access
number of studies reach the conclusion to health care, unsafe water, and a lack
that children are at risk for health of protection from harm.
problems when they live in homes in
which a parent smokes. Children In the last decade, there has been a
exposed to tobacco smoke in the home dramatic increase in the number of
are more likely to develop wheezing young children who have died because
symptoms and asthma than children in of HIV/AIDS transmitted to them by their
nonsmoking homes . A recent study parents (UNICEF, 2010). Deaths in
revealed that exposure to secondhand young children due to HIV/AIDS
smoke was related to young children’s especially occur in countries with high
sleep problems, including sleep- rates of poverty and low levels of
disordered breathing. education
Children in poverty face a higher risk for Many of the deaths of young children
lead poisoning than children living in around the world can be prevented by a
higher socioeconomic conditions.In reduction in poverty and improvements
addition to lead poisoning, young in nutrition, sanitation, education, and
children from low-income families in the health services (UNICEF, 2006, 2010).
United States face other health
problems and often receive inadequate
medical care, especially when their COGNITIVE CHANGES
parents do not have medical insurance.
Children in poverty have higher rates of The cognitive world of the preschool
accidents, death, and asthma than child is creative, free, and fanciful.
children from higher income families. Preschool children’s imaginations work
overtime, and their mental grasp of the
The State of Illness and Health of the world improves. Our coverage of
World’s Children Poverty in the United cognitive development in early
States is dwarfed by poverty in childhood focuses on three theories:
developing countries around the world. Piaget’s, Vygotsky’s, and information
Each year UNICEF produces a report processing.
entitled The State of the World’s
Children. In one report, UNICEF (2006) PIAGET’S PREOPERATIONAL
concluded that the under-5 mortality STAGE
Piaget’s first stage of development, the Egocentrism is the inability to
sensorimotor stage, the infant distinguish between one’s own
progresses in the ability to organize and perspective and someone else’s
coordinate sensations and perceptions perspective. Piaget and Barbel
with physical movements and actions. Inhelder (1969) initially studied young
children’s egocentrism by devising the
The preoperational stage,which lasts three mountains task. Children in the
from approximately 2 to 7 years of preoperational stage often pick their
age, is the second Piagetian stage. In own view rather than the doll’s view.
this stage, children begin to represent Preschool children frequently show
the world with words, images, and the ability to take another’s
drawings. They form stable concepts perspective on some tasks but not
and begin to reason. At the same time, others.
young child’s cognitive world is
dominated by egocentrism and Animism, another limitation of
magical beliefs. preoperational thought, is the belief
that inanimate objects have lifelike
The label preoperational emphasizes qualities and are capable of action. A
that the child does not yet perform young child who uses animism fails to
operations, which are reversible mental distinguish the appropriate occasions for
actions; they allow children to do using human and non- human
mentally what before they could do perspectives.
only physically. Adding and
subtracting numbers mentally are Possibly because young children are
examples of operations. Preoperational not very concerned about reality, their
thought is the beginning of the ability to drawings are fanciful and inventive.
reconstruct in thought what has been Suns are blue, skies are yellow, and
established in behavior. It can be cars float on clouds in their symbolic,
divided into two substages: the imaginative world. In the elementary
symbolic function substage and the school years, a child’s drawings become
intuitive thought substage. more realistic, neat, and precise
The Symbolic Function Substage The Intuitive Thought Substage
The symbolic function substage is The intuitive thought substage is the
the first substage of preoperational second substage of preoperational
thought, occurring roughly between thought, occurring between
the ages of 2 and In this substage, the approximately 4 and 7 years of age.
young child gains the ability to In this substage, children begin to use
mentally represent an object that is primitive reasoning and want to know
not present. This ability vastly expands the answers to all sorts of questions. By
the child’s mental world. Young children the age of 5, children have just about
use scribble designs to represent exhausted the adults around them with
people, houses, cars, clouds, and so on; “why” questions. The child’s questions
they begin to use language and engage signal the emergence of interest in
in pretend play. However, although reasoning and in figuring out why things
young children make distinct are the way they are.
progress during this substage, their
thought still has important
limitations, two of which are Centration and the Limits of
egocentrism and animism. Preoperational Thought
 One limitation of preoperational Piaget thought and that attention is
thought is centration, a centering of especially important in explaining
attention on one characteristic to the conservation.
exclusion of all others. Centration is
most clearly evidenced in young
children’s lack of conservation, the VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
awareness that altering an object’s or a
substance’s appearance does not Piaget’s theory is a major
change its basic properties. The developmental theory. Another
situation that Piaget devised to study developmental theory that focuses on
conservation is his most famous task. In children’s cognition is Vygotsky’s theory.
the conservation task, children are Like Piaget, Vygotsky (1962)
presented with two identical beakers, emphasized that children actively
each filled to the same level with construct their knowledge and
liquid.They are asked if these beakers understanding. In Piaget’s theory,
have the same amount of liquid, and children develop ways of thinking and
they usually say yes. Then the liquid understanding by their actions and
from one beaker is poured into a third interactions with the physical world. In
beaker, which is taller and thinner than Vygotsky’s theory, children are more
the first two. The children are then often described as social creatures
asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, than in Piaget’s theory. They develop
thin beaker is equal to that which their ways of thinking and
remains in one of the original beakers. understanding primarily through
Children who are less than 7 or 8 years social interaction. Their cognitive
old usually say no and justify their development depends on the tools
answers in terms of the differing height provided by society, and their minds are
or width of the beakers. Older children shaped by the cultural context in which
usually answer yes and justify their they live.
answers appropriately (“If you poured The Zone of Proximal Development
the water back, the amount would still Vygotsky’s belief in the importance
be the same”). of social influences, especially
In Piaget’s theory, failing the instruction, on children’s cognitive
conservation-of-liquid task is a sign development is reflected in his
that children are at the concept of the zone of proximal
preoperational stage of cognitive development. Zone of proximal
development. Some developmentalists development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term
disagree with Piaget’s estimate of when for the range of tasks that are too
children’s conservation skills emerge. difficult for the child to master alone but
For example, Rochel Gelman (1969) that can be learned with guidance and
showed that when the child’s attention assistance of adults or more-skilled
to relevant aspects of the conservation children. Thus, the lower limit of the
task is improved, the child is more likely ZPD is the level of skill reached by the
to conserve. Gelman has also child working independently. The upper
demonstrated that attentional training on limit is the level of additional
one dimension, such as number, responsibility the child can accept with
improves the preschool child’s the assistance of an able instructor. The
performance on another dimension, ZPD captures the child’s cognitive
such as mass. Thus, Gelman argues skills that are in the process of
that conservation appears earlier than maturing and can be accomplished
only with the assistance of a more Vygotsky argued that assessment
skilled person (Alvarez & del Rio, should focus on determining the
2007). Closely linked to the idea of the child’s zone of proximal
ZPD is the concept of scaffolding. development. The skilled helper
Scaffolding means changing the level presents the child with tasks of
of support. Over the course of a varying difficulty to determine the
teaching ses- sion, a more-skilled best level at which to begin
person (a teacher or advanced peer) instruction.
adjusts the amount of guidance to fit
the child’s current performance 2. Use the child’s ZPD in teaching.
(Daniels, 2007). When the student is Teaching should begin toward the
learning a new task, the skilled person zone’s upper limit, so that the child
may use direct instruction. As the can reach the goal with help and
student’s competence increases, less move to a higher level of skill and
guidance is given. knowledge. Offer just enough
assistance. You might ask, “What
Language and Thought can I do to help you?” Or simply
observe the child’s intentions and
The use of dialogue as a tool for attempts and provide support when it
scaffolding is only one example of the is needed. When the child hesitates,
important role of language in a child’s offer encourage- ment. And
development. According to Vygotsky, encourage the child to practice the
children use speech not only to skill. You may watch and appre- ciate
communicate socially but also to the child’s practice or offer support
help them solve tasks. Vygotsky when the child forgets what to do.
(1962) further believed that young
children use language to plan, guide, 3. Use more-skilled peers as
and monitor their behavior. This use of teachers. Remember that it is not just
language for self-regulation is called adults who are important in helping
private speech. For Piaget, private children learn. Children also benefit
speech is egocentric and immature, but from the support and guidance of
for Vygotsky it is an important tool of more-skilled children.
thought during the early childhood years
4. Place instruction in a meaningful
Vygotsky said that language and context. Educators today are moving
thought initially develop away from abstract presentations of
independently of each other and then material; instead, they provide
merge. He emphasized that all mental students with oppor- tunities to
functions have external, or social, experience learning in real-world
origins. Children must use language to settings. For example, rather than
communicate with others before they just memorizing math formulas,
can focus inward on their own thoughts. students work on math problems
Children also must communicate exter- with real-world implications.
nally and use language for a long period
of time before they can make the 5. Transform the classroom with
transition from external to internal Vygotskian ideas. What does a
speech. This transition period occurs Vygotskian class- room look like? The
between 3 and 7 years of age and Kamehameha Elementary Education
involves talking to oneself. Program (KEEP) in Hawaii is based
on Vygotsky’s theory (Tharp, 1994).
The ZPD is the key element of
instruction in this program. Children Young children especially make
might read a story and then interpret advances in two aspects of attention
its meaning. Many of the learning —executive attention and sustained
activities take place in small groups. attention (Rothbart & Gartstein, 2008).
All children spend at least 20 minutes Executive attention involves action
each morning in a setting called planning, allocating attention to
“Center One.” In this context, goals, error detection and
scaffolding is used to improve compensa- tion, monitoring progress
children’s literary skills. The on tasks, and dealing with novel or
instructor asks questions, responds difficult circumstances. Sustained
to students’ queries, and builds on attention is focused and extended
the ideas that students generate. engagement with an object, task,
event, or other aspect of the
environment.
when they might have done something Mary Rothbart and Maria Gartstein
on their own. (2008, p. 332) recently described why
advances in executive and sustained
attention are so important in early
INFORMATION PROCESSING childhood:
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories The development of the . . . executive
provided important ideas about how attention system supports the rapid
young children think and how their increases in effortful control in the
thinking changes. More recently, the toddler and preschool years. Increases
information-processing approach in attention are due, in part, to advances
has generated research that in comprehension and language
illuminates how children process development. As children are better
information during the preschool able to understand their environment,
years. What are the limitations and this increased appreciation of their
advances in the young child’s ability to surroundings helps them to sustain
pay attention to the environment, to attention for longer periods of time.
remember, to develop strategies and
solve problems, and to understand their In at least two ways, however, the
own mental processes and those of preschool child’s control of attention is
others? still deficient:

Attention Recall that in Chapter 5 we • Salient versus relevant dimensions.

defined attention as the focusing of Preschool children are likely to pay
mental resources on select attention to stimuli that stand out, or are
information. The child’s ability to pay salient, even when those stimuli are not
attention improves sig- nificantly rele- vant to solving a problem or
during the preschool years. Toddlers performing a task. For example, if a
wander around, shift attention from one flashy, attractive clown presents the
activity to another, and seem to spend directions for solving a problem,
little time focused on any one object or preschool chil- dren are likely to pay
event. By comparison, the preschool more attention to the clown than to the
child might be observed watching directions. After the age of 6 or 7,
television for a half hour. children attend more efficiently to the
dimensions of the task that are relevant,
such as the directions for solving a
problem. This change reflects a shift to distinction occurs between relatively
cognitive control of attention, so that permanent or long-term memory and
children act less impulsively and reflect short- term memory.
more.
Short-Term Memory In short-term
• Planfulness. When experimenters ask memory, individuals retain
children to judge whether two complex information for up to 30 seconds if
pictures are the same, preschool there is no rehearsal of the
children tend to use a haphazard information. Research with the
comparison strategy, not examining all memory-span task suggests that short-
of the details before making a judgment. term memory increases during early
By comparison, elementary school age childhood. For example, in one
children are more likely to systematically investigation memory span increased
com pare the details across the from about 2 digits in 2- to 3-year-old
pictures, one detail at a time. children to about 5 digits in 7-year-old
chil- dren, yet between 7 and 13 years
The ability of preschool children to of age memory span increased only by
control and sustain their attention is 1½ digits. Keep in mind, though, that
related to school readiness (Posner & memory span var- ies from one
Rothbart, 2007). For example, a study individual to another.
of more than 1,000 children revealed
that their ability to sustain their attention How Accurate Are Young Children’s
at 54 months of age was linked to their Long-Term Memories?
school readiness (which included
achievement and language skills) While the toddlers’ short-term memory
(NICHD Early Child Care Research span increases during the early
Network, 2005). And in a recent study childhood years, their memory also
children whose parents and teachers becomes more accurate. Young
rated them higher on a scale of having children can remember a great deal of
attention problems at 54 months of age informa- tion if they are given
had a lower level of social skills in peer appropriate cues and prompts.
relations in the first and third grades Increasingly, young children are even
than their counterparts who were rated being allowed to testify in court,
lower on the attention problems scale at especially if they are the only witnesses
54 months of age (NICHD Early Child to abuse, a crime, and so forth. Several
Care Research Network, 2009). factors can influence the accuracy of a
young child’s memory
Memory Memory—the retention of
information over time—is a central • There are age differences in children’s
process in children’s cognitive susceptibility to suggestion.
development. we saw that most of an Preschoolers are the most suggestible
infant’s memories are fragile and, for the age group in comparison with older
most part, short-lived—except for the children and adults (Lehman & others,
memory of perceptual-motor actions, 2010; Pipe, 2008 (Ghetti & Alexander,
which can be substantial (Mandler, 2004). (Ceci & others, 2007).
2004). Thus, we saw that to understand • There are individual differences in
the infant’s capacity to remember we susceptibility. Some preschoolers are
need to distinguish implicit memory from highly resistant to interviewers’
explicit memory. Explicit memory itself, suggestions, whereas others
however, comes in many forms. One immediately succumb to the slightest
suggestion. A recent study revealed that must sort stimuli using the rule of color.
preschool children’s ability to produce a In the course of the color sorting, a child
high-quality narrative was linked to their may describe a red rabbit as “a red one”
resistance to suggestion to solve the problem. However, in a
subsequent task, the child may need to
• Interviewing techniques can produce discover a rule that describes the rabbit
substantial distortions in children’s as just “a rabbit” to solve the problem. If
reports about highly salient events. 3- to 4-year-olds fail to understand that
Children are suggestible not just about it is possible to provide multiple
peripheral details but also about the descriptions of the same stimulus, they
central aspects of an event (Bruck, persist in describing the stimulus as “a
Ceci, & Hembrooke, red rabbit.” Researchers have found
1998). In some cases, children’s false that at about 4 years of age, children
reports can be tinged with sexual con- acquire the concept of perspectives,
notations. In sum, whether a young which allows them to appreciate that a
child’s eyewitness testimony is accurate single stimulus can be described in two
or not may depend on a number of different ways.
factors such as the type, number, and .
intensity of the sug- gestive techniques
the child has experienced. It appears The Child’s Theory of Mind
that the reliability of young children’s
reports has as much to do with the skills Even young children are curious about
and motivation of the interviewer as with the nature of the human mind (Gelman,
any natural limitations on young 2009). They have a theory of mind,
children’s memory which refers to awareness of one’s
own mental processes and the
Strategies and Problem Solving mental processes of others. Studies
of theory of mind view the child as “a
we discussed that information- thinker who is trying to explain,
processing theory emphasizes the predict, and understand people’s
importance of using good strategies. thoughts, feelings, and utterances”
Strategies consist of deliberate mental (Harris, 2006, p. 847).
activities to improve the processing of
information. For example, rehearsing Developmental Changes Children’s
information and organizing it are two theory of mind changes as they develop
typical strategies that older children and through childhood.Some changes occur
adults use to remember more quite early in development, as we see
effectively. For the most part, young next.
children do not use rehearsal and
organization to remember From 18 months to 3 years of age,
children begin to understand three
During early childhood, the relatively mental states:
stimulus-driven toddler is transformed
into a child capable of flexible, goal- • Perceptions. By 2 years of age, a
directed problem solving. For example, child recognizes that another person will
3- to 4-year-olds cannot understand that see what’s in front of her own eyes
a single stimulus can be described in instead of what’s in front of the child’s
incompatible ways from two different eyes,and by 3 years of age, the child
perspectives (Perner & others, 2002). realizes that looking leads to knowing
Consider a problem in which children what’s inside a container.
• Emotions. The child can distinguish In a similar task, children are told a story
between positive (for example, happy) about Sally and Anne: Sally places a toy
and negative (sad, for example) in a basket and then leaves the room. In
emotions. A child might say, “Tommy her absence, Anne takes the toy from
feels bad.” the basket and places it in a box.
Children are asked where Sally will look
• Desires. All humans have some sort for the toy when she returns. The major
of desires. But when do children begin finding is that 3-year-olds tend to fail
to recognize that someone else’s false-belief tasks, saying that Sally will
desires may differ from their own? look in the box (even though Sally could
Toddlers rec- ognize that if people want not know that the toy has moved to this
something, they will try to get it. For new location). Four-year-olds and older
instance, a child might say, “I want my children tend to pass the task, correctly
mommy.” saying that Sally will have a “false
Two- to three-year-olds understand the belief”—she will think the object is in the
way that desires are related to actions basket, even though that belief is now
and to simple emotions. For example, false. The conclusion from these studies
they understand that people will search is that children younger than 4 years old
for what they want and that if they do not understand that it is possible to
obtain it, they are likely to feel happy, have a false belief.However, there are
but if they don’t, they will keep many reasons to question the focus on
searching for it and are likely to feel sad this one suppos- edly pivotal moment in
or angry. Children also refer to desires the development of a theory of mind.
earlier and more fre- quently than they For example, the false-belief task is a
refer to cognitive states such as thinking complicated one that involves a number
and knowing. of factors such as the characters in the
story and all of their individual actions.
Between the ages of 3 to 5, children
come to understand that the mind can It is only beyond the preschool years—
represent objects and events accurately at approximately 5 to 7 years of age—
or inaccurately. The realization that that children have a deepening
people can have false beliefs—beliefs appreciation of the mind itself rather
that are not true—develops in a majority than just an understanding of mental
of children by the time they are 5 years states. For example, they begin to
old. This point is often described as a recognize that people’s behaviors do
pivotal one in understanding the mind— not necessarily reflect their thoughts
recognizing that beliefs are not just and feelings. Not until middle and late
mapped directly into the mind from the childhood do children see the mind as
surrounding world, but that different an active constructor of knowledge or
people can also have different, and processing center and move from
sometimes incorrect, beliefs (Gelman, understanding that beliefs can be false
2009). In a classic false-belief task, to realizing that the same event can be
young children were shown a Band- open to multiple interpretations. For
Aids box and asked what was inside To example, in one study, children saw an
the children’s surprise, the box actually ambiguous line drawing (for example, a
contained pencils. When asked what a drawing that could be seen as either a
child who had never seen the box would duck or a rabbit); one puppet told the
think was inside, 3-year-olds typically child she believed the drawing was a
responded, “Pen- cils.” However, the 4- duck while another puppet told the child
he believed the drawing was a rabbit
(see Figure 7.15). Before the age of 7, at executive function tasks seem also to
children said that there was one right have a better understanding of theory of
answer, and it was not okay for both mind.
puppets to have different opinions.
Although most research on children’s
theory of mind focuses on children LANGUANGE DEVELOPMENT
around or before their preschool years,
at 7 years of age and beyond there are Toddlers move rather quickly from
important developments in the ability to producing two-word utterances to
understand the beliefs and thoughts of creating three-, four-, and five-word
others. Although understanding that combinations. Between 2 and 3 years of
people may have different age, they begin the transition from
interpretations is important, it is also saying simple sentences that express a
necessary to recognize that some single proposition to say- ing complex
interpretations and beliefs may still be sentences.
evaluated on the basis of the merits of As young children learn the special
arguments and evidence. In early features of their own language, there
adolescence, children begin to are extensive regularities in how they
understand that people can have acquire that particular language. For
ambivalent feelings. They start to example, all children learn the
recognize that the same person can feel prepositions on and in before other
both happy and sad about the same prepositions. Children learning other
event. They also engage in more languages, such as Russian or Chinese,
recursive thinking: thinking about what also acquire the particular features of
other people are thinking about. those languages in a consistent order.
Individual Differences As in other UNDERSTANDING PHONOLOGY
developmental research, there are AND MORPHOLOGY
individual differences in when
children reach certain milestones in Phonology- refers to the rules of the
their theory of mind. For example, sound system and rules of sound
children who talk with their parents combinations.
about feelings frequently as 2-year-olds
Morphology- Refers to the structure
show better performance on theory of
and construction of words.
mind tasks as do children who
frequently engage in pretend play During the preschool years, most
children gradually become more
sensitive to the sounds of spoken words
Executive function, which describes and become increasingly capable of
several functions (such as inhibition producing all the sounds of their
and planning) that are important for language. By the time, children are 3
flexible, future-oriented behavior, years of age, they can produce all the
also may be connected to theory of vowel sounds and most of the
mind development . For example, in consonant sounds.
one executive function task, children are
The greatest person ever known Is
asked to say the word “night” when they
one all poets have outgrown; The
see a picture of a sun, and the word
poetry, innate and untold, Of being
“day” when they see a picture of a moon
only four years old.
and stars. Children who perform better
—CHRISTOPHER MORLEY American
Novelist, 20th Century
By the time children move beyond
two-word utterances, they CHANGES IN SYNTAX AND
demonstrate a knowledge of SEMANTICS
morphology rules. Children begin Syntax- refers to the rules of word
using the plural and possessive order and word combinations in
forms of nouns (such as dogs and order to form phrases and sentences.
dog’s). They put appropriate endings
on verbs (such as -s when the Semantics- It is concerned with
subject is third- person singular and meaning.
-ed for the past tense). They use Preschool children also learn and apply
prepositions (such as in and on), rules of syntax. They show a growing
articles (such as a and the), and mastery of complex rules for how words
various forms of the verb to be (such should be ordered. Consider wh-
as “I was going to the store”). Some questions, such as “Where is Daddy
of the best evidence for changes in going?” or “What is that boy doing?” To
chil- dren’s use of morphological ask these questions properly, the child
rules occurs in their must know two important differences
overgeneralization of the rules, as between wh- questions and
when a preschool child says “foots” affirmative statements (for instance,
instead of “feet,” or “goed” instead “Daddy is going to work” and “That boy
of “went.” is waiting on the school bus”). First, a
In a classic experiment of morphological wh- word must be added at the
rules, by Jean Berko it is presented beginning of the sentence. Second,
preschool children and first-grade the auxiliary verb must be inverted—
children with cards such as the one that is, exchanged with the subject of
shown in Figure 7.16. Children were the sentence. Young children learn
asked to look at the card while the quite early where to put the wh- word,
experimenter read aloud the words on but they take much longer to learn the
the card. Then the children were asked auxiliary-inversion rule. Thus, preschool
to supply the missing word. Berko was children might ask, “Where Daddy is
interested in the children’s ability to going?” and “What that boy is doing?”
apply the appropriate morphological Gains in semantics also characterize
rule, in this case to say “wugs” with the early childhood. Vocabulary
z sound that indicates the development is dramatic. Some experts
plural.Although the children’s answers have concluded that between 18
were not perfect, they were much better months and 6 years of age, young
than chance. What makes Berko’s study children learn about one new word
impressive is that most of the words every waking hour.bBy the time they
were made up for the experiment. Thus, enter first grade, it is estimated that chil-
the children could not base their dren know about 14,000 words.
responses on remem- bering past
instances of hearing the words. That
they could make the plurals or past
ADVANCES IN PRAGMATICS
tenses of words they had never heard
before was proof that they knew the Changes in pragmatics also
morphological rules. characterize young children’s language
development. As children get older, they appropriate learning materials and
become increasingly able to talk about books) were important home literacy
things that are not here (grandma’s experiences in low- income families that
house, for example) and not now (what were linked to the children’s language
happened to them yesterday or might development in positive ways.
happen tomorrow, for example). A Instruction should be built on what
preschool child can tell you what she children already know about oral
wants for lunch tomorrow, something language, reading, and writing. Further,
that would not have been possible at the early precursors of literacy and
two-word stage of language academic success include language
development. skills, phonological and syntactic
knowledge, letter identification, and
Around 4 to 5 years of age, children conceptual knowledge about print and
learn to change their speech style to its conventions and functions.
suit the situation. For example, even
4-year-old children speak differently to a What characterizes young children’s
2-year-old than to a same-aged peer; advances in pragmatics?
they use shorter sentences with the 2-
year-old. They also speak differently to The following three longitudinal
an adult than to a same-aged peer, studies indicate the importance of
using more polite and formal language early lan- guage skills and children’s
with the adult. school readiness:

YOUNG CHILDREN’S LITERACY • Phonological awareness, letter name

and sound knowledge, and naming
The concern about the ability of U.S. speed in kindergarten were linked to
children to read and write has led to a reading success in the first and second
careful examination of preschool and grade.
kindergarten children’s experiences,
with the hope that a positive orientation • Children’s early home environment
toward reading and writing can be influenced their early language skills,
developed early in life. Parents and which in turn predicted their readiness
teachers need to provide young for school
children a supportive environment • The number of letters children knew in
for them to develop literacy kindergarten was highly correlated
skills .Children should participate and
be involved in a wide range of with their reading achievement in high
interesting listenig, talking, writing, and school.
reading experiences. A recent study The advances in language that take
revealed that children whose mothers place in early childhood lay the
had more education had more founda- tion for later development in
advanced emergent literacy levels than the elementary school years, which
children whose mothers who had less we will discuss in Chapter 9.
edu- cation.Another study found that
literacy experiences (such as how often
the child was read to), the quality of the
4. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
mother’s engagement with her child
(such as attempts to cognitively VARIATIONS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
stimulate the child) and provision of EDUCATION
learning materials (such as age-
Attending preschool is rapidly becoming teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a
the norm for U.S. children. There are director. The teacher shows the child
many variations in the way young chil- how to perform intel- lectual activities,
dren are educated .The foundation of demonstrates interesting ways to
early childhood education has been the explore curriculum materials, and offers
child-centered kindergarten. help when the child requests it. “By
encouraging children to make
The Child-Centered Kindergarten decisions from an early age,
Nurturing is a key aspect of the child- Montessori programs seek to
centered kindergarten, which empha- develop self-regulated problem
sizes the education of the whole solvers who can make choices and
child and concern for his or her manage their time effectively”
physical, cognitive, and (Hyson, Copple, & Jones, 2006, p. 14).
socioemotional development
(Marion, 2010). Instruction is organized Some developmentalists favor the
around the child’s needs, interests, and Montessori approach, but others believe
learning styles. Emphasis is on the pro- that it neglects children’s socioemotional
cess of learning, rather than what is development. For example, although
learned.The child-centered kinder- Montessori fosters independence and
garten honors three principles: Each the development of cognitive skills, it
child follows a unique developmental deemphasizes verbal interaction
pattern; young children learn best between the teacher and child and peer
through firsthand experiences with interaction. Montessori’s critics also
people and materials; and play is argue that it restricts imaginative play
extremely important in the child’s and that its heavy reliance on self-
total development. Experi- menting, corrective materials may not adequately
exploring, discovering, trying out, allow for creativity and for a variety of
restructuring, speaking, and listening learning styles.
are frequent activities in excellent
kindergarten programs. Such programs Developmentally Appropriate and
are closely attuned to the Inappropriate Education
developmental status of 4- and 5-year- Many educators and psychologists
old children. conclude that preschool and young
elementary school children learn
best through active, hands-on
The Montessori Approach teaching methods such as games
and dramatic play. They know that
Montessori schools are patterned children develop at varying rates and
after the educational philosophy of that schools need to allow for these
Maria Montessori (1870–1952), an individual differences. They also
Italian physician-turned-educator, argue that schools should focus on
who at the beginning of the 20th improving children’s socioemotional
century crafted a revolutionary development, as well as their cognitive
approach to young children’s development. Educators refer to this
education. The Montessori approach is type of schooling as developmentally
a philosophy of education in which appropriate practice (DAP), which is
children are given considerable freedom based on knowledge of the typical
and spontaneity in choosing activities. development of children within an
They are allowed to move from one age span (age-appropriateness), as
activity to another as they desire. The
well as the uniqueness of the child classrooms are likely to have less
(individual-appropriateness). DAP stress, be more motivated, be more
emphasizes the importance of skilled socially, have better work habits,
creating settings that encourage be more creative, have better language
children to be active learners and skills, and demonstrate better math
reflect children’s interests and skills than children in developmentally
capabilities. inappropriate classrooms . However, not
all studies show significant positive
Larry Page and Sergey Brin, founders of benefits for devel- opmentally
the highly successful Internet search appropriate education.Among the
engine, Google, recently said that their reasons it is difficult to generalize about
early years at Montessori schools were research on developmentally
a major factor in their success appropriate education is that individual
(International Montessori Council, programs often vary, and devel-
2006). During an interview with Barbara opmentally appropriate education is an
Walters, they said they learned how to evolving concept. Recent changes in
be self-directed and self-starters at the concept have given more attention
Montessori (ABC News, 2005). They to sociocultural factors, the teacher’s
commented that Montessori active involvement and implementation
experiences encouraged them to think of systematic inten- tions, as well as
for themselves and allowed them the how strong academic skills should be
freedom to develop their own interests. emphasized and how they should be
2011). Desired outcomes for DAP taught.
include thinking critically, working EDUCATION FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
cooperatively, solving problems, WHO ARE DISADVANTAGED
developing self-regulatory skills, and
enjoying learning. The emphasis in For many years, U.S. children from low-
DAP is on the process of learning income families did not receive any
rather than its content.The most education before they entered the first
recent developmentally appropriate grade. Often, they began first grade
guidelines provided by the National already several steps behind their
Association for the Educa- tion of Young classmates in their readiness to learn. In
Children (NAEYC, 2009) the summer of 1965, the federal
government began an effort to break the
cycle of poverty and poor education for
What are some differences in young children in the United States
developmentally appropriate and through Project Head Start. It is a
inappropriate practice? compensatory program designed to
provide children from low-income
developmentally appropriate practice families the opportunity to acquire
Education that focuses on the typical the skills and experiences important
developmental patterns of children (age- for success in school . After almost
appropriateness) and the uniqueness of half a century, Head Start continues to
each child (individual-appropriateness). be the largest federally funded
Do developmentally appropriate program for U.S. children with almost
educational practices improve young 1 million U.S. chil- dren enrolled
children’s development? Some annually. In 2007, 3 percent of Head
researchers have found that young Start children were 5 years old, 51
children in developmentally appropriate percent were 4 years old, 36 percent
were 3 years old, and 10 percent were were on par with national averages in
under 3 years of age (Administration for literacy and math.
Children & Families, 2008).Early Head
Start was established in 1995 to serve One high-quality early childhood
children from birth to 3 years of age. In education program (although not a
2007, half of all new funds appropriated Head Start program) is the Perry
for Head Start programs were used for Preschool program in Ypsilanti,
the expansion of Early Head Start. Michigan, a two-year preschool program
Researchers have found positive effects that includes weekly home visits from
for Early Head Start (Hoffman & Ewen, program personnel. In analyses of the
2007). long-term effects of the program, adults
who had been in the Perry Preschool
Project Head Start program were compared with a control
group of adults from the same
A government-funded program that is background who did not receive the
designed to provide children from enriched early childhood education
low-income families with the Those who had been in the Perry
opportunity to acquire the skills and Preschool program had fewer teen
experiences important for school pregnancies and higher high school
success. graduation rates, and at age 40 more
were in the workforce, owned their own
homes, had a savings account, and had
Head Start programs are not all created fewer arrests.
equal. One estimate is that 40 percent
of the 1,400 Head Start programs are of CONTROVERSIES IN EARLY
questionable quality .More attention CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
needs to be given to developing Two current controversies in early
consistently high-quality Head Start childhood education involve (1) what
programs. the cur- riculum for early childhood
Evaluations support the positive education should be (Hyson, 2007 and
influence of quality early childhood (2) whether preschool education
programs on both the cognitive and should be universal in the United
social worlds of disadvantaged young States (Zigler, Gilliam, & Jones, 2006).
children. A recent national evaluation of Curriculum Controversy A current
Head Start revealed that the program controversy in early childhood education
had a positive influence on language involves what the curriculum for early
and cognitive development.By the end childhood education should be. On one
of the first grade there were a few side are those who advocate a child-
lasting outcomes—better vocabulary for centered, con- structivist approach
those who went to Head Start as 4-year- much like that emphasized by the
olds, and better oral comprehension for National Association for the Education
those who went to Head Start as 3-year- of Young Children (NAEYC), along the
olds. Another recent study found that lines of develop- mentally appropriate
when young children initially began practice. On the other side are those
Head Start, they were well below their who advocate an academic, direct-
more academically advantaged peers in instruction approach.
literacy and math. However, by the end
of the first grade the Head Start children In reality, many high-quality early
childhood education programs include
both academic and constructivist children who are disadvantaged rather
approaches. Many education experts than funding preschool education for all
like Lilian Katz (1999), worry about 4-year-old children. Some critics,
academic approaches that place too especially homeschooling advocates,
much pressure on young children to emphasize that young children should
achieve and don’t provide any be educated by their parents, not by
opportunities to actively construct schools. Thus, controversy continues to
knowledge. Competent early childhood characterize whether universal
programs also should focus on cognitive preschool education should be
development and socioemotional implemented.
development, not exclusively on
cognitive development (NAEYC, 2009;
Ritchie, Maxwell, & Bredekamp, 2009).
What is the curriculum controversy in
early childhood education?
Universal Preschool Education Another
early childhood education controversy
focuses on whether preschool education
should be instituted for all U.S. 4-year-
old children. Edward Zigler and his
colleagues (2006) recently argued that
the United States should have universal
preschool education. They emphasize
that quality pre- schools prepare
children for school readiness and
academic success. Zigler and his
colleagues (2006) cite research that
shows quality preschool programs
increase the likelihood that once
children go to elementary and
secondary school they will be less likely
to be retained in a grade or drop out of
school. They also point to analyses
indicating that universal preschool
would bring considerable cost savings
on the order of billions of dollars
because of a diminished need for
remedial and justice services.
Critics of universal preschool education
argue that the gains attributed to pre-
school and kindergarten education are
often overstated. They especially stress
that research has not proven that
nondisadvantaged children improve as
a result of attending a preschool. Thus,
the critics say it is more important to
improve preschool education for young