First Science

Encyclopedia
 REVISED EDITION
Project editor Suneha Dutta
Contents
Art editor Nehal Verma
Senior editor Shatarupa Chaudhuri
DTP designer Bimlesh Tiwary
Managing editors Laura Gilbert,
Alka Thakur Hazarika
Managing art editors Diane Peyton Jones,
Romi Chakraborty
CTS manager Balwant Singh
Producer, pre-production Francesca Wardell
Producer Nicole Landau
Jacket editor Ishani Nandi
Jacket designer Dheeraj Arora
Publisher Sarah Larter
Publishing director Sophie Mitchell
Publishing art director Stuart Jackman
Consultant Jack Challoner

ORIGINAL EDITION
Design team Gemma Fletcher, Hedi Gutt,
Laura Roberts-Jensen, Mary Sandberg,
Poppy Joslin
Editorial team Lorrie Mack, Alexander Cox,
Wendy Horobin, Joe Harris
Senior editors Carrie Love, Caroline Stamps,
Ben Morgan
What is science?
Senior art editor Rachael Smith 4–5 What is science?
Publishing manager Bridget Giles
Art director Rachael Foster 6–9 Advances in science
Category publisher Mary Ling
Production editor Clare Mclean
10–11 Being a scientist
Production controller Pip Tinsley 12–13 Science and everyday life
Consultants Donald R Franceschetti,
John Farndon

First published in Great Britain in 2009

Life science
This edition first published in Great Britain in 2017 14–15 The living world
by Dorling Kindersley Limited
80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL
16–17 Micro life
18–19 Fungi
Copyright © 2009, © 2017
Dorling Kindersley Limited 20–21 What is a plant?
A Penguin Random House Company 22–23 How plants work
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
001–280449–Jun/2017
24–25 Plant reproduction
26–27 What is an animal?
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted 28–29 Types of animal
in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, 30–31 Animal reproduction
photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the prior
written permission of the copyright owner. 32–33 Inheritance
A CIP catalogue record for this book
34–35 Bones and muscles
is available from the British Library. 36–37 Blood and breathing
ISBN 978-0-2411-8875-0 38–39 The digestion ride
Printed and bound in Hong Kong 40–41 Health
A WORLD OF IDEAS:
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW

2
There is a question at the bottom of each page...
 42–43 Food chains 108–109 Soil
44–45 Ecosystems 110–111 Resources in the ground
46–47 Staying alive 112–113 Fresh and salt water
48–49 The Earth’s cycles 114–115 The water cycle
50–51 Carbon cycle 116–117 The atmosphere
118–119 Weather
Materials science 120–121 The energy crisis
52–53 What’s the matter?
54–55 Properties of matter Reference section
56–57 Changing states 122–123 True or false?
58–59 Amazing atoms 124–125 Quiz
60–61 Molecules 126–127 Who or what am I?
62–63 Elements 128–129 Where in the world?
64–65 Properties of elements 130–131 Glossary
66–67 Mixtures 132–135 Index
68–69 Reactions and changes 136 Picture credits
70–71 Irreversible changes

Physical science About this book

72–73 What is energy? The pages of this book have special features that
74–75 Energy changes will show you how to get your hands on as much
76–77 Electricity information as possible! Look out for these:
78–79 Magnetism The Picture Detective
80–81 Energy waves will get you searching
through each section
82–83 Light for the answers.
84–85 Sound
86–87 Heat Turn and Learn tells
you where to look
88–89 Forces for more information
90–91 Forces and motion on a subject.

92–93 Machines
Every page is colour-
coded to show you
which section it is in.
Earth and space science
94–95 The Universe
96–97 Starry skies
98–99 Our solar system
100–101 The Moon ird or what?
we
102–103 The Earth’s structure These buttons
104–105 Rocks and minerals give extra weird
106–107 Shaping the land and wonderful
facts.

... check here for answer.

3
What is science?

What is science?
Science is the search for truth From atoms to space
Scientists study a huge
and knowledge. Scientists suggest variety of things – from the
explanations of why things are tiniest atoms that make up
everything around us to
as they are, and then they test the mysteries of space.
those explanations, using
experiments. Some of what Everything you
see is made up of

science discovers can be minuscule atoms.

applied to our everyday lives.

Life science Physical science

How do living things survive This science looks at
and grow, where do they live, energy and forces. There
what do they eat, and how do are different types of
their bodies work? Life science energy, including light,
seeks to answer such questions heat, and sound. Forces
The scientific are the things that hold
about the living world, from study of plants
microscopic bacteria to plants is called botany. everything in place in
and animals – including you! our world. Without the
force of gravity, for The study of
example, you would electricity is part
of physical science.
fly off into space!

The Earth

Life science studies the living

world around us.

4
What is the study of animals called?
 What is science?

This is NASA’s
Atlantis orbiter – part
of its Space Shuttle
programme, which
ended in 2011.

Earth and space science

The Earth is a dot in a vast
Universe filled with planets and
moons, stars and galaxies. As far
as we know, the Earth is special
because it is the only place that
supports life. Earth and space
science is the study of the structure
of our planet – and everything
that exists beyond it.
Volcanology is the scientific
study of volcanoes.

Materials science
Our Universe is filled with atoms
and molecules, which make up All about change
elements, compounds, and mixtures. People always want to
Materials science is the study of make life better, and
these things, how they behave, that’s what puts us on
how we use them, and the road to scientific
how they react discovery. Whether
One branch of science studies with one it’s finding cures or
how materials can change.
another. sending rockets into
space, science drives us
onwards, changing the
world we live in.

Pictures of the Earth

from space help scientists
understand the Earth better.

Zoology.
5
What is science?

Advances in science
Great scientists are thinkers who understand the A falling apple

world around us, provide solutions to problems, probably inspired

Newton to think
about gravity.
and create new things. This has led to many
great inventions and discoveries.
Johannes Gutenberg (c.1398–1468)
Gutenberg played a key role in printing. Experts
believe he invented metal-type printing in Europe. In a rainbow, white
Gutenberg’s press was quick, accurate, and light breaks up into
seven colours.
hard-wearing, compared to
earlier woodblock printing.
Isaac Newton
(1642–1727)
Newton investigated forces and
light. He realized there must be a
force that keeps the planets in orbit
around the Sun. This force is known
as gravity. Newton also discovered
Gutenberg’s first printed
that white light is a mixture of lots
book was the Bible in 1455. of different colours.

1400 1500 1600

Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642)
Wooden replica of Galileo proved that the Earth
da Vinci’s Ornithopter moves around the Sun by
looking at the solar system
Leonardo da Vinci through a telescope.
(1452–1519) A few wise thinkers had Replica of a
17th-century
Da Vinci was a painter and inventor. always suspected the telescope
He drew plans for helicopters, truth, but most people
aeroplanes, and parachutes. at the time believed
Unfortunately, the technology of the that our Earth
time was not good enough to build a was the centre
working model for any of these. of everything.

6
Who invented the bifocal lens?
 Advances in science
you know?
did Super inventions!
More than
2,000 years ago, Greek
Inventions and discoveries
A kite helped
Benjamin Franklin thinker Aristotle recommended have changed the course
learn about
lightning and that people study nature, of our history.
electricity. and carry out experiments The first known wheel
to test the accuracy was used in Mesopotamia
of ideas. around 3500 BCE.
Benjamin Franklin
(1706–1790) Paper was invented in
China around 105 CE,
American scientist Benjamin but kept secret for
Franklin experimented with Louis many years.
lightning and electricity. The magnetic compass
His work in the 1700s
Pasteur was first used by the
laid the foundations for (1822–1895) Chinese. It was invented
Pasteur is known around 247 BCE.
today’s electrical world.
for discovering The parachute was first
pasteurization – tested in 1617 by Faust
Vrancic, centuries after
a process that da Vinci made his drawings.
uses heat to destroy bacteria
The steam engine was
in food, particularly milk. invented in 1804. The
He also discovered that earliest successful model
some diseases were caused reached 48 kph (30 mph).
by germs and encouraged The colour photo was
hospitals to be very clean first produced by physicist
Franklin risked his life flying a kite – he James Maxwell in 1861.
could have been struck by lightning. to stop germs spreading.

1700 1800

William Wilhelm Conrad

Herschel Röntgen (1845–1923)
(1738–1822) Röntgen discovered
Herschel is well electromagnetic rays –
known for his work today known as X-rays –
in astronomy (he on 8 November 1895.
was the first to This important
identify the planet discovery earned
Uranus). He also him the first
discovered infrared radiation Nobel Prize for
– this technology is used today for Physics in 1901.
wireless communications, night vision, X-rays allow doctors to
weather forecasting, and astronomy. look inside the human body.

Benjamin Franklin.
7
What is science?
Orange juice is
Movie projectors a good source
developed quickly after
Edison’s early work.
Karl Landsteiner of vitamin C.

(1868–1943)
Austrian-born physiologist
Landsteiner discovered
that human blood can
be divided into four main
groups – A, B, AB, and O.
Early movie This laid the foundation of
projector modern blood groupings. Albert Szent-Györgyi
(1893–1986)
The Hungarian scientist
Albert Szent-Györgyi is best
known for discovering vitamin
C. He also pioneered research
into how muscles move and
work. In 1937, he won the
Thomas Edison Nobel Prize for physiology
and medicine.
(1847–1931)
Thomas Alva Edison
produced more than 1,000
inventions, including long-
lasting light bulbs, batteries, Blood transfusions play You inherit your
an important part in Red blood type from
and movie projectors. modern medicine. blood cells your parents.

1800 1850

Earthquakes
Albert destroy homes
Charles Richter
Einstein and office
buildings.
(1900–1985)
(1879–1955) Richter developed a way
German-born to measure the power of
physicist Albert earthquakes. He worked
Einstein’s famous on his scale with
equation E=mc2 fellow physicist
explained how Beno Gutenberg.
Einstein’s equation
energy and mass
are related. It helped
scientists understand A “great” earthquake Epicentre (an
how the Universe works. (8–9.9 on the Richter earthquake’s
scale) strikes on average point of
once a year. origin)
8
Who was the father of the frozen food industry?
 Advances in science
Alan Turing
Modern inventions
(1912–1954)
During World War II, Imagine the world
Alan Turing, a brilliant without these fantastic
mathematician, helped inventions!
develop code-breaking Tablet The first antibiotic,
machines that eventually penicillin, was discovered
led to the invention of accidentally.
modern computers.
Modern cars are driven by
The English used Turing’s An Apple internal combustion engines
machine to break German smartphone
codes that were sent through
that run on petrol or diesel.
the Enigma machine during
World War II. Nuclear power is
Mobile phones and efficient, but some people
think it could harm us.
Computers (1941) tablets (1980s)
The first computers were The first mobiles Plastics technology
huge machines. They were large and is used to make many of
couldn’t cope with heavy, weighing the things in your home.
complicated tasks, but about 35 kg
worked on only one (77 lb). Tablet Compact discs are
thing at a time. small and light, and they
technology has store lots of information.
Today’s laptops also improved
can be lightweight
and portable. drastically since Energy-efficient light
Early computers its invention in bulbs help save energy
filled whole rooms. in your home.
the late 1980s.

1900 1950

DNA profiling (1986) The Internet (1990s)

The discovery of DNA With its roots in the
(which holds information in 1960s, the Internet
human cells) led to DNA (short for internetwork)
profiling, a huge help to the became public during the
police – criminals can now mid-1990s, and is now
be identified by a single used for fun and education
hair or spot of blood. by about 2.5 billion users –
70 per cent of whom are
Nuclear bombs (1945) online every day.
The USA dropped two nuclear
bombs on Japan in World War II, killing Before DNA profiling, police
identified criminals by their
nearly 300,000 people. It is the only time fingerprints. This system
nuclear weapons have been used in war. was developed in the 1890s.

Clarence Birdseye, who started a frozen food company in 1924.

9
What is science?

Being a scientist Experiments can involve toxic

fumes or chemicals that
Scientists study the world around might explode, so scientists
wear protective goggles.
us. They look for gaps in existing
knowledge and try to find the
answers. Not all scientists study
the same things – they specialize
in different areas.
Testing, testing
Scientists explore their ideas and theories
using tests called experiments. In this
book, there are lots of experiments you
can try out for yourself.
Mixing it up
Experimenting with chemicals and
their reactions can produce some
mixed results. Some mixtures can be
dangerous, while others can be the
answer the scientists are after.

10
How much bigger do things look through a microscope?
 Being a scientist

Hooke’s
Modern
microscope
Types of scientist
microscope
A closer look Almost everything
The microscope in the world is the
was developed subject of study by
by two Dutch
spectacle makers in
a scientific specialist.
around 1610, and then Zoologists study
refined by Robert Hooke animals of all kinds
in England. Early models except human beings.
revealed tiny organisms in
Biologists are interested
water, while modern versions in everything about life
can look inside a single cell. and living organisms.

Paleontologists are
experts on fossils, and try
to learn about organisms
from them.

Botanists learn about

the world of plants, plant
types, and plant groups.

Chemists study elements

and chemicals, and they
help make new substances.

Astronomers are experts

on space, planets, stars,
Inside view and the Universe.
When you go to a hospital,
the doctor may send you for Entomologists are a
a body scan. Using a powerful special kind of zoologists
who learn about insects.
machine, the medical team
can see what’s going on Geologists find out about
inside you. our Earth, particularly by
studying rocks.

hands on Archaeologists are

interested in the remains
Fill a cup or of past peoples and lives.
vase with water, and add a
Ecologists study the
few drops of food colouring. relationship between
Experiments allow
Cut the end off the stem of a scientists to observe
living things and
flower and put the flower in and theorize how their environment.
the water. The petals turn things work and why.
It has been found, for Oceanographers
the colour you mixed instance, how plants know all about oceans
in the water. take up food and and ocean life.
water from the soil
and transport it up
the stem.

Some microscopes can magnify objects up to 2,000 times!

11
What is science?

Science and everyday life

Science is not just used by experts Iron
Teflon
working in laboratories. It is part Invented in 1938, Teflon
was used in space suits.
of all our lives. From brushing In everyday life, it stops
your teeth to setting your alarm, stuff from
sticking
science is with you all day, every to hot Teflon pan
day, in the form of technology. surfaces.

Plastic fantastic
Look around you and you will
Electricity see dozens of things made of
Electricity lights up the plastic. From containers
world and gives us the to toys, plastic is a
energy to run machines versatile and hard-
and gadgets with which wearing material.
we can cook, travel, Many plastics can
Plastic building blocks
work, and play. now be recycled.
Cities at night are bright
places, lit up by offices, Some medicines come in
houses, and street lights. plastic bottles. Sometimes
tablets are contained in plastic
packets, and sold in strips.

12
What was the first satellite in space?
 Science and everyday life
Surgeons get
a helping hand
from computers.

Satellite orbiting
the Earth

Masks, aprons, and

In the best of health gloves help doctors Communications
Long ago, people relied only keep operation rooms Satellites orbit the Earth,
free from infection.
on herbs to cure diseases. Thanks beaming back all sorts
to modern science, many illnesses, of information. They send
including those that were once TV signals, supply weather
untreatable, can now be information, and help us
cured or prevented. look into space.

Clothing technology
Advances in sports- From here to there
clothing technology have Science and technology make
impacted everyday clothes. it much easier to get around.
Breathable fabric, stretchy Trains, planes, and cars
spandex, and thermal make the world a smaller
underwear were developed place and allow us to visit
from specialized sportswear. exotic destinations. They
are also useful for getting
to school on time.

Bullet trains in
Japan travel up to
300 kph (186 mph).

Turn
and learn
Health:
pp. 40-41
Electricity:
pp. 76-77

Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957.

13
Life science

The living world

Our amazing world is filled with millions
of species, or types, of living thing.
They can be as big as elephants
Spider or so small that you have to look Dragonfly

through a microscope to see them.

Micro-organisms
Animals Micro-organisms are very tiny –
The animal kingdom is each of them is made up
made up of vertebrates (animals of a single cell. This
with a backbone) and invertebrates amoeba has been
(animals without a backbone). magnified more
than 100 times.

Coral reef, home

to a variety of Mammals, birds,
living organisms reptiles, amphibians,
and fish are vertebrates. Sunflower

Deer

14
Which group of animals has the most members?
 The living world

Picture detective
Look through the Life
Insects, such as Science pages and see
butterflies, are
Snake
invertebrates. if you can identify the
pictures below.
Plants
Plants cannot move
around like animals. To
survive and grow, they
have to make their own
food. Plants provide food
for many animals and
fungi, too.

Signs of life
Living things share some
characteristics. They all
need food and water. They
also grow, reproduce, and
adapt to their environment.

Fungi Tree frog

Fungi (like toadstools,
mushrooms, and moulds)
are neither plants nor
animals, but they’re more
like plants than animals.
Fungi

Turn
and learn
How plants work:
pp. 22-23
Types of animal:
pp. 28-29

Invertebrates – they make up 97 per cent of all animal species.

15
Life science

Micro life
Petri dish

Most living things are

made up of just one cell, Each spot on
this petri dish
and are too small to see. is a colony
made up of
To study them, we must thousands
of bacteria.
use powerful microscopes.
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled life forms. Whip-like structures
They are found in the ocean, in the push the bacterium
along. They spin Bacterial colonies
air, and even in our bodies. They can round like screws.
reproduce very quickly by splitting
into two. Some bacteria can make
energy from sunlight. However, most
feed on dead plants and animals. Thin hairs attach
the bacterium to
a surface.

Model of a bacterium

Harmful bacteria
The cell is full of a
Some bacteria can cause jelly-like substance DNA inside the
serious illnesses such as that helps it to bacterium acts
work and grow. like a control
cholera and tetanus. Good centre.
sanitation and antibiotic
drugs help fight diseases
caused by harmful bacteria.
The cell wall holds the
bacterium together
and protects it.

Good bacteria
Some bacteria are helpful
to humans. Bacteria in
our guts protect us from
Bacteria may be shaped like rods, illnesses. Other bacteria
spirals, or spheres. are used to make foods
such as yoghurt and cheese.
16
How many copies can a single bacterium make of itself in 24 hours?
 Micro life
Protective
protein coat
Model of
a virus Viruses
Viruses are much, much smaller than bacteria.
They are shaped like spheres or rods. Viruses
are not really alive, because they are not
made of cells. They only become active
when they invade a cell. They copy
themselves by taking over the cell
and turning it into a virus factory.

Plant viruses
Plant viruses can change the way
DNA or that plants develop. For example,
RNA strand one virus affects the pigment in
tulips’ petals. It stops the pigment
from working in
Vaccinations some places. This
Vaccinations can help to makes the petals
protect people from harmful look stripey.
diseases. A person is injected A virus has
with a weakened form of made light
a virus or bacterium. This patches appear
on these
prepares the immune system leaves.
for the real thing.

The streaked patterns

on this tulip are caused
Harmful viruses by a virus.

Viruses can cause

different illnesses. Other tiny cells
Like bacteria, another
Chickenpox is easy to group of organisms called
catch. The main symptom archaea are all single-
is itchy spots.
celled. There are also some
single-celled organisms,
Rabies is a fatal virus
that is common in animals
such as amoebas, algae,
such as dogs. and yeasts, that are closely
related to animals, fungi,
Colds are viruses and can and plants.
bring on a sore throat, Microscope photograph of algae
runny nose, and cough.

It can make 4,000 million million million copies.

17
Life science

Fungi Bread mould

Mushrooms, toadstools, yeasts, and

moulds are kinds of fungi. Fungi
are neither animals nor plants. They
feed on living or dead animals or Warm,
moist bread

plants, and absorb their nutrients. Moulds

Moulds are microscopic fungi
Mushrooms which grow in long strands
Many fungi are hidden in the soil, called “hyphae”. They feed
Gills or inside food sources like trees. on dead organic matter – like
They only become visible when our food – by making it rot.
they grow mushrooms.
Stem Mushrooms scatter
spores, which will
grow into new fungi.

The gills release

spores into the air.

Athlete’s foot
Picking wild mushrooms Athlete’s foot is a disease
Many wild mushrooms are not only edible, caused by ringworm fungi
but also delicious. However, some are highly growing on human feet.
poisonous! Harmful mushrooms are often called It makes the skin between
toadstools. They sometimes have bright colours your toes turn red and flaky.
that warn animals not to eat them.
Wood blewit mushroom

Jelly antler fungus

Fly agaric
Penny bun mushrooms
mushroom

18
How big is the world’s largest fungus?
 Fungi
Penicillin Penicillin on
In 1928, the Scottish scientist a petri dish
Sir Alexander Fleming made
an important discovery.
He realized that the mould
Penicillium notatum makes a
chemical that kills bacteria. The bacteria have
That chemical, called penicillin, retreated from the
penicillin, leaving
is used today as a medicine a clear ring.
to treat many illnesses.
Uses of fungi
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955)
Fungi have many
uses in the home
Truffles and in industry.
Truffles are strong-smelling
Medicinal fungi can
fungi that grow underground. be used to cure many
They are a delicacy used diseases that were
in cookery. Truffle hunters once fatal.
use pigs and dogs to sniff Wine is made from grape
them out. juice when yeast turns
the sugar in the juice
into alcohol.

Yeast Blue cheese is made

Yeast are microscopic, with a mould called
Penicillium roquefortii.
single-celled fungi. When
they feed, they turn sugar Soy sauce is made
White truffle by adding fungi and
into the gas carbon dioxide
yeast to soy beans
and alcohol. Yeast plays an and roasted wheat.
important part in bread-
Pesticidal fungi can
making. As it releases gas, be an environmentally
Black perigord it makes bread rise. friendly way of killing
Pig sniffing out mushroom truffle
insects or weeds.

Shaggy parasol Shaggy cap Common

mushroom mushroom chanterelle Chicken of the
mushroom woods mushroom

A mushroom in the Malheur National Forest, USA, covers 8.9 sq km (3.4 sq miles).
19
Life science

What is a plant?
Plants make their own food from the
Sun’s rays. Most have leaves that reach
outwards to capture sunlight, and roots
that dig deep for nutrients and stability.
Seaweed
Seaweed looks like a
Plant parts plant, but is an alga.
There are lots of different plants. It doesn’t have roots,
But most are made of the same so it has to stick to rocks
vital parts – roots, stems, or float with the tide.
leaves, and flowers.
The petals attract
insects and birds
that collect pollen.

Stems The stamen and

Stems support the leaves carpels form the
and flowers, and allow reproductive organs
of a plant.
water and food to flow from
the roots to the leaves. Flowers
Flowers are key to plant
reproduction. They make
pollen, and develop seeds
and fruit.

Roots Leaves
These are the foundations These are the work factories
of the plant. They dig deep of the plant and capture the
into the soil, providing Sun’s energy.
stability, as well as
sucking up nutrients.
eird or what?
w
The Venus flytrap
doesn’t get its energy
just from the Sun. It
Water lily also lures and feeds
The water lily’s flat leaves on unsuspecting
float on the pond surface, insects. Yum!
as its roots sink into
the pond bed.

20
What plant has the largest leaves?
 What is a plant?
Types of plant
Have a look around you. Not all Most conifer
plants are the same. But some trees keep their
leaves all
plants are more similar than others. year round.

Fern leaves unfurl

as they grow. Ferns
Ferns love damp and
shady areas. They have
prong-like leaves and
spread using spores.

There are about

12,000 species of moss.
Conifers The sequoia is
the largest tree
Conifer trees grow cones in the world.
that store their seeds.
Most conifers have
needle-shaped leaves.
Moss
Mosses love moisture
and grow in clumps. Leaves
Ash leaf
They don’t have roots You can identify
or grow flowers. a tree by the shape
of its leaves. In most
plants, leaves are
broad and flat.
Flowering plants
This is the biggest group of plants.
Maple leaf
They produce flowers, fruits and
Scarlet
seeds, which mainly grow in oak leaf
seasonal cycles.

Rainforest
These warm and
wet forests are
home to nearly
half the world’s
plant species.

Deciduous
Deciduous plants
shed their leaves to
survive drier seasons.

The raffia palm has leaves that grow up to 24 m (79 ft) long.
21
Life science

How plants work The Sun’s energy

is trapped in the
leaves, and helps
make food.

Plants have an amazing

system for making
and transporting Cross-section
of a leaf vein

food to all their

different parts.

Photosynthesis
Leaves have a green pigment
called chlorophyll, which
absorbs energy from sunlight.
This energy is used to change
water and carbon dioxide Food is moved from leaves
A waste product to roots and growing tips
into sugar. of photosynthesis along a set of tubes called
is oxygen, which phloem vessels.
animals need
to survive.
Some water evaporates through
tiny holes, called stomata, on
the surface of the leaf. This
process is called transpiration.

Tiny tubes, called xylem vessels,

carry water up the stem from
the roots to the leaves.

Cross-section
of a stem
Veins carry water
around the leaf.
.
nd
ou

gr
e
Roo th
ts su m
ck water up fro

22
Are plants the only organism to use photosynthesis?
 How plants work
New growth Desert plants
Plants use sugar and starch
Plants that live in dry
as fuel. The fuel is transported
areas such as deserts have
to cells where it is burnt to
to save their water. Many
release energy, which is used
have leaves that are thick
to grow new cells and repair
and covered in wax to stop
old ones.
transpiration. Cacti have
spines rather than leaves,
and thick stems in which
Wilting leaves they can store water.
On warm, sunny days, plants
lose a lot of water from their
leaves. If they lose too much,
their leaves collapse. This is
called wilting. If plants don’t
get enough water, their leaves
will shrivel and die.

The fruit acts as

a store of sugar
and water.

Storing food
Spare food is stored for future
use. Plants such as hyacinths
store food in the base of their
leaves. This makes the leaves
swell and form a bulb. The
Root
Bulb bulb survives the winter and
Carrot plants in spring it sprouts new leaves.
store food in
their roots.

ird or what
we The sea slug ?
Elysia chlorotica uses
photosynthesis. The slug
eats algae that it doesn’t
fully digest. The remains in
its system continue to
photosynthesize the
food and provide
energy.

No, many bacteria also make food by photosynthesis.

23
Life science

Plant reproduction
Most plants start life as seeds. Stamen Ovary Petal
When the conditions are
right, they start to grow.
As fully grown plants,
they make new seeds
and the cycle starts
again.

Fertilizing flowers
A flower has female
parts that make eggs,
or ova, and a ring of
Pass the pollen male parts, called
Pollen plays a vital part
stamens, which make
in plant reproduction.
pollen. Seeds develop
It looks like tiny pieces
when pollen fertilizes
of dust and can be blown
the female ova on
from flower to flower.
another flower. This
It also sticks to insects
is called pollination.
and birds and gets
flown to new flowers.

Waving in the wind

A catkin is the flower of
the willow tree. In catkins,
the male and female parts
are on separate flowers.
Catkins move in the wind
and release a lot of pollen,
which then pollinates
the female flowers.

Bees carry
pollen in sacs
on their legs.

24
What is a spore?
 Plant reproduction
Nectarine

Fruits and seeds

When a plant has been
fertilized, the ovary swells
Pear
up and becomes a fruit.
There are many different
types of fruit. Some are
fleshy and sweet tasting,
and others are dry and hard.
Plum

Seeds are enclosed

Fig within a fruit
Scattering seeds
Plants scatter their seeds
in different ways. New life
Seeds contain
Dandelions have seeds everything needed
with tiny parachutes that to grow a new plant.
are carried by the wind. With enough food,
water, and light the
Sycamore seeds have a seed sprouts a root
wing that allows them
to glide to the ground.
and baby stem,
known as a shoot.
Burrs become attached Shoot
to animal fur and get
carried far away.

Animals eat fruits Root

and drop the seeds
on the ground.
Seed Seed begins to grow New plant forms

Running away
Not all new plants grow get mucky
from seeds. The strawberry
plant produces long stems, Make your
called runners, that grow own small garden
along the ground. When inside a jar or tin. Fill it
the runner touches the with some soil, then
ground, a new plantlet plant some seeds. Water
takes root and becomes them and watch
a new plant. them grow!

It is similar to a seed and plays the same role in fungi and algae life cycles.
25
Life science

What is an animal?
A key definition of an animal, as opposed to a
plant, is that most animals can move voluntarily.
Animals must also eat other living things
to survive. Let’s take a look at some
of the things animals do.

Food is fuel
All animals have to find and
eat food to survive. Carnivores
Bald eagle
are animals that eat meat.
Herbivores eat mainly
plants. Omnivores are
creatures that eat both
Getting around plants and meat.
Many animals have Squirrels eat seeds, nuts,
fruits, and fungi.
muscles, which allow
them to move in a
variety of ways.
Birds fly by flapping
wings or gliding on What a nerve!
currents of hot air. Animals have
nerves, which carry
Animals like fish swim information from
by moving their bodies their sense organs.
and fins.
Most animals
have brains to
Some snakes wriggle,
others raise and flatten monitor this
their bodies. information.
The nerves also
carry orders from
Many animals walk and
run using their legs. the brain to the
organs and muscles –
such as instructions
Sea anemones reach
out their tentacles to stay still, attack,
to sting prey. or run away!

26
How many species of animal are there on the Earth?
 What is an animal?
Do animals talk?
Many animals are able to
communicate with each other
using either sounds or signals.

Pythons can go without food

for months after one big meal!

Making babies
Most animals reproduce when a
female egg is fertilized by a male
sperm. Some animals give birth
to babies, while others lay eggs. Most beetles will send “messages” to other
beetles using special chemicals.

Birds lay hard-shelled Baby birds have to break out Honey bees constantly communicate. They
eggs, which hatch into of the egg on their own. give directions with a special dance.
chicks or ducklings.

Monkeys scream
at each other to
sound an alarm.

Giraffes have seven

vertebrae in their necks –
the same as most other
mammals. They are
just much longer.

Nobody knows, but there are probably about 8 million.

27
Life science

Types of animal
There are many different types, Lizard

or species, of animals. Scientists Tortoise

put them in groups based on
their similar characteristics.
Mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, and fish are Reptiles
vertebrates. Creepy-crawlies Most reptiles have dry, scaly
skin. They mainly live on land.
are invertebrates. Nearly all reptiles lay eggs, but
some give birth to babies.

Mammals
Mammals usually have babies,
which feed on their mother’s milk
when they’re born. Mammals
often have fur on their bodies.
Humans are mammals.

Zebra

Wolf Deer fawn

Mouse Lion cub

28
Which is the only mammal that can fly?
 Types of animal

Birds Spineless creatures

All birds have wings, and Animals without
most (but not all) can fly.
backbones are called
They have feathers and
a beak. Baby birds hatch invertebrates. There
from eggs. are several types
Parrot of invertebrate.
Insects, spiders, and
crustaceans are part of
the largest animal group.

Snails and slugs are

part of an invertebrate
group called gastropods.

Worms have long,

soft bodies and no legs.
They like damp areas.

Ostriches can run fast Jellyfish, starfish, and

but can’t fly. sponges are invertebrates
that live in water.

Amphibians Octopus and squid

Amphibians live both in live in the sea. They
have eight arms.
water and on land. They
usually have slimy skin. Frog
Baby amphibians hatch
from jelly-like eggs.

Butterfly

Salamander

Fish Insects Ladybird

Fish need to live There are more types

in water. They of insect on the Earth than
breathe through any other animal. There are
gills, and most species of insects living almost
are covered in everywhere. They have six legs
scales. Fish use and bodies with three sections.
their fins to move
through water.
The bat.
29
Life science

Animal reproduction
Every kind of animal has young – A mother
macaque
this is called reproduction. holding
her baby

Usually, it happens after males

and females mate.
Mammal reproduction
After animals mate, egg cells
develop inside the mother. With
mammals, the eggs develop
fully into babies before the Helpless creatures
mother gives birth. Monkeys and apes need years
of nurturing before they can
ps inside its mother for tw
Zebra mother and baby
look after themselves.
velo
n t de oy
ha ear
le p s!
e
n
Family ties
A

Elephants look after

their young longer
than any other
animal apart
from humans.

Like all mammal

babies, elephants
drink milk from
their mother.

Turn
and learn
Plant reproduction:
pp. 24-25
Inheritance:
pp. 32-33

30
Which animal lays the largest egg?
 Animal reproduction
Babies from eggs
Most birds, fish, insects, Change and grow
and reptiles lay eggs. Some animals, like
The number of eggs butterflies, change
they lay can range enormously during
from one to millions! their life cycle.
A butterfly begins its life
A baby crocodile hatching as an egg, which hatches
out of its egg into a tiny caterpillar.

The caterpillar attaches

Young and free itself to a twig and forms
Once hatched in the a hard outer shell.
sand, baby turtles
have to find their own Inside the shell, the
caterpillar changes
way into the sea. and grows.

The shell, which is often

camouflaged, eventually
splits open.
Pouch babies
A female kangaroo has A butterfly emerges.
a pouch on its tummy. This process is known
as metamorphosis.
After it’s born, the tiny
baby crawls into the
pouch, where
it stays for
around three
more months,
feeding and
growing.

Family ties
Female elephants stay
with their family their
whole lives. Males
leave when they are
around 13 years old.
Male emperor penguins
look after the young
while the females
search for food.

The ostrich.
31
Life science

Inheritance
DNA s t r a n ds
Your genes are a set of chemical
instructions for building someone just
ca like you. You inherit them from your
parents, which is why you are like
rry
DNA
molecules are them in many ways. But unless you
in f
made of two long
strands twisted are a twin, your genes are unique.
or m

around each other.

Tiny cells
ation.

Cells are the building blocks that make up all

living things. Each cell in your body contains
a complete set of genes – the information to
make you as you are.
Chromosome

Nucleus

Amazing DNA
DNA is made of long
molecules. Each molecule is
made up of two parts joined Membrane
together like a twisted rope ladder. Chromosomes
DNA carries instructions on how to Your genes are organised into
make cells work, and how different types 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23
of cells develop and join together to build pairs. Genes and chromosomes are
a living thing, such as a plant or animal. made from the chemical called DNA.

What is a gene? of genes. You’ve got two of each

Every cell in your body contains gene, one from your mother and
a set of about 20,000 genes. one from your father. Sometimes
All living things pass on their the gene from your mother comes
genes to their offspring. Sexual into action, and other times your
reproduction combines two sets father’s gene wins out.
You can only roll your tongue
if the right genes are active.

32
What does DNA stand for?
 Inheritance
Colour blindness
Some people have a gene which causes
them to be colour blind. Look at the
circle below. If you can see the number
inside then you aren’t colour blind.

Seeing double
Test your Identical twins share most of their genes.
family and A quarter of these are mirror twins, which
friends to
see if anyone means that they are a mirror image of
you know is each other. For example, they might have
colour blind.
an identical mole, but on the opposite
arm to each other.
Turn
Who do you look like? The chromosomes of
and learn
your father determine
Children have a mixture of genes whether you will be
from their parents. This is why a boy or a girl.
Animal
you might have your mum’s reproduction:
eyes but your dad’s smile! pp. 30-31
Health:
pp. 40-41

This child has

inherited her hair
and skin colour
from her mother.

Deoxyribonucleic acid.
33
Life science

Bones and muscles Skull

You would be like a lump of jelly without

your skeleton – a frame of bones
Ribcage
that holds you up and protects
your internal organs.
Bending
backbone Backbone
Your backbone
contains 24 small
bones called The wrist is
made up of
vertebrae. They eight small
move almost bones.
The vertebrae every time
in your back
allow you to
you do. Cranium
twist and bend.

Head case
The bones that make up The hip is a
ball and socket
your skull join after you joint, allowing the
are born. The skull has legs to move around.
two parts – the lower jaw
and cranium. Only your
jaw can move.
Lower jaw
Bone marrow
supplies your
body with red
blood cells. The honeycomb
structure of
some bones
makes them
weigh less Both the knee and elbow are hinged
than if they joints that only move in one direction.
were solid.

Brilliant bone Ribcage

Bones have a clever A ribcage has
structure that makes them Snake ribcages long, curved bones
can run almost
light but strong. They can the entire that protect vital
heal themselves if broken. length of organs such as the
their bodies.
heart and lungs.
34
How many bones does an adult human have?
 Bones and muscles
Muscle magic
Bending bits Muscles are rubbery,
Different kinds of joints stretchy straps. You The pectoralis
all over your body keep can control some of muscle moves Biceps and
you moving. your muscles, like the your arm at triceps bend
the shoulder. and straighten
muscles in your arms your arm.
Fingers and thumbs and legs. Others,
have joints that allow
them to move in
such as your heart
many ways. and bladder, operate
without you having
Ankles contain different to think about it.
joints for up-and-down and
side-to-side movement.

Wrists have a joint that

allows them to turn but
not go all the way round.

Neck bones feature a

pivot joint that allows
your head to turn.

Making faces The tibialis

muscle bends
Muscles in your face are your foot.
attached to skin as well as
bone. They allow you to
make all kinds of expressions
to show how you are feeling.
Pulling pairs
Muscles can pull
but they can’t push.
They work in pairs
that pull in opposite
directions.
The biceps
contract to pull
the forearm up.

The triceps relax

and stretch when
the biceps contract.

There are 206 bones in an adult skeleton.

35
Life science

Blood and breathing

Every few seconds you breathe in air.
Inside your lungs, oxygen from the air
passes into your blood, which then
carries the oxygen all round your body.
Liquid of life Transport system
Blood is made up of Blood travels around our
Arteries
body in tubes called blood
three types of cells
vessels. The vessels called
floating in plasma. arteries (red) carry blood
away from your heart.
Red blood cells, the
most common type of Vessels called veins
blood cell, carry oxygen. (blue) carry blood Heart
back to your heart.
White blood cells, which
are part of the immune
system, fight disease.

Platelets help to
repair broken skin
and blood vessels.
Veins
Blood to all
Your beating heart parts of body
Every time your heart Blood to
left lung
beats, it pumps
blood around your
body. Half of the
heart sends blood
through your
lungs. The other
half sends blood
around the rest
of your body.
Blood from The left-hand
right lung pump squirts
blood to the
The right-hand organs and
pump sends blood muscles.
to the lungs to
receive oxygen.

Blood from legs and feet Blood to legs and feet

36
How many times does a child’s heart beat every day?
 Blood and breathing
Lungs
Your lungs fill most of the space inside
your ribcage. They take in oxygen
from the air and send out waste
carbon dioxide.

No lungs
Not every animal has lungs.
There are other ways
animals breathe.

Nostril

You breathe
through your nose
or your mouth.

Mouth
Tooth

Frogs can absorb oxygen

through their skin – even
underwater.

Insects such as caterpillars

breathe through body
openings called spiracles.

Your lungs are like The muscle under

sponges. They are your lungs is called
full of tiny channels the diaphragm. This
and chambers. moves up and down
to make you breathe.
Many sea creatures such as
sharks breathe through gills.

A child’s heart beats between 130,000 and 170,000 times a day.

37
Life science

The digestion ride

Take a ride down your digestive
system as it breaks down your
food to take out the nutrients
and get rid of waste.
Mouth
First stop is the mouth. Saliva
moistens the food to make it easier
to chew and swallow. Food then heads
down the oesophagus to your stomach.

Oesophagus
Stomach
In your stomach, muscles
churn the food around.
Stomach acids help
turn it a semi-liquid
before it is squirted
into the intestines.

Liver
Your liver stores some
vitamins and a sugar
called glucose, which
gives you energy.

Intestines
Your intestines are
a long, tangled tube.
The small intestine
absorbs food into
your bloodstream.
The large intestine
deals with
undigested
leftovers.

38
Which is longer, your small intestine or your large intestine?
 The digestion ride
Super system
Cows have an amazing Food for health
digestive system. You need to eat a variety
There are four parts of foods to keep your
to a cow’s stomach. body working efficiently.
Each one performs A good diet includes
a different function
to make sure food is
a balance of food
digested and used in from each of the
the most efficient way. five food groups.
Cows need this system Carbohydrates, found in
to help them digest food such as bread, cereal,
tough grass. and potatoes.

Fats, which can be found

in food such as oils. Fats
Stone eaters give you energy.
Some birds eat grit.
The tiny stones help Proteins, which can be
digestion by breaking found in eggs, fish, meat,
down food in the dairy products, and nuts.
bird’s stomach.
Minerals such as iron and
calcium. Iron is found in
some green vegetables.

Vitamins such as vitamin

C are found in fresh fruit
and vegetables.

Kidneys
Your kidneys filter and
clean your blood, taking
out the chemicals that
your body doesn’t need.
eird or what?
Kidneys also control w
the amount of water
Humans taste with
in your blood.
their tongues – but other
animals have different
methods. Butterflies
Waste disposal use their feet!
Solid waste from the large
intestine is stored in the
rectum, and urine is stored
in the bladder, until you are
ready to go to the toilet.

Your small intestine.

39
Life science

Health 5-a-day
Our way of life affects our health. You need to
eat at least five
Eating properly, exercising regularly, portions of fruits and
and getting enough sleep are all vegetables each day.

important for staying happy and fit.

u i t anditamvines agndemtianebles
Fr ou with v
ide y
rals as
t you becoming il we ll as
to preven l.
s prov ey help fibr
e.
oo d T h
f
A balanced diet Th
ese
It is vital to eat a balance of the
right foods. There are five major
food groups and they all help
your body in different ways.
ily d make
s
Mearepta,irsfdiasmhag,edacenllsd pulse
iet.
Proteinbout 15 per cent of y . It should
o ur da

Drink up!
a up

We can last
quite a long time
rsbody

without food, but

su your ns. in mi

not without water.

ns vita
a

Water helps to
g
or som e

digest food and

g a
the rts
d
o

flush out waste.

ion sp
n
sh tran
sas

Low water levels d

an cu
at

(dehydration) can F Fa
t

cause headaches, .
le s m
,
u sc ca l ciu
dry skin, and , an
m
d it h
te eth y ou w
tiredness. ts
n e c e ssa ry fo r b o n e s ,
vid e
Milk and dairy products pro uc
You need to drink water p ro d
frequently each day or D a ir y
you will dehydrate.

40
Which vitamin do we get from sunlight?
 Health

Keeping clean
Ideally, children
should be getting
Dirt contains harmful
about 60 minutes bacteria. Keeping clean
of exercise a day.
helps you stay healthy.
Brush your teeth in the
Swimming is a good way of morning and again before
exercising all your muscles. you go to bed.

Wash off the dirt with

regular baths or showers.

Exercise Wear clean clothes,

Exercise strengthens the especially clean pants
and socks, each day.
muscles and heart, and
encourages the production
of special chemicals called
endorphins. These make
us feel good and act to
reduce pain.
Foods
your body

Many children
relax more easily
in this group include bread,

into sleep with a

special, cuddly toy.
energy. They

Read a book!
Carbo

Health is not just about your

Sleep body; it helps to have an
s h o

When you sleep, your body rests active mind. Reading is

u ld m , an d

h
p ast

and your mind refreshes itself. a good activity because

y
ake

d
a

When you are young, you need it stimulates your brain.

r
u

at e
p

a lot of sleep, but you need less

ju st at oe s
p ot
s
ove . C

as you get older.

r a t r bo
hir hy
a
d
of rat

Turn
yo
d

u
e s r di
pr e t.
ov
ide
and learn
Muscles:
pp. 34–35
Digestion:
A child needs
between 10 and
pp. 38–39
12 hours sleep
a night.

Vitamin D, which is important for strong bones.

41
Life science

Food chains
Everything in the living world
needs food to survive. And 5 Decomposers
everything must feed At the start and end of every food
chain there are decomposers, such
on something else. as earthworms, fungi, and dung
This is called a beetles. They help break down dead
animals and plants, releasing the
food chain. Each nutrients back into the soil.
species is part of
several different
food chains.

1 Producers
Plants, such as acacia
trees and grasses, get
their energy from the
Sun. They are known
as producers.

2 Herbivores
Herbivores, such as
impala or zebra, eat
the plants. They do
not eat meat.

42
What carnivorous plant catches and eats flies and spiders?
 Food chains
4 Scavengers Sea food
Dead meat is known as The further you go up the
carrion and is eaten by chain, the fewer animals there
scavengers such as hyenas, are. So, in the sea, there are
vultures, and bald eagles. countless plankton, fewer fish,
These creatures rarely just a few seals, and fewer
kill for food – they find polar bears.
animals that have died
of natural causes and eat
other animals’ leftovers.

3 Carnivores
Carnivores only Polar bear

eat meat. On the

African plains,
carnivores include
lions, leopards,
and cheetahs.
Seals

Fish

Zooplankton

Phytoplankton

A Venus flytrap.
43
Life science

Ecosystems
All over the world, living things
exist in distinct kinds of places
called ecosystems. Each has its own
climate, soil, and complex community
of plants and animals. Oceans and
deserts have their own ecosystems.

Natural variety
There are different ecosystems all over the world, and the
animals and plants in each one are adapted to its conditions.

Forests
Wherever there is enough rain,
forests grow, and they provide
homes for a huge range of
plants and animals.

Oceans
More than 70 per cent of the
Earth’s surface is covered by
oceans, which contain many
Homes, sweet homes different habitats.
One ecosystem contains a
number of habitats. A habitat
is the natural home of a Rivers and lakes
particular plant or animal. Freshwater ecosystems exist in
A tree, or even a leaf, can pools, lakes, rivers, and streams.
be a habitat. They are found over most of the
world’s land surface.

Turn
and learn
Polar and tundra
The freezing polar lands are
Animal survival: at the far north and south of the
pp. 46-47 Earth, in the Arctic and Antarctic.
The carbon cycle: At the edges farthest away from
pp. 50-51 the poles, they merge into
warmer tundra areas.
44
What are the different types of forest ecosystem?
 Ecosystems
Mountains
Climate conditions change
as you go up a mountain,
so different ecosystems can
exist here.
Trees offer shelter for
animals, and food in
Seashores the form of leaves
Seashore ecosystems are and berries.
half land and half sea.
They change as the tide
comes in and out.

Grasslands
Humans evolved in grassland
habitats. Today, the largest
and fastest land animals
live here.
Insects feed on
flowers, and
pollinate them
Deserts at the same time.
They can be hot or cold, but
deserts are always dry, with
little rain. Only a few animals
and plants survive here.

Living together
A group of living things in a
habitat is called a community.
Each one contains plants,
animals, and other organisms
that all rely on each other.

Frogspawn hatches Rotting leaves and Snails feed on the Ferns grow Frogs, which eat
into tadpoles. Some wood are home to leaves of plants, and absorb insects, live both
of these are eaten fungi and small and provide food nutrients from on land and in
by other water animals, such as for other animals. the soil. the water.
creatures. beetles and slugs.

Tropical rainforests, deciduous woodlands, and cold, coniferous forests.

45
Life science

Staying alive
In order to survive, all animals
and plants need food, water,
shelter, and space. Each type
of animal or plant has its own
particular way of finding them.
Camouflage
On the grasslands
of Africa, lions try
to creep up on their
prey. They can hide
in the long grass
Let’s stick together because they are the
Clownfish and sea anemones same colour. This is
live together and help each called camouflage.
other (symbiosis). The sea
anemone’s tentacles can Long-eared bat
eating a moth
sting most fish, but the
clownfish don’t get hurt.

Night hunter
Some animals hunt for food
at night. The long-eared bat uses
sound to find insects in the dark.
It makes a squeaking noise and
listens to the echo as the noise
bounces back off objects. It can
A huge worm is
enough food to keep tell exactly where an insect is.
a shrew going for
only a few hours.
All-day hunter
Some animals have to
hunt for food day and
night. Shrews need to
eat 80 to 90 per cent
of their body weight
every day to survive.
These animals are
tiny, but aggressive.
46
A tapeworm is a kind of parasite. Where does it live?
 Staying alive
Parasites
Some organisms, called
The tiny Arctic tern parasites, live on or
makes a long migration.
It flies between the inside the bodies of other
North and South organisms, which they
poles each year.
feed on. Caterpillars live
as parasites on plants.

A wasp has laid eggs on this caterpillar.

Great travellers The grubs that hatch out will feed on
When food and water become the caterpillar as parasites.

scarce in one place or the weather

ay.
gets too cold, animals may move
home (migrate). Some animals

hours each d
migrate once every year.

Pack of wolves
Wolves live and
hunt in groups called
packs. This is safer
than living alone, and
16
makes it easier to hunt
larger animals.
out

House builders
r ab

Many animals build

hant ea s fo

homes for themselves

to provide shelter
t

from predators
and bad weather.
Birds make nests out of
mud or twigs, often hidden
elep

away in trees or bushes.

An

Rabbits and badgers

use burrows dug into
the soil.

Beavers pile up sticks in Big hunger

rivers to make a nest with Elephants have big
an underwater entrance.
appetites. A hungry
Wasps chew up wood to
elephant will push over
make soggy paper, which a whole tree and eat
they then shape into nests. every leaf and twig
to satisfy its hunger.
Inside the human body, feeding on food you’ve swallowed.
47
Life science

The Earth’s cycles At night, plants take

in oxygen and give
out carbon dioxide.

Everything in nature is recycled. Living things

ON DIOXIDE
take in oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and water
and use them to live. When they die and

GE N
decompose, the substances they are
made of are used again.

OXY
Nitrogen cycle

RB
All living things need nitrogen. Plants
take in nitrogen from the soil. Animals

CA
get nitrogen from eating plants. When
animals and plants die, they put
nitrogen back into the soil.

Certain bacteria play an important role in Nitrogen is

the nitrogen cycle. They change nitrogen abundant in
into the form plants can use. Without our atmosphere.
bacteria, plants would
die of nitrogen
starvation.

Bacteria

Other bacteria
take in nitrates and
release nitrogen back
into the atmosphere.

Decaying animals
Animals eat plants, and plants put
which contain nitrates. nitrogen back
into the soil.

48
Is there more oxygen or nitrogen in our atmosphere?
 The Earth’s cycles

During the day, plants

From atmosphere
take in carbon dioxide to the Earth
and give out oxygen. During an electrical storm,
some nitrogen is washed out
of the atmosphere and falls
DE

to the ground. Plants can

N DIOXI

then draw the nitrogen in

through their roots.
YGEN
RBO

Oxygen cycle
X

Animals take in oxygen and use it to

O
A

release energy from their food. It is put

C

back into the air by green plants during

photosynthesis. Algae and plankton do
the same job in water.

Animals breathe in
oxygen and breathe
out carbon dioxide

N
all the time.

E
YG

CA OX
RB
ON E
DIOXID

Our atmosphere contains 21 per cent oxygen and 78 per cent nitrogen.
49
 50
Carbon cycle It’s in the air
Green plants take in carbon
Life science

Every living thing contains dioxide from the air and use
it to make food, converting
carbon. Human beings Plants take in carbon it into things such as
dioxide from the
take in carbon through atmosphere carbohydrates. Animals take
in some of the carbon when
carbohydrates, fats, and they eat plants.
proteins in food, and release
it as carbon dioxide gas
when breathing out. It is
also released from dead
matter, sometimes quite Animals
BON DIOXIDE

Animals, such as these

R

soon, sometimes millions sheep, contribute to the

A

of years later in fuels carbon cycle by eating

C

grass, breathing in air, and

EASED
Animals eat plants and take in some
such as oil and coal. carbon. They breathe out carbon dioxide. dropping waste. They take

E L
in carbon from the plants

R
An animal’s they eat, and release it
droppings also when they breathe out.

E
contribute to the
Their bodies will release
D
carbon cycle.
more carbon when
IOXI they die.
D
CA

In particular circumstances, carbon forms a hard crystal. What is it called?

ON
B
RBON

AR
C
 Waste matters Fossil fuels

DEC
Part of you might Sometimes
once have been the remains

OM
part of a dinosaur. of organisms

P
Why? Because like are exposed to

OS
all living things, extreme pressure

IN
dinosaurs produced waste and heat. Over

G
and their waste became a millions of years,
part of the never-ending they turn into
carbon cycle. carbon-rich fuels,
POSING

like coal and oil.

OM

Waste
disposal
DEC

When animals
die, their bodies
break down and

A diamond.
decompose.

Break it down
Worms and bacteria
are an important part
of the carbon cycle.
They help decompose
the soil, and break DE
down organic matter CO
to its original elements,
Plants and animals die
MPO
such as carbon, and SI N G
and their bodies decay.
other nutrients.
Carbon cycle

51
Materials science

What’s the Four states

There are four main

matter? states of matter.

Solids have a definite

shape. Most of them
Everything around you is made are hard, such as rocks.

of matter, even the things you can’t Liquids take on the

shape of their container,
see. But everything looks and acts and have a fixed volume.
differently – that’s because matter Gases have no fixed
shape. They fill any
has different forms. space they are in,
such as a balloon.
Plasma exists at very
high temperatures, like
Solid, liquid, or gas inside the Sun.
The most common states of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas. Each state behaves differently
because the particles in their make-up move
in different ways.

th in g on the Ear th is solid

e very , liq
uid
r ly ,o
ea rg
N Planet Earth as
The Earth has a solid core, surrounded .
by liquid rock, on which the solid
crust floats. Liquid water covers most
of the crust, and a layer of gas called
the atmosphere surrounds the planet.

The blue areas are

Clouds are made of
the oceans, which
liquid water droplets
are liquid water.
and solid ice crystals –
they form from water
vapour, a gas.

The green areas are

land, which is made
of solid rocks.

52
Which form of matter are humans?
 What’s the matter?
Picture detective
Look through the
Materials Science pages
and see if you can identify
the picture clues below.

Using gas
When air in a balloon
is heated, it becomes lighter
than the surrounding air and
quickly fills the balloon. The
lighter air rises, taking the
balloon and passengers with it.

No matter
A place with no matter,
not even air, is called
a vacuum. The closest
thing to a vacuum is
the space between stars.

Turn
and learn
Amazing atoms:
pp. 58-59
Astronauts wear special The Universe:
suits in space because it
is very cold and there is pp. 94-95
no air to breathe.

We are three forms, our bones are solid, our blood is liquid, and we breathe in air.
53
Materials science

Properties of matter
Main properties Some materials are hard and
There are many different brittle, while others are flexible.
properties of matter. Some materials are colourful, while
Boiling point is the
hottest a liquid can get
others are transparent. These kinds
before becoming a gas.
of features are called “properties”.
Freezing point is the
temperature at which A cork floats on oil.
a liquid becomes a solid. Oil floats on water.

Plasticity is how well Does it float?

a solid can be reshaped. It’s easy to learn
about some properties,
Conductivity is how well such as the ability
a material lets electricity to float. The amount
or heat travel through it. of matter in a certain
volume of an object
Malleability is how well
a solid can be shaped
is called its density.
without breaking. Objects and liquids
float on liquids of a
Tensile strength is higher density and
how much a material can
stretch without breaking.
sink through liquids
of a lower density.
Flammability is how
easily and quickly a A plastic building brick sinks
substance will catch fire. through oil but floats on water.

Reflectivity is how well An onion sinks through oil and

water, but floats on syrup.
a material reflects light.
Syrup sinks below water.
Water reflects well.

Transparency is how
well a material will let
light pass through it. A good insulator
Heat cannot easily pass
Flexibility is how easily through some materials.
a material can be bent.
These are known as
insulators. For example,
Solubility is how well aerogel can completely block
a substance will dissolve,
such as salt in water. the heat of a flame. But
don’t try this at home!

54
Is diamond harder than quartz?
 Properties of matter
Compressibility
Gases can be
squashed, or
compressed, by
squeezing more
into the same
space. This is what
Broken
glass
happens when you
pump up a tyre.
Brittleness
Some materials, such as window Gas can be compressed Foot pump
glass, are particularly brittle. because its particles are far
apart. A bicycle pump pushes
They will break when pushed the particles closer together.
out of shape even a small amount. Diamond is
the hardest
Gas particles
mineral.
Hardness 9
A scientist called Friedrich Mohs created a scale Corundum
using ten minerals to compare how hard they
are. Many materials are graded on this scale. 10
Diamond
5
Talc is the Apatite
softest mineral 6 7 8
4 Feldspar Quartz Topaz
Fluorite
2
1 Gypsum 3
Talc Calcite

hands on
Collect some
different pebbles and put
them in order of hardness. A
pebble is harder than another
if it scratches it. This is
how Mohs worked
out his scale.

A smooth flow
Some liquids flow more
easily than others. It depends
on their “stickiness”, or viscosity.
Hot lava from a volcano flows
slowly because it is sticky.

Yes, diomond is the hardest mineral of all. It can scratch quartz.

55
Materials science

Changing states
Many solids melt, to become liquids, when
they become hot enough. When liquids
Liquid metal get cold enough, they freeze and become
Many substances melt
and boil at particular
solid. This is called changing states and
temperatures (its melting it happens to all kinds of substances.
and boiling points). Most
metals are solid at everyday
temperatures because they Changing states of water
have a high melting point. Water exists as a solid, liquid, or gas. You can
But mercury has such a low find all three forms of water in your home.
melting point that it is liquid They are ice, water, and water vapour.
even at room temperature.

Condensation
As water vapour in the air is
cooled, it changes into liquid
water. This is called
condensation.
You can see it
on the outside
of a cold bottle.

When water
vapour in the
air touches a
cold bottle, it
condenses into Ice is solid water. It forms When ice is warmed, it As water is heated, bubbles of
tiny drops when liquid is cooled until melts and becomes liquid water vapour (gas) form. They
of liquid. it freezes. Each piece of ice and takes on the shape of escape from the surface and
has a definite shape. the container holding it. condense to form a mist of
liquid droplets called steam.

Rivers of iron
Iron must be heated in
a furnace to make it melt.
Molten iron is so hot it
glows yellow. It is poured into
a mould and left to harden to
make solid iron objects.
56
Why does chocolate become soft and gooey in your mouth?
 Changing states
Washing dries faster on a hot day, when
heat turns water into vapour very quickly.

Evaporating
In the open air, water slowly
turns into vapour – this is called
evaporation. Wet clothes dry on
a line because the water they
hold, evaporates.

Melting
. . . frozen frui
chocolate
m t in
m
m

sid
M

Turn
and learn
Freezing Melting Actions and
Icicles are spikes of ice When you don’t eat your ice reactions:
that form when dripping cream quickly enough, it melts pp. 68-69
water freezes. You often see and changes from a solid to a The power of heat:
them on trees in winter. If liquid! Chocolate melts too, and pp. 86-87
water keeps dripping down makes your hands all sticky.
and freezing, the icicle will Most solids will melt if the
get longer and longer. temperature is high enough.
Because the warmth of your mouth makes it melt.
57
Materials science

of the ato
Amazing atoms ucleu
s m

.
t he n
nd
Atoms are tiny particles arou
izz

h
that make up everything

Electrons w
around us. Each atom of
a substance contains the
chemical properties
the substance is
made up of.

Inside an atom
Inside an atom are three tiny types

Neu ron
of particle: protons, neutrons, and

t
electrons. Protons and neutrons
make up the atom’s nucleus (core). Proton
The electrons are outside this.
Ele n
ctro

Oxygen atom

Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Au

A water molecule has
two hydrogen atoms GOLD
and one oxygen atom. 79
Golden number
Molecules An atomic number is the
Substances are made from number of protons
little groups of atoms called in an atom. The
molecules. The molecules of atomic number
water have three atoms. of gold is 79. This
means that each gold
atom has 79 protons.

58
How many atoms are there in a drop of water?
 Amazing atoms

Sunflower oil comes from the

seeds that grow in the middle
of a sunflower.

Oxygen atom

Big molecules
In natural substances like
vegetable oil, the atoms are
often joined in chains to make
very large molecules. The
molecules in sunflower oil
contain 50 atoms each.

Hydrogen atom Carbon atom

The explosion
of a nuclear

eird or what? bomb can

w create a
An atom is mostly spectacular
“mushroom
empty space. If an atom cloud”.
were the size of a sports
stadium, the nucleus would
be the size of a marble
in the middle.

The mighty atom

When the nucleus of an atom is split, it
releases a huge amount of energy. Nuclear
bombs use this “atomic energy” to create
huge explosions. Nuclear power stations use
the energy to produce electricity.

About 5 sextillion (5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000).

59
Materials science

Molecules
In most materials, atoms are joined in Frozen solid
tiny groups called molecules. The shapes Cold molecules move slowly,
allowing them to pack together
of molecules and the way they pack more easily. When water freezes,
together can help explain how different the molecules line up in neat
rows, forming ice crystals.
materials behave.

Steaming ahead
Molecules are always jiggling about.
When they get hot, they move further Snow may look
and faster. When water heats up, the like white powder,
but if you look
molecules may start moving so fast that closely you can
they escape into the air as water vapour. see thousands of
tiny crystals as
clear as glass.

Steam appears when

water vapour cools
down and becomes
liquid again. The steam
from this train is made
of millions of tiny
liquid droplets.

Melt: As a solid heats up,

its molecules move faster until
they break free from each other
and move separately, turning
the solid into a liquid.
Liquid

Solidify: As a liquid cools, its

Solid molecules lose energy and move
more slowly. Eventually, they start
sticking together, turning
the liquid into a solid.

If a liquid is poured into

a jar or bottle, it takes
the shape of its container
and stays in place.

60
Are diamonds impossible to destroy?
 Molecules
Diamond is made
into jewels that are
almost indestructible.

Diamond molecule
Diamond is the hardest
natural substance known.
Its hardness comes from the
way the carbon atoms in
diamond are arranged.
Each atom is joined by
strong bonds to four
neighbouring atoms.

Each group of five atoms in

diamond forms a pyramid
shape. This shape makes
diamond amazingly strong.

Graphite molecule Each carbon atom

Turn Graphite, like diamond, in graphite is joined
and learn is also made of carbon to only three
neighbours. The
Changing states: atoms, but the atoms are atoms form layers
pp. 56-57 arranged in a different that slip over each
way, making graphite other, making
Minerals: graphite soft.
pp. 104-105 very soft.
Graphite is used to make
the soft lead in pencils.

Evaporate: As a liquid
heats up, its molecules speed
up until they move fast enough
to float away as gas.

Gas
Condense: When gas
molecules lose energy and slow
down, they stick together
and form liquid.

A gas can fill any container

it’s put in. If there’s no lid to
seal the container, the gas
will escape into the air.

No, you can burn them.

61
Materials science

Elements 1
An element is a H The periodic table
substance made HYDROGEN In the periodic table, elements are arranged
1 2 by the number of protons in their atoms,
up of just one type Li Be starting with hydrogen. Elements with
similar properties fall into groups,
of atom. Scientists LITHIUM
3
BERYLLIUM
4
which are shown in colour.
have discovered Na Mg
117 different SODIUM
11
MAGNESIUM
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
elements. The chart K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Co
on this page, called POTASSIUM
19
CALCIUM
20
SCANDIUM
21
TITANIUM
22
VANADIUM
23
CHROMIUM
24
MANGANESE
25
IRON
26
COBALT
27

the periodic table, Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh

shows most of them. RUBIDIUM
37
STRONTIUM
38
YTTRIUM
39
ZIRCONIUM
40
NIOBIUM
41
MOLYBDENUM
42
TECHNETIUM
43
RUTHENIUM
44
RHODIUM
45

Cs Ba LANTHANIDES
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
The elements in our
or RARE-EARTH
CAESIUM BARIUM METALS HAFNIUM TANTALUM TUNGSTEN RHENIUM OSMIUM IRIDIUM
55 56 57 – 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

ost
bodies m ly come Fr Ra ACTINIDES or Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
from what we eat.
RARE-EARTH
RADIOACTIVE
FRANCIUM RADIUM METALS RUTHERFORDIUM DUBNIUM SEABORGIUM BOHRIUM HASSIUM MEITNERIUM
87 88 89 – 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Each vertical column

is called a GROUP,
or family, of elements. La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
Some groups have LANTHANUM CERIUM PRASEODYMIUM NEODYMIUM PROMETHIUM SAMARIUM
elements sharing 57 58 59 60 61 62

very similar properties.

Other groups have Ac Th Pa U Np Pu
elements with less
in common. ACTINIUM THORIUM PROTACTINIUM URANIUM NEPTUNIUM PLUTONIUM
89 90 91 92 93 94

Metal and non-metals

Most elements are metals, and
the others are called non-metals.
Metals are normally solid, shiny,
Milk contains and hard. They all conduct
the element
calcium, electricity and heat. Silver,
which helps This bucket is made of aluminium, and zinc are
form your the element iron, coated
teeth and with the element zinc,
metals. Carbon, oxygen,
bones. which stops iron rusting. and silicon are non-metals.
62
Which was the first element to be made artificially?
 Elements
Every element has a name –
a symbol made of usually
one or two letters – and an
Useful elements
atomic number. The atomic Oxygen makes up We use elements to
number is the number of about one-fifth of the air, and it’s 18 make all sorts of useful
protons in one atom so important that we have to take
of the element. it with us when we are underwater. He or decorative objects.
Kr Symbol 13 14 15 16 17 HELIUM
2
Gold is a precious
metal. It is used to
Name B C N O F
KRYPTON make jewellery.
36 Atomic BORON CARBON NITROGEN OXYGEN FLUORINE NEON
number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Copper is a metal that
Al Si S Cl Ar conducts electricity well.
It is used in electrical wires.
10 11 12 ALUMINIUM
13
SILICON
14
PHOSPHORUS
15
SULPHUR
16
CHLORINE
17
ARGON
18

Silicon is a non-metal
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr used to make the chips
NICKEL COPPER ZINC GALLIUM GERMANIUM ARSENIC SELENIUM BROMINE KRYPTON
that power computers.
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Carbon fibres are strong

Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe but light, so they are used
PALLADIUM SILVER CADMIUM INDIUM TIN ANTIMONY TELLURIUM IODINE XENON for tennis rackets.
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Iron is a strong, silvery

metal. It is magnetic
PLATINUM
78
GOLD
79
MERCURY
80
THALLIUM
81
LEAD
82
BISMUTH
83
POLONIUM
84
ASTATINE
85
RADON
86
and has many uses.

Ds Rg Aluminium is a soft,
DARMSTADTIUM ROENTGENIUM
shiny metal. It is used
110 111 to make drinks cans.

Sulphur is a yellow
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu non-metal used to harden
EUROPIUM GADOLINIUM TERBIUM DYSPROSIUM HOLMIUM ERBIUM THULIUM YTTERBIUM LUTETIUM rubber to make tyres.
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

Titanium is a very
Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr strong, light metal used
AMERICIUM CURIUM BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM FERMIUM MENDELEVIUM NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM
in aeroplane bodies and
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 space rockets.
KEY: Helium is a gas used
Alkali metals: Poor metals: These are in balloons because it
These silvery metals are softer, weaker metals. is less dense than air.
very reactive. Non-metals: Most
Alkaline-earth metals: are gases at room Turn Chlorine is a yellow-green
These shiny, silvery white temperature and
metals are reactive. easily snap as solids. and learn gas, used in bleach and to
Transition metals: make some plastics.
Halogens: These Elements:
Many are strong and non-metals are
have high boiling highly reactive pp. 64-65 Mercury is a liquid metal
and melting points. and harmful. Electricity: used in dental fillings and
Lanthanides: Many Noble gases: pp. 76-77 is the gas inside fluorescent
are soft, shiny, and These non-metals light bulbs.
silvery white metals. are the least
Actinides: These are reactive of all
radioactive heavy elements. the elements.

Technetium (Tc).
63
Materials science

Properties of elements
In the periodic table, elements with
similar properties are arranged in
Alkali metals
These are soft, lightweight metals groups. Some groups are made up of
that react easily with other elements that react easily with other
chemicals, such as water. When
put in water, they fizz and pop chemicals to form new compounds.
violently. Sodium is an alkali
metal. It reacts with the gas
Other groups include elements that
chlorine to form common salt. barely react with anything at all.
Transition metals What are transition metals?
This group includes Forty elements make up a group
well-known and known as the transition metals.
useful metals. These are typical metals, being
solid, shiny, and mostly
Silver is used in medals, hard. The precious
ornaments, jewellery, and metals gold, silver,
cutlery (knives and forks).
and platinum are
Zinc protects things in this group.
from rusting. One of
its many uses is in the
Pure gold is found as grains
casing of batteries. in rock or, more rarely, as
whole rocks (nuggets) that
Nickel is used in silver- are worth a small fortune.
coloured coins because it
does not lose its shine.

Titanium is lightweight
yet incredibly strong.
It is used to repair
bones and joints.

Precious metals such

as gold are long-lasting
because they react
poorly with other
chemicals. Gold
is one of the least
reactive elements.

64
Which element is the most valuable precious metal?
 Properties of elements

Alkaline-earth metals
Five elements, including magnesium and
calcium, are called alkaline-earth metals.
Like alkali metals, they are soft and light.
They don’t react as strongly with water,
Calcium is found but they join with other chemicals to make
in seashells in
the compound
many compounds important in nature.
calcium carbonate.

The dazzling light

Noble gases
of fireworks comes The six noble gases
from burning get their name because
magnesium.
they hardly react with
other chemicals, as
though staying aloof.
Poor metals They include neon and
The elements in this argon, which are used
group are soft and weak. to make lasers and
They are called poor coloured lights.
metals but are very
useful. Tin, lead, and
aluminium are examples
ngly and can
of poor metals.
s tro st
lls

in
Tin cans are actually
e

g
sm

made of steel with

yo
a thin coating of tin.
e

ur
in
or

ey
hl

es
C

.
Halogens
Five elements make up a group
called the halogens. These are
all highly reactive chemicals.
The gas chlorine is one of
the best-known halogens.
It is added to the water
in swimming pools
because it kills germs.

Rhodium. It is about ten times more expensive than gold.

65
Materials science

Mixtures
A mixture is
created when two
Mixture of
milk and
or more things are
cereal combined together,
without bonding. A
mixture can usually be
Colorado River, Arizona, USA
easily separated back Suspension
into its original bits. A muddy river is a type of mixture called a
suspension. Small particles of soil are “suspended”
When atoms of different in the water, making it brown and cloudy.
elements join, or bond, Alloy
a compound is formed. Different types of metal can be
melted and mixed together to make
a kind of mixture called an alloy.
The alloy has different properties
from the original metals. This tankard
is made of pewter, which is an alloy Pewter
tankard
of tin and lead. Pewter is much
harder than tin or lead.

Water Solute molecule Solution

Solution
Salt forming If you stir sugar into water, the sugar
on the shore of
the Dead Sea
molecules spread out and fit between the
in Jordan. water molecules, making the sugar seem to
disappear. We say the sugar (a solute) has
dissolved in the water (a solvent). This kind
of mixture is called a solution. Seawater
is a solution of water and salt. If you let
seawater dry out, the salt reappears.
66
What is an 18-carat gold ring made of?
 Mixtures

Separating compounds
It takes a great deal of effort to
separate a compound into pure
elements. To make pure iron, you
have to separate the compound iron
oxide, into iron and oxygen. This is
done in a very hot blast furnace.

and cheese ar
am em
re e p a r ati n g
C by s mi a
lk.

de
Iron ore Pure iron
The mineral iron ore is rich in iron oxide.
It is mined to extract iron, which is mostly
used to make steel.

Separating mixtures
A mixture can be
easily separated in
several ways.
Evaporation removes
water from a mixture
by turning it into a gas
(water vapour).

Filtration separates large

particles, such as coffee
grinds, from a suspension.
Separating milk
Spinning at high speed Whole milk can be separated
separates blood cells from into cream and skimmed milk
blood, in a device called
a centrifuge.
by spinning it in a bowl. The
Milk heavier skimmed milk spins
Distillation separates
mixtures of liquids by
away from the lighter cream,
making them evaporate Strawberries which stays in the centre of
and condense. and cream
the spinning bowl.

It is an alloy containing 75 per cent gold and 25 per cent other metals, such as silver.
67
Materials science

Reactions and changes

Materials change as a
result of physical processes
or chemical reactions. In a
chemical reaction, atoms
join with or break away from Melting is not a
chemical reaction.
other atoms, forming different
compounds. Chemical reactions
often lead to a dramatic change.

Chemical change Physical change

Burning is a chemical reaction Not all dramatic changes are caused by chemical
involving oxygen (O). Wood is made reactions. When ice lollies melt, the atoms in the
of compounds containing carbon (C) water molecules do not get rearranged into new
and hydrogen (H). When it burns, molecules – they remain water molecules. Melting
the carbon and hydrogen react with is simply a physical change.
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O).

Burning is a
chemical reaction.

Escaping energy
Chemical reactions can
release energy as heat
and light. A sparkler
contains chemicals that
release a lot of energy as
light to create a dazzling
shower of sparks.
68
What chemical reaction makes silver objects slowly turn grey and dull?
 Reactions and changes

Speeding up reactions
Cooking makes carrots softer
because the heat causes a
chemical reaction. Chopping
carrots into small bits speeds
up the reaction because it
increases the area of contact
between the carrots and
the hot water.

Sliced carrots
cook faster than
whole carrots.

Glow in the dark

Light sticks glow in
the dark thanks to a
chemical reaction that
releases energy as light.
You can slow down this
reaction by putting a
light stick in a fridge,
which makes it
last longer.

Soda volcano
If you drop mints into a
hands on bottle of fizzy drink, the drink
Ask an adult turns to foam and explodes
to boil some red cabbage out in an instant. This is a
and save the coloured water. physical change rather than
Let the water cool. Then add a chemical reaction. The
acid (vinegar) or alkali rough surface of the mints
(bicarbonate) and watch for helps gas, dissolved in the
a spectacular change drink, to turn into bubbles
of colour! much more quickly than it
normally would.

Tarnishing. It happens when silver atoms react with the oxygen atoms in air.
69
Materials science

Irreversible changes
Nylon
jacket Physical changes are reversible – for
example, you can freeze water, and heat
can turn the ice into liquid water again.
However, many chemical reactions are
irreversible because they involve atoms
joining together in new ways.
Cooking
When food is cooked,
heat triggers chemical
reactions that change
Manmade it permanently. When
materials a freshly baked cake
Chemical reactions can cools down, it doesn’t
be used to create new turn back into gooey
materials that don’t cake mixture.
exist in nature. Nylon,
for example, is a fabric
made using chemicals
from oil. Many types
of clothes, from socks to
coats, are made of nylon.

Baking powder
Baking powder makes cakes light
and fluffy. It contains chemicals
that react when they’re wet to
produce bubbles of gas.
Rotting
Rotting food is full of tiny organisms
such as a bacteria and fungi. These
organisms trigger chemical reactions
A fresh pepper looks plump An old pepper darkens
that break down food molecules,
and brightly coloured. and shrivels up as it rots. changing them permanently.
70
Why are some parts of cars covered with a layer of shiny chrome (chromium)?
 Irreversible changes

Ready to fall
Maple trees shed their
leaves in autumn. Before the leaves
die, they change from green to golden,
orange, or red. The colour changes
because a chemical reaction in
the leaves breaks down a green
compound called chlorophyll
inside leaf cells.

Maple leaves
turn orange
as they die.

Turn
and learn
Plants:
pp. 20-21
Ecosystems:
Solid as a rock pp. 44-45
Concrete is made by mixing gravel,
sand, cement powder, and water. Rust
A chemical reaction between Iron reacts chemically with
the water and cement oxygen in the air to form
makes the mixture rust – a flaky, reddish
harden permanently brown compound. Rust
to become as solid can ruin cars, so the
as rock – ideal for metal is painted to
building dams Severe rust protect it.
and houses.

The chrome protects the iron underneath from rusting.

71
Physical science

What is energy? Sources of energy

Energy comes from lots
of different sources.
Energy is what makes everything Wind drives wind
turbines, which convert
happen. Your body needs energy so movement energy
into electricity.
that you can move, grow, and keep
Geothermal energy
warm. We also need energy to power is heat from deep
underground.
our cars, light our homes, and do
Dried plants can be
thousands of other jobs. burnt to provide energy
for cooking, heating,
and lighting.
Sunshine
We get nearly all our energy from the Sun. Plants Waves can be used to
absorb the energy in sunlight and store it as chemical generate large amounts
of electricity.
energy. The stored energy enters our body through food
and is released inside our body’s cells. Sunlight absorbed Dams harness
through our skin is also necessary to produce certain the energy in rivers
vitamins and minerals in our body. The Sun is the flowing downhill to
make electricity.
ultimate source of energy for all plants and animals.
The Sun’s energy can be
captured by solar panels
Only a tiny fraction to make electricity.
of the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth.
A bow stores energy Fossil fuels, such as oil,
by bending. When are used to power cars
you let go, the bow and to make electricity.
springs back into
shape and releases
the stored energy.

Stored energy
An object can store energy
and release it later. When
you wind up a clockwork
toy, energy is stored in a
spring. A bow and arrow
uses stored energy to shoot
the arrow. Stored energy is
also called potential energy
because it has the potential
to make things happen.

72
Is energy destroyed when we use it?
 What is energy?

Movement energy Picture detective

Look through the Physical
Rollercoasters start from
Science pages to identify each
the top of a hill, where
of the picture clues below.
their height gives them
a lot of potential
energy. As they
move downhill,
the potential
energy turns into
movement energy
(kinetic energy),
making them go
faster and faster.

Nuclear energy
Matter is made up of tiny
particles called atoms.
The centre of an atom,
called a nucleus, stores
huge amounts of energy.
This nuclear energy is
used in power stations
to make electricity.

Electrical energy
Lightning is caused by
electrical energy in a
storm cloud. The
electrical energy Turn
turns into the
heat and light
and learn
energy of Light:
lightning and pp. 82-83
the sound energy Heat:
of thunder. pp. 86-87

Energy cannot be destroyed. It turns into another form of energy when it’s used.
73
Physical science

Energy chain
Changing energy from
one type to another is called
“energy conversion”. The
Energy changes
steps can be linked to make All around you, energy is being
an energy chain.
converted from one form to another.
You can see these changes happen –
Coal contains switching on a light turns electrical
chemical energy.
energy into light energy.
Driving force
Burning Car fuel is full of
coal chemical energy. When
produces
heat energy,
the engine starts, the
which is used chemical energy is
to boil water. changed to heat energy.
Boiling water
creates steam. This is the first in a
series of energy changes
Moving that make cars run.
steam is
a form of
kinetic (motion)
energy, which
operates
turbines.

The kinetic
energy
produced by
the moving
turbines
creates
electricity.

Heat to sound
Electrical energy used by television sets Some heat energy
changes into light, sound, and heat energy. becomes sound energy.
The roar of a racing car
engine can be deafening!
74
What are energy sources like coal, oil, and gas called?
 Energy changes

Energy savings
Energy is precious, so
people are finding extra
Energy currents ways to limit energy use.
Energy is transported Roof insulation
through wires as currents stops heat energy from
of electricity. The electrical escaping and helps keep
houses warm.
energy in this circuit comes
Energy-saving light
from chemical energy in bulbs last longer and
the battery. use less energy than
standard ones.
Washing clothes at
low temperatures saves
the energy needed to
heat water.
Moving on Boiling only as much
water as you need in
80
100 Some heat energy the kettle saves time
140
60 is changed to kinetic and energy.
180
40
energy as the pistons
220
move. The movement
20
of the car is also Wheels of fire
0 kinetic energy. Some of the
kinetic energy
in the wheels
becomes heat
energy. The
hottest parts
are shown
white and yellow.

Turn
and learn
Types of energy:
pp. 72-73
Resources:
pp. 110-111

Fossil fuels. 75
Physical science

Electricity
Have you ever thought
about what powers your
television, your computer,
or the lights in your
bedroom? A flow of Power supply
electricity makes all Electricity travels to your home along wires
above and sometimes below the ground. The
these things work. wires above the ground hang on metal
towers called pylons.

Making electricity
Electricity is a form of energy. It can be
made using any source of energy, such as
coal, gas, oil, wind, or sunlight. On a wind
farm, wind turbines use the energy of
moving air to create electricity.

Everyday electricity
We use electricity in
all sorts of ways in
our everyday lives.
Electricity is used to heat
up household appliances
such as irons and cookers.

Electricity is used to light

up our homes, schools,
offices, and streets.

Electricity helps in
communication by
powering telephones
and computers.

Electricity helps
in transportation
by powering certain
vehicles, such as trains.

76
What’s the name of a small object that can store electricity?
 Electricity
Circuits of power
An electric circuit is a loop that electricity
can travel around. An electric current
moves through the wires in this circuit,
and lights up the bulb.

Electrical cables
Electrical cables are made of
metal and plastic. Electricity flows
Circuits usually include an through the metal (which is called
energy source (battery)
and load (lamp).
a conductor). The plastic (which
is called an insulator) stops
electricity escaping.

hands on
Rub a party Lightning
balloon up and down on strikes
your clothes. The balloon will Electric charge
now stick to the wall. This building up in one
is because rubbing it place is called “static
gives the balloon an electricity”. Lightning
electric charge. is an electric current
caused by static
electricity building up
in thunderclouds.

High voltage
Electricity can be very
dangerous. This triangle Food battery
is an international Food that contains water and weak
warning symbol. acid will conduct electricity. In a food
It means “Caution: battery, a chemical reaction between
risk of electric shock”. the metal and the acid in the food
creates an electric current.
A conductor
attached to
food (containing
acid) forms an
electric circuit.

A battery.
77
Physical science

Magnetism
Magnets exert a force called
magnetism, which can attract
certain objects – especially This magnet has attracted
a clump of steel paperclips
those containing iron. because steel has an iron content.

Attract or repel?
Magnets attract materials
containing iron, and they
can also attract other magnets.
Two magnets can also push
apart, or “repel”.

Opposite poles of a magnet

attract each other.
The Northern Lights are
partly due to magnetic
forces in our atmosphere.
S N S N

Magnet rules
The ends of a magnet are
called the north and south poles.
Opposite poles attract each other.
Similar poles repel each other.

S N N S The Earth has a

Lights in the sky magnetic field.
Amazing lights are caused
Similar poles of a magnet when particles in the solar wind
repel each other. (streaming from the Sun) travel
into the atmosphere along force
lines in the Earth’s magnetic field.

S N
The Earth as a magnet
The Earth behaves as if there
is a giant invisible magnet
between the North and South
Iron filings show the magnetic field between
the two magnets.
poles. That’s why we can use
a compass to find our way.

78
What is a magnetometer?
 Magnetism

Electromagnets
When an electric current flows through a wire
coil, the coil becomes magnetic. This creates an
electromagnet. Automatic doors, loudspeakers,
and electric motors all use electromagnets.

Lifting with magnets

Some cranes use magnetic force,
in the form of giant electromagnets,
instead of hooks. The electromagnet
can be switched on or off.
Electromagnets are
used in speakers.

When switched on, the crane’s electromagnet attracts

huge pieces of iron and steel.

Magnetic rails
Maglev trains are held above
a track by a magnetic force.
Maglev is short for “magnetic
levitation”. The trains hands on
literally travel on air.
Use a
magnet to find out which
There are maglev
trains in Japan, South things in your home are made
Korea, and China – from magnetic materials.
and others are being
developed elsewhere. Your magnet will be
attracted to objects
containing iron.

A device that measures the strength of a magnetic field. 79

 Physical science

Energy waves
A form of energy called “electromagnetic radiation” travels
in waves, like waves on the surface of a pond. Just as waves in
a pond can be close together or far apart, different types of
electromagnetic radiation have different wavelengths.
The spectrum
Visible light is a type of energy Radio waves
wave that we can see. There are Radio waves have the
other waves that are not visible to us, longest wavelengths and are
such as radio waves. The spectrum is good at travelling far. Radio
made up of different types of waves, and TV programmes are
with varying wavelengths. broadcast as radio waves.

The distance between

the peaks of two waves is
called the “wavelength”.
Low energy

Radio waves can be

hundreds of miles long.

Radio waves Microwaves Infrared waves

Microwaves
Microwaves are used to heat up
food in microwave ovens. They
are also used by mobile phones
and by satellites in space.

Infrared waves
Hot objects give off invisible
rays of heat called infrared
waves. An infrared camera
can detect these waves
to create images.
80
What is invisible to human eyes but visible to the eyes of a bee?
 Energy waves

X-rays
X-rays are invisible
waves that pass
Visible light through soft parts
Light waves bounce off every object of the body but
around us, allowing us to see things. not bone. This is
Visible light includes all the colours why doctors can
of the rainbow, each of which has a use X-rays to take
particular wavelength. images of bones.

High energy
Visible UV rays X-rays Gamma rays

Gamma rays
The wavelengths of gamma
rays can be as small as the
nucleus of an atom. Gamma
rays are packed with energy,
which makes them
powerful. They are
used in hospitals to
Ultraviolet (UV) light kill cancer cells.
As well as producing visible light,
the Sun produces invisible rays of This man is being
ultraviolet light. UV light makes treated with gamma
rays to kill cancer
you tan but too much of it can cells inside his body.
cause skin cancer and eye damage.

Ultraviolet light.
81
Physical science

Light
Light is a form of energy that
our eyes can detect. It comes
in all the colours of the rainbow,
but when the colours are mixed
together, light is white.

Where does light Fireflies

Some animals create their
come from? own light. Fireflies flash a
Light is produced by yellowish-green colour from
electrically charged particles their abdomen at night to
in atoms – especially attract mates.
negatively-charged electrons.
Using light
Candlelight is produced by hot
We can use light for
atoms in tiny particles of soot many different things.
inside the flame.
CDs and DVDs store
digital information that
can be read by laser beam.
Casting shadows
Light can only travel in Cameras capture light
straight lines. If something in a split second to
blocks its path, it casts a create photographs.
shadow – a dark area that Telescopes collect
the light cannot reach. the light from stars
and planets, and produce
magnified images of them.

Mirrors reflect light

so we can see images
of ourselves.

Periscopes bend the

path of light so we can
see around corners.

Torches shine a beam

of light to help us see
in the dark.

82
What’s the fastest thing in the Universe?
 Light

Bright Dark

Light enters your eyes through your pupils (the black circles in the
middle). Pupils can change size. When it’s dark they get bigger to let
more light in, and when it’s bright they shrink so you don’t get dazzled.

How your eye works

The human eye works like a camera. The front
parts of the eye focus light rays just as a camera
lens does. The focused rays form an upside-down
image in the back of your eyeball.
Light beams
3. An image forms Unless it enters
on the back of the
eye. Light-sensing
your eyes, light
1. Light rays cells send the is invisible. The
from the tree image to the brain. beam of light from
enter your eye.
a lighthouse can
only be seen from
Cornea

Lens

the side if it catches

Tree mist or dust in the
2. The cornea 4. The brain air, causing some
(front of eye) turns the image
and lens focus the right
of the light rays to
the rays. way up. bounce off towards
you. Lighthouse
beams sweep round
Reflecting light Convex mirrors bulge
in circles and can
outwards. They be seen from far
When light hits a make things look out at sea.
mirror, it bounces smaller but let you
see a wider area.
straight back off.
If you look into
a mirror, you see Concave mirrors
bulge inwards. They
this bounced light make things look
as a reflection. bigger but show
a smaller area.

Light. It travels at a billion kph (620,000,000 mph).

83
Physical science

Sound Measuring sound

Loudness is measured
in decibels.
Every sound starts with a vibration, Leaves rustling nearby
make a sound of only
like the quivering of a guitar string. 10 decibels.

The vibration squeezes and stretches Somebody whispering

close by measures about
the air, sending its energy out in waves 20 decibels.

in all directions. This is a sound wave. City traffic reaches

approximately
85 decibels.
Sound notes
When you blow across Drums being played
a bottle, the air inside nearby makes a sound
of around 105 decibels.
vibrates. Small air spaces
vibrate more quickly than Road-drills measure
large spaces, making higher about 110 decibels
notes. So partly empty from a close distance.
bottles produce lower
notes than fuller ones. A lion’s roar would
measure 114 decibels if
you were close enough.

Silent space
Fireworks can measure
Sound can travel through 120 decibels or more.
solids, liquids, and gases, but
it can’t travel where there is The sound of jet
no matter. There is no sound engines sometimes hit
140 decibels if heard
in space because there is from nearby.
no air.

Sound waves travel through air

like a wave along a coiled spring.

How hearing works

When a sound reaches your ears,
it makes your eardrums vibrate.
The vibrations are passed to
your inner ear through tiny bones.
From here, nerves send messages
to your brain that allow you to
recognize the sound.

84
Do all animals hear sounds in the same way?
 Sound

Speeding sound
Sounds travel through air at
about 1,200 kph (750 mph).
It travels faster through
solids and liquids than
through gases. Supersonic
jets fly faster than the
speed of sound, so they
can pass over you before
you hear their sound.

When a supersonic jet breaks

the speed of sound, it catches
up with the sound waves in
front of it and squashes
them. As the air is squashed,
it produces a sound called a
“sonic boom”.

The echo effect

Some animals use sound to communicate
or to hunt. Dolphins “talk” by making
clicks, barks, and other sounds that
other dolphins recognize. They
also use clicks to find food –
the sound bounces back
off objects as an echo,
so the dolphin can
establish their shape
and position. This is
called echolocation.

When sounds
bounce back, the
dolphin can tell if
the object is a
yummy fish or
another dolphin!

No – dogs and bats can hear higher notes than people.

85
Physical science

Heat Sources of heat

Heat can be produced in
several different ways.
Atoms and molecules are always Friction (rubbing) makes
heat. If you pull on a rope,
jiggling about. The faster they move, your hands will feel warm.

the more energy an object has. We feel Combustion means

burning. When something
this energy as heat. When something burns, it produces heat.
is hot, its atoms are moving quickly. Electricity is used to
When something is cold, its atoms create heat in electric
ovens and heaters.
are moving slower.
Feel the heat
Heat always tries
to spread from hot
things to cooler things.
When you touch a hot
object, heat energy flows
into your skin, triggering
sense cells that make your skin
feel hot. When you touch a cold
object, heat flows out of your skin,
triggering a different feeling.

Temperature
The temperature of an object tells Warm glow
you how hot it is on a numbered Heat escapes from warm objects as invisible
scale. A device called a thermometer rays that travel like light. We call this infrared
is used to measure temperature. radiation. Special cameras use infrared rays
rather than light to take photos. Hot areas
appear white or red and cold areas, such
as this ice lolly, appear black.

Keep your cool

Heat travels from the Sun as infrared rays. Just like light,
infrared rays are reflected away by white objects but
absorbed by black objects. In hot countries, people paint
houses white to reflect the heat and keep the indoors cool.
86
Can snow keep you warm?
 Heat

Free ride Conduction

When land gets hot, it warms Heat spreads through solids
the air above it. The warm air by a process called conduction.
rises. Birds use these areas Hot atoms, which jiggle about
of rising air (thermals) a lot, knock into cooler atoms
to lift them high in and make them jiggle faster,
the sky. passing on the heat energy.

Eagles can fly

without flapping
when they catch
a thermal.

Heat is spreading
along this metal
bar. Metal is good
at conducting
heat quickly.
Convection or wha
eird t
When air or water warms w Snakes called ?
up, it rises, and cool air
pit vipers have heat
or water sinks to take its
sensors on their heads. The
place. This process is called
heat sensors work like eyes,
convection. Convection
helps keep the ocean allowing the snakes to “see”
currents moving, spreading the warmth of mice
heat around the world. when hunting in
the dark.

This satellite image shows the temperature of the world’s oceans.

Keeping warm
Emperor penguins live in the icy
Antarctic. Their feathers trap air,
which stops too much heat escaping
from their body by conduction. This
trapping layer is called insulation.

Yes, if you use it to build an igloo. Snow is a good insulator.

87
Physical science

Forces
A force is simply a push or a pull. When
you push or pull something to make it
move, you are using forces. Some forces
Gravity work only when objects are touching, but
The force that makes things others, such as gravity and magnetism,
fall to the ground is gravity.
Gravity keeps the Earth in work at a distance.
orbit around the Sun and
keeps the Moon in orbit
around the Earth. It is one of This NASA space shuttle,
the most important forces which was in operation
until 2011, needed three
in the Universe. rockets to help it escape
from the Earth’s
gravitational pull.

Lift-off
A huge force is needed to
make a spacecraft take off
and escape the Earth’s gravity.
A force called thrust is provided
In a spin by rockets. The rockets make
On a merry-go-round, the riders feel hot gases, which expand and
they’re being pushed outwards. This stream out at the bottom
pushing, called centrifugal force, isn’t to push the spacecraft up
a real force. It’s caused by the riders’ into the air at great speed.
bodies trying to move in a straight line
while the chains are holding them back.
88
What force makes compass needles point towards the North Pole?
 Forces

Friction
hands on When objects rub or slide
against each other, they
Rub your create a force called friction.
hands together as hard Friction slows down moving
and fast as you can for objects and wastes their
10 seconds and see how hot energy, turning the
they get. The heat is caused energy into heat.
by the force of friction
acting on your skin.

To reduce friction,
the bottom surface
of these skis is very
smooth and coated
with slippery wax.

n a s kier.
s l ow s dow
n
Frictio

Electric forces
When objects become charged with electricity,
they pull on each other with an invisible force
that is a bit like magnetism. If you rub a
balloon on your hair, the balloon becomes
charged and will stick to your shirt.

Buoyancy
What makes objects float? The answer
is a force called buoyancy. If an object is
lighter than water, the force of buoyancy
outweighs gravity and the object floats.

Gravity pulls
the duck down.

Upthrust from the water

keeps the duck afloat.

Magnetism.
89
Physical science

Forces and motion

It can be difficult to make an object move, The football
would stay still
but once it is moving, it will go on moving if the footballer
didn’t kick it.
until something stops it. Force is needed
to start something moving, make it move
faster, and make it stop.

Newton’s laws of motion

In 1687, Isaac Newton presented three
important rules that explain how forces make
things move. They have become the foundation
of physics and work for just about everything,
from footballs to frogs.
Newton’s first law
An object stays still, or keeps moving in
a straight line at a constant speed, if it
isn’t being pushed or pulled by a force.

Forces make things

accelerate. In this case,
the force is created by
the cyclist’s powerful legs.

Newton’s second law

The bigger the force and the lighter
the object, the greater the acceleration.
A professional cyclist with a lightweight Newton’s third law
bike will accelerate faster than a normal Every action has an equal and opposite
person cycling to work. reaction. The leaf moves away as the
frog leaps in the opposite direction.

90
How fast can a skydiver fall?
 Forces and motion

Speed and velocity

Speed is different from velocity. Speed is how fast you are going
and is easy to work out – divide how far you travel by the time it
takes. Your velocity is how fast you travel in a particular direction.
Changing direction without slowing reduces your velocity, but
your speed stays the same.

If you drive 80 km (50 miles)

in two hours, your speed is Accelerating is fun, but defining it
in scientific terms can be confusing.
40 kph (25 mph). This is because acceleration doesn’t just
mean speeding up. It is any change in
velocity. So, it is also used to describe
slowing down and changing direction.

The golf ball will carry

on rolling until friction,
gravity, and air resistance
slow it down.

Rescue helicopters
balance forces so
LIFT they can hover
above the waves.
Inertia
When things are standing still or moving,
they continue to remain in the state they are in DRAG/
(unless force is applied to them to change it). FRICTION
This tendency to be as they are called inertia.

THRUST
Turn Balanced forces
and learn Forces act on objects
Magnetism: all the time. Opposing
pp. 78-79 forces can be balanced out. GRAVITY

Gravity: When this happens, the object

pp. 88-89 won’t be pushed in any direction.

The maximum velocity of falling through air is 200 kph (124 mph).
91
Physical science

Load
Effort required
to push down
is needed here.
Machines
Machines make tasks easier. They
reduce the effort you need to move
Fulcrum
Levers something, or the time it takes. They
A lever is a bar that can work either by spreading the load, or
turn around a fixed point by concentrating your efforts. All the
(fulcrum). If you apply a
force (effort) to one part machines you see here are called
of a lever, another part simple machines.
exerts a force (load).
One type of lever works
like a seesaw with the
fulcrum between the
load and the effort.

Another type places

the load between the
fulcrum and the effort
(as on a wheelbarrow). Axle

A third type of lever,

shown by tongs, places
Wheel and axle
the effort between the An axle goes through the centre of a wheel.
fulcrum and the load. Together they work as a simple rotating
machine that makes it easier to move
something from one place to another.

hands on
Try walking
straight up a
Gears hill and then zig-zag your
Gears are wheels with teeth that way up. The winding path
interlock so that one wheel turns works like a simple machine.
another. They increase speed or force. It increases the distance you
Gears on a bicycle affect how much you walk, but decreases the
must turn the pedal to spin the wheel. The pedal turns a wheel,
effort you use.
which turns a smaller
wheel at a greater speed.
92
What is another name for gear?
 Machines
It takes just one man to
pull a stone up the slope,
but four men are needed
to lift a stone straight up.
Wedge
An axe blade is an
efficient but simple
machine that
increases force.
When it hits the
wood, the wedge Inclined plane
forces the wood to It is easier to push or pull something up a slope than
split apart between lift it straight up. A slope, or inclined plane, therefore
its fibres. increases force. In ancient Egypt, stones were
dragged up slopes to build the pyramids.

The screw turns around a

greater distance than it moves
into the cork. So it moves into
the cork with more force than
is used to turn it.

Pulley
A pulley makes it easier to lift
something straight up. It consists
The crane lifts
of a piece of rope wound around
up heavy loads a wheel. One end of the rope is
with a system attached to the load and force is
of pulleys.
applied to the other end to pull up
the load. When a pulley has more
than one wheel, the pulling force
is increased.

Screw
A screw is a machine. It is really
an inclined plane, or slope, going
round and up. A corkscrew uses
a screw. It is easier to twist the
point of a screw into a cork than
to push a spike straight in.
Cogwheel.
93
Earth and space science

The Universe 9b
illi
on
ye
O
u
sy r so
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The Universe is everything s af
that exists. It includes the Earth, te
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the Sun, and the other stars in G Bi
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our galaxy. Beyond our galaxy d a
sh iffe xies

Ba
are countless other galaxies. ex ape ren of

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The Universe was created ni
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94
How many stars are there in the Milky Way?
 The Universe

Galaxies Picture detective

Galaxies are groups Look through the Earth
of stars held together and Space Science pages.
by gravity. There are Can you identify the
more than 100 billion picture clues below?
stars in a typical
galaxy. Galaxies
are different shapes.
Some are spirals
and some are oval.

Near neighbour
The nearest galaxy
to our own is the
spiral-shaped
Andromeda galaxy.
It would take around
2.2 million years
to get there – if you
were travelling at
the speed of light!

Turn
and learn
How stars form:
The Milky Way pp. 96-97
Our solar system is part of a galaxy called
The solar system:
the Milky Way. From the inside (where we are), pp. 98–99
it looks like a haze of light in the sky.

Between 200 billion and 400 billion.

95
Earth and space science

Starry skies
There are many more stars in the
Universe than there are grains
of sand on all the beaches
on the Earth. Many are
far brighter than our Sun.

The lives of stars

The lives of stars begin
inside thick clouds
of gas in space,
called nebulae.
Supernovae
The most massive
stars end their lives
in huge supernovae
explosions.
White dwarfs
The outer layers of the star are
eventually thrown off into space.
The cooling core is left behind.
This is called a white dwarf.
White dwarfs are no bigger
Red giants than the Earth.
Stars are fuelled by the gas
hydrogen. They burn until
the hydrogen starts to run
out. Then they expand,
Nebulae forming a red giant star.
Gravity pulls together little
knots of dust and gas inside
the nebulae. Each one could
become a star, as gravity
squeezes it tighter and it
becomes hotter.

Stars in motion
The position of the stars
seems to change throughout
Leave a camera shutter the night. The stars are not
open for a few hours on a really moving, though. It is
clear night, and you can
see the stars leave trails the Earth that is turning
as the Earth rotates. beneath them.

96
How many stars can you see on a clear, dark night?
 Starry skies

os tly of hydr
e m og
Remnants
en
The fragments of the ad .
star can remain glowing
in space for hundreds
m

s
ni
of years.

Su
The
Core

Nuclear reactions

Outer layer

Starshine
Our Sun is a star that is
halfway through its life.
In the life cycle, it sits
between being formed
within a nebula and
becoming a red giant.

Shapes in the sky

Black holes Hundreds of years ago, people grouped stars that
When the biggest stars explode, most
material is blown outwards. But the
appear close together in the sky into shapes called
core is crushed and collapses to form constellations. They all have names – often related
a black hole. to their shapes. This is the Plough, in Ursa Major.

About 2,000.
97
Earth and space science

Our solar system

Family of worlds
The solar system is our own The planets all move
small part of space. It is made around the Sun in paths
called orbits. They are held
up of the Sun, eight planets, in these orbits by gravity. Neptune is the furthest
planet from the Sun in
and countless smaller objects, the solar system.

such as comets.
Uranus has
13 rings and
27 moons.

Mars is red because

the soil on its surface
is full of iron oxide.

Jupiter is the largest planet

in the solar system. It has
more than 60 moons.

The Sun
The Sun is our closest star. All the
heat and light we need to survive on
the Earth come from it. Although the
Sun is about halfway through its life,
it will continue to burn for another
five billion years.

98
How old is the solar system?
 Our solar system
Days and years
All planets spin. The time each one takes to
spin once is called a day. The time taken for
a planet to go all the way round the Sun
is a year. Days and years are different
lengths on different planets.

Saturn has rings made

of ice, dust, and rock.

Mercury is the
smallest planet,
and lies closest
to the Sun.
Sun Venus is the brightest,
hottest planet. It has an
incredibly thick atmosphere.

Earth is the only

planet with an
atmosphere that
Fire in the sky
can support life. There are many other objects
in space. Comets are chunks
of ice, rock, and dust. Meteors
are lumps of rock that burn
up as they enter the Earth’s
atmosphere. We see them as
shooting stars.

Mars Venus
Sun
Earth Mercury
Neptune Uranus Saturn Jupiter

How big?
All the planets are tiny in comparison with the Sun, but
the outer planets are much bigger than the four closest
to it. The Sun is 100 times wider than the Earth!
About 4.6 billion years old.
99
Earth and space science

The Moon o n ce
du r
in g each orbit
of
the
Ea
Our Moon is a cold, ns As well as craters,

rth
pi
there are mountains

ns
dusty world that and valleys on the

.
Moon’s surface.

oo
moves around the

The M
Earth in space. There
Battered surface
is no air, and almost The surface of the Moon is covered
no water on the in craters. These have been caused
by meteors crashing into it over
Moon, so nothing millions of years.
can live there.
Scientists think
The far side
that the Moon The Moon takes the
is around same time to turn all the
From the Earth, we
way round as it does to only see the near
4.5 billion go around the Earth. side of the Moon.
This means we always
years old. see the same side of the
Moon. The far side
can only be seen Ocean bulges
by spacecraft. The pull of gravity between the
Moon and the Earth tugs on the Earth’s
oceans, making them bulge on either side of
the planet. As the Earth turns, once every
Orbiting Moon 24 hours, different parts of the oceans
The Moon moves bulge – the sea’s tides rise and fall.
round the Earth once
every 27 days. As the
Moon, Sun, and Earth
move, we see different
amounts of the Moon lit
by the Sun each night.
These different views
are called “phases”.

Between the periods the water As each bulge arrives,

bulges, the sea falls and it the sea rises and it is
is low tide. high tide.

100
How far is the Moon from the Earth?
 The Moon
Moon men
The Moon is the only celestial world that
humans have visited. In 1969, astronauts
walked on the Moon for the first time. Lunar eclipse
When the Earth passes
exactly between the Moon
and the Sun, the Earth’s
shadow falls on the Moon
and blocks out most of its
light. This is called a
lunar eclipse.

Solar eclipse
When the Moon passes
exactly between the Earth
and the Sun, it totally or
partially blocks the Sun.
This is a solar eclipse.

Astronaut Buzz
Aldrin walking
on the Moon

Sunlight

Total eclipse
A total solar eclipse occurs when
the Moon blocks the Sun fully.
Not all parts of the world can
view a total eclipse.

Around 384,000 km (239,000 miles).

101
Earth and space science

The Earth’s structure

The Earth is the only planet in the
solar system that can support life
because it’s just the right distance from
the Sun. Our amazing world is a huge
ball of liquid rock with a solid surface.
Seen from space, the Earth is a mass
of blue oceans and swirling clouds.

Crust

Inside the Earth

If you could cut the Earth open, you’d
see it’s made up of layers. The thin top
Outer Core
layer, where we live, is called the crust. core
Underneath is a layer of syrup-like rock
called the mantle, then an outer core of
molten (liquid) iron and nickel. At the
centre is a solid iron-and-nickel core. Mantle

Life-support systems
The Earth’s atmosphere
and its surface water play an
important role in supporting
life. They help keep our
planet at just the right
temperature by absorbing
the Sun’s heat and moving
it around the world.

102
What is the biggest ocean on the Earth?
 The Earth’s structure
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are
openings in the
Earth’s crust.
Sometimes, magma
(melted rock) from
just beneath the crust
bursts through these
openings as a volcanic Making mountains
eruption. Lots of ash The Himalayas started to form 50
and dust shoot out too. million years ago, when two moving
plates collided. The mountains are
still growing! Mount Everest, the
tallest peak in the world, is a part
Earthquakes often of the Himalayan range and is
Fault lines occur along the growing 4 mm (3⁄20 in) each year.
Earthquakes happen when San Andreas Fault.
two plates of the Earth’s
crust rub against each other. Drifting continents
The boundary between the The world hasn’t always looked like it
plates is called a fault line. does now. Millions of years ago, all the
land was joined together. Slowly, it broke
up and the continents drifted apart.

Cracked crust 200 million years ago 135 million years ago 10 million years ago
The Earth’s top layer is
made up of giant pieces
called “plates”. These fit
together a bit like a jigsaw,
but they’re constantly San Andreas
moving. Volcanoes and Fault
earthquakes often happen in
the weak spots where plates
move against each other.

Active
volcanoes

The Pacific Ocean.

103
Earth and space science

Rocks and
minerals
The Earth’s crust is
made up of different Serpentine is Gabbro is a rock White mica is a
a mineral that that is used to mineral that you
rocks. Some of these are stone carvers
use to create
make kitchen
surfaces and floors.
can find in some
kinds of toothpaste.
hard but others are soft works of art.

and crumbly. They are

Fossils in stones
formed in different ways. Fossils are the remains
or imprints of plants
What is a rock? and animals that died
A rock is formed from minerals. millions of years ago,
Most rocks are made up of different preserved in stone.
minerals, but some contain just one.
There are three main types of
rock: igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic. Igneous rock
When hot molten magma
from the Earth’s interior
The rock cycle cools and solidifies, it forms
Over many years, the rocks igneous rocks. Some harden
in the Earth’s crust gradually underground, such as
change from one type into granite. Some erupt first
another. They are transformed as lava in a volcano.
by wind, water, pressure,
and heat.

Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock

Wind and water wear Sometimes rocks
rocks away. Small are crushed
pieces wash into the underground, or
sea. These settle scorched by hot
into layers, which magma. Then they
pack together to form may be transformed
sedimentary rocks, such into new rocks, such as
as limestone and sandstone. marble, slate, and gneiss.

104
Which type of rock floats on water?
 Rocks and minerals
What is a mineral?
A mineral is a solid that Minerals in your home
occurs naturally. It is made Minerals make up many
up of chemicals and has a common objects.
crystal structure. Minerals
are everywhere you look.
Halite is the natural form
We use minerals to build of salt, which we add to
Rock salt is a mineral that is
spread on roads in icy weather. cars and computers, fertilize our food for flavour.
It makes the ice melt. soil, and to clean our teeth.

Quartz from sand is used

Mineral to make the silicon chips in
Feldspar
mixtures calculators and computers.
is used for
Granite rock is glazing
ceramics.
made up of different Kaolinite is used to make
coloured minerals. crockery. It is also used to
Mica is
The black mineral make paper look glossy.
ground up
is mica, the pink is and used
in paint.
feldspar, and the
Illite is a clay mineral
grey mineral and is used in terracotta
Quartz can
is quartz. also occur pots and bricks.
as the
gemstone
amethyst.
Mica is used to make
glittery paint and
Crystals nail polish.
Minerals usually form crystals. Crystals have a number
of flat surfaces. The largest crystals form when minerals
in magma or trapped liquids cool very slowly. Graphite is the lead in
pencils. It is also used
in bicycle brakes.

Rhodochrosite
is a rose-coloured
gemstone used
in jewellery.

Quartz stalactites form in caves over thousands of years.

Pumice – it is filled with air bubbles, so some pieces can float.

105
Earth and space science

Shaping the land

The surface of our planet never stops changing. Over
millions of years, land is slowly worn away by wind,
rain, and rivers. Floods, volcanoes, and earthquakes
can change the shape of the land in just a few hours.
River power
The Grand Canyon
formed over millions of
years as the Colorado
River slowly wore down
the rock deeper.

Going underground
Caves form when rain
seeps underground and
eats away at soft rock
such as limestone.

Coastal shapes
Powerful waves shape
the coastlines around
the world’s oceans.
Bays form where waves
wear into areas of softer
rock along the coast.

Headlands are areas of

harder rock that have not
been worn away.
Glaciers at work
Sea arches form when Glaciers are huge rivers
waves open up cracks of ice that flow slowly off
in headlands. snowcapped mountains.
Broken rock sticks to the
Sea stacks are pillars of bottom of the glacier, which
rock left in the sea after
an arch collapses. then wears away the land
like sandpaper, carving out
a deep, U-shaped valley.

106
What is the most active volcano on the Earth?
 Shaping the land
New islands Floods
Some volcanoes Heavy rain
are hidden under makes rivers
the sea. When they overflow, causing
erupt, they can give floods. Floods
birth to whole new have enormous
islands, like Surtsey power and can
in Iceland (left). wreck buildings
Surtsey burst out and reshape
of the sea in 1963. Before flood After flood the land.

Hills of sand
In deserts, winds blow
sand into hills called
dunes. In some deserts,
Worn by wind the dunes stretch
Strong winds can for hundreds of
lift sand off the miles, forming
ground and blast it a “sand sea”.
hard against rocks.
The rock is worn
into strange shapes.

Mount Kilauea in Hawaii.

107
Earth and space science

Soil Humus

Soil is the thin layer

of loose material on Layers in soil
Soil builds up in
the land. Soil contains Topsoil layers over many
minerals, air, water, and years. Plant roots grow
in the topsoil, which is
decaying organic matter. generally the richest in
Subsoil plant food. The lower
Healthy humus layers are rocky. Plant
Humus is a dark, roots do not reach this
rich substance made far down in the soil.
up of rotting plants
Regolith
and animals (called
“organic matter”).
It contains lots of
nutrients, which Bedrock
plants need to grow.

Life underground
Soil is home to thousands
of animals, including slugs,
ants, beetles, and spiders.
Larger animals that spend
time underground, such as
moles, mix up humus and
minerals as they burrow
through the soil.

108
What is a scientist who studies soil called?
 Soil
Soil erosion
Sizing up soil When soil is farmed
Different types of too much, its nutrients
soil have different get used up. The topsoil
sized particles. blows or washes away.
Not many plants can
Sandy soils contain
particles about 2 mm
survive in these areas
(0.08 in) across. without the rich topsoil.

Clay soils have very

small particles. Water
collects between them.

Loamy soils have

Ploughing breaks up
a mixture of small soil, to stop it getting
and large particles. hard and solid. This helps
keep soil fertile and crops
grow more easily.

hands on
Important earthworms
Earthworms help to make fertile soil. Half fill a
Their burrows let air into the soil, and jar with soil and
create pathways for water to move top it up with water. Put
around more easily. Earthworms also on the lid and shake.
help the remains of plants and animals Leave for a day. The
to decompose. This releases important soil should separate
nutrients into the soil. Earthworm waste into layers.
is good for soil too!

A pedologist. 109
Earth and space science

Resources in the ground

The ground holds many useful things, Sea level
Rig

from fuels like coal and oil, to drinking

water and building materials. These People drill
holes to
valuable items are known as resources, extract oil
and gas
and we have dug, drilled, and searched from deep
under the
seafloor.
for them for many years.

Finding fuels
Oil and gas are often found in pockets
deep underground. Sometimes, these
are even below the seabed. Coal develops
closer to the surface in layers called seams.

Deep drilling
Oil rigs far out
at sea use huge
drills to extract
the liquid oil
from the ground.
Coal is solid,
and is dug out
in mines or pits.

In hot water
Water in the ground can get very
hot near volcanoes. In Iceland, they
use this naturally hot water to heat
houses or make steam to turn
electricity generators.

110
Which underground resource are plastics made from?
 Resources in the ground
Getting gas Making glass
Gas is only found in certain
Glass is made by melting
places. To get it to where it is
together sand, soda ash,
needed, it is fed through very
and ground limestone.
long pipes, or changed into
People blow or machine-
liquid and put in special ships.
press the red-hot mineral
mixture into different shapes.
These set hard and clear as
the glass cools.
Glass bottles are shaped from
molten glass.

Extracting metals
Most metals are found Metal variety
underground as minerals Different metal resources
in rocks called ores. Giant have different uses.
machines dig up the ore.
The metal is extracted, Aluminium is a soft
or taken out, from the metal used to make cans,
aircraft, and car bodies.
ore using heat.
Gold is rare and looks
beautiful, so it is often
used to make awards
and medals.

Iron is strong. It is used

to make steel for ships,
buildings, and pylons.

Copper prevents barnacles

from growing on it, so
parts of ships are often
coated with it.

Creating concrete
Concrete is an important
building material. It is
made with water, sand,
gravel, and cement.
Water, sand, and gravel
are found in the ground,
while cement is made
from limestone, which is
also found in the ground.

Oil.
111
Earth and space science

Fresh and salt water

The Earth is often called the blue Freshwater sources
planet because 75 per cent of its People get fresh water
surface is covered in water. Most of from different sources
on the Earth’s surface,
the Earth’s water is salt water in the including rivers, streams,
oceans. Less than one per cent of all lakes, and reservoirs.
the water on the Earth is fresh. Rivers and streams
flow from mountains
The hydrosphere down to the oceans.
The hydrosphere is the
Lakes are natural
name for all the water dips in the Earth
on the Earth. It includes where water collects.
oceans, rivers, and lakes.
It also includes water that Reservoirs are
is frozen, such as icebergs. man-made lakes that
are built to store water.

Trapped in ice
Less than 33 per cent of fresh
water is usable by humans.
The rest is frozen in glaciers
or icebergs (below), or as
huge sheets of ice at the
North and South poles.

Water for life

All living things must have water to survive. In
mammals, including humans, water is part of the
blood and of organs, such as the skin and brain.
There is water in every cell in your body. In fact,
cells contain about two-thirds of the body’s water!

112
How much of your body is water?
 Fresh and salt water

Salty seas
The world’s oceans are salty
because they contain a lot of The Dead Sea,
dissolved chemicals that scientists located in Asia,
contains so much salt
call salts. Drinking water also that people can just
contains salts, but only in small float on the surface.
amounts, so you can’t taste them.

hands on
Put an egg
Surviving in salt water
in a glass of water. The egg
Countless animals live in water.
They don’t drink, but take water will sink. Start stirring in salt
into their bodies in other ways. until the egg rises. The egg
Fish often absorb water as it will eventually float because
washes in and out of their gills. salt water is denser
Salt-water fish absorb only than fresh water.
a little of the salt.

Estuary life
An estuary is the wide part of a river where
it nears the sea. When the tide comes in, salt
water flows into the estuary. When the tide
goes out, the estuary contains mostly fresh
water from the river or stream that flows into
it. Mangrove trees, like the ones shown here,
are able to live in the changing estuary water.

Your body is approximately 70 per cent water.

113
Earth and space science

The water cycle

Water is constantly on the move,
between oceans, land, air, and rivers.
This movement is called the water cycle.

Water falls as
rain, snow, or Sun
When this water
hail from clouds. vapour floats high in
the sky, it condenses
and forms clouds.

Rainwater Water heated

collects in rivers by the Sun
and streams, evaporates.
and also seeps It changes from
underground. liquid to vapour.

Gr
ou
nd
wa
ter

Water from rivers Sea

and streams flows
into the sea.

Natural recycling
The water cycle is the journey
water makes as it moves from
the air to the land, and into the
seas, and then back into the air again.

On the dry side

Moisture-laden sea air has
to rise when it hits a coastal
mountain. Since air cools
as it rises, all the moisture
condenses and falls as rain.
So, on the other side of the
mountain, no rain falls. This
area is called a rainshadow.
114
What is electricity generated by running water called?
 The water cycle
Groundwater
In the water cycle, some
water seeps underground,
where it collects in rocks Using water
and sometimes forms Fresh water is
pools in caves. Some trapped in reservoirs
groundwater is pumped and then piped to
up and used for drinking homes, businesses,
or irrigation. and farms. When
you turn on a
tap, the water
that comes out
has been on a
long journey!

Saving water
There is a limited
amount of fresh water
on the Earth. If we
want to make sure
there’s enough to go
around, it’s important
Damp ground that everyone uses less.
Wetlands form on land in areas where fresh water
does not drain away. They provide a habitat for Don’t keep taps running
many plants, birds, animals, and fish. while you are brushing
your teeth or washing.

Flush the toilet

Drought only when necessary.
When very little Some toilets have
two flush controls.
rain falls, experts
call it a drought. Don’t run the
Droughts do not dishwasher when it’s half
empty – wait until it’s full.
occur only in
deserts – any area Take a shower instead
that gets much less of a bath. Showering
rain than usual is uses much less water.
said to be suffering
from drought.
Hydroelectricity.
115
Earth and space science

The atmosphere
Planet Earth is wrapped in a thin layer
of air called the atmosphere. Without
this protective blanket of gases, life on
Shimmering particles
the Earth could not exist. The atmosphere is mainly
made up of gases, but it also
Gases in air contains tiny particles of dust,
Air is a mixture of different gases,
pollen, and water droplets.
including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon
All particles can cause a
dioxide. Oxygen is vital for plants and
The purple area, haze in the air when the
animals as it allows them to breathe.
where the ozone Sun shines through them.
Carbon dioxide is also vital for plants. layer is the
They absorb it from the air and use thinnest, is called
the ozone hole.
the carbon atoms to help build
new leaves and stems.

Protective layer
A gas called ozone in the atmosphere
The greenhouse effect protects the Earth from harmful rays in
If there was no atmosphere, sunlight. This ozone layer has become
the Sun’s warming rays thinner because of chemical pollution.
would bounce off the Earth During the spring season (August–October)
and disappear into space. in the Southern Hemisphere, an area of the
But the atmosphere traps ozone layer above Antarctica becomes much
some of the heat, making the thinner than anywhere else. This “ozone
Earth warm enough for us hole” occurs every year.
to survive.

116
How far up from the ground does space officially begin?
 The atmosphere
Layers of the atmosphere
500 km (310 miles)
The atmosphere is made up
of layers, each with a different
name. The bottom layer is the
troposphere, where clouds form
Satellite
and planes fly. Above this, the air
gets thinner and thinner as the
Into thin air atmosphere merges into space.
Like everything else, air is
pulled by gravity. Most air
molecules are pulled close Light spectacular

THERMOSPHERE
to the ground, where the Sunlight can create
air is thick and easy to
dazzling effects as it
breathe. Higher up, air
is so thin that climbers strikes the atmosphere International Space Station

need oxygen tanks. and is scattered by air,

water, and dust.
Rainbows form when
water droplets reflect
Northern lights
sunlight and split it
From space, the into different colours.
atmosphere looks like a
blue haze over the Earth. The sky looks blue
on clear days because
air molecules scatter
blue light the most.
At sunset, only the
red and orange light of
85 km (53 miles)
sunlight make it through
Shooting stars
MESOSPHERE

the atmosphere.

Moving water
The atmosphere is always
swirling around, creating winds. 50 km
STRATOSPHERE

The winds push on the oceans, (31 miles)

causing the water to swirl too.
These swirling currents carry
Weather
warmth around the planet. balloon

10 km (6 miles)
TROPOSPHERE

Jumbo jet

100 km (62 miles).

117
Earth and space science

Weather Kites stay high in the air

by catching the wind.

Is it sunny or rainy? Is there snow

on the ground or a thunderstorm
brewing? People are always
interested in the weather because
it affects what we do and
what we wear.

Weather words
Here are some main Predicting the weather
Weather forecasters look
features of the weather. at pictures beamed back
Sunshine gives us heat from weather satellites.
and light. It warms the Computers then help
air and dries the land. forecasters work out what
Clouds are made from the weather is going to be
tiny water droplets. like over the next few days.
Dark clouds mean
rain is coming.

Hailstones are balls

of ice that grow inside
thunderclouds. Rainy days
Rain clouds form
Wind is air moving
around. Winds can when warm, moist air
be a light breeze or rises upwards and then
a strong gale. cools. Droplets of water
Rain is drops of water
join together until they
that fall from clouds. Rain become so heavy that
is very good for plant life. they fall. Rain clouds
look dark because
Snow is made from tiny sunlight cannot shine
bits of ice. It falls instead
of rain when it is very cold. through the droplets.

118
Which is bigger – a tornado or a hurricane?
 Weather
Wildfires
Long periods of hot or dry
weather can make plants
dry out so much that they
catch fire easily when struck
by lightning. This can lead
to a raging wildfire that
burns down whole forests.

Stormy weather
Lightning strikes when
electricity builds up in clouds.
The electricity is created when ice The brightest bolts
of lightning travel
crystals in the clouds rub against upwards from the
each other. A bolt of lightning ground to the clouds.
heats the air around it so quickly
that the air explodes, creating the
rumbling noise we call thunder.

Winds on the move

Wind is moving air. Warm air rises
and cool air sinks. This movement
is what makes the wind blow.

ird or what
we ?
Twisters Hailstones can
Tornadoes (twisters) grow to be enormous
are whirling funnels of in certain conditions. The
wind that form beneath biggest hailstone weighed
massive thunderclouds. nearly 1 kg (2 lb)
The fierce wind can do and was 20 cm
enormous damage, and (8 in) across!
the funnel can suck up
debris like a gigantic
vacuum cleaner.

A hurricane is thousands of times bigger than a tornado.

119
Earth and space science

The energy crisis Nuclear power stations

generate energy by
People around the world use energy splitting atoms.

for many different purposes – from

powering cars to heating homes.
Most of this energy comes from
burning coal, oil, and natural gas
(fossil fuels). But these fuels won’t
last forever, and their fumes are Alternative energy
damaging the atmosphere. We need to find sources
of energy other than fossil
fuels – sources which cause
less pollution and will not
Global warming run out. Nuclear power is
Burning fossil fuels fills the air with greenhouse gases, one option. Others possibilities
which trap some of the Sun’s heat in the atmosphere. include energy from sunlight,
If the Earth becomes too warm, polar ice caps will wind, and waves.
melt, the sea level will rise, and deserts will spread.

Heat from the Sun

enters through Greenhouse gases trap
the atmosphere. heat, although some
escapes back into
the atmosphere.

The wind provides a limitless supply of

non-polluting energy. However, wind
turbines are large and can be
costly to set up.

120
What are fossil fuels made of?
 The energy crisis
Cleaner cars
Ordinary petrol cars use Making a difference
a lot of oil, and produce There are lots of small
harmful fumes. things we can all do to
Now car makers save energy.
are looking for
alternatives to Start growing your own
vegetables and fruits, even
petrol. Electric cars if they’re only in pots.
do not give off any
kind of fumes. Hydrogen To recharge an electric When planning a
car, you just plug it in.
engines burn hydrogen gas, holiday, remember that
and only give off water. trains, boats, and cars use
less energy than aeroplanes.

Instead of buying new

Rising energy needs clothes, swap with a friend
As the world’s population or buy them second-hand.
grows, we are using more
Eat local food that
and more energy. But hasn’t travelled miles,
to stop global warming, because transporting
we may have to reduce food costs energy.
the amount of energy
we all use. Don’t throw away glass,
plastics, metal, or paper –
reuse or recycle them.

Take your own bags

when you go shopping.
Making plastic bags
takes energy.

Don’t leave your TV or

Energy-saving laptop on standby – this
homes wastes lots of electricity.
This house saves energy
by using solar panels Hang your laundry
and wind turbines to outside to dry. Don’t waste
electricity running a dryer.
generate its own non-
polluting electricity.
The walls are thick, Ask your parents about
insulating the roof to
so that less energy prevent heat from escaping.
is needed to heat
the house. If you get cold, put on a
jumper instead of turning
up your heating.

To reduce the energy used in

manufacturing, it’s a good idea
to use recycled building materials.

The remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
121
Reference section

n.
me
True or false?

tch
Du
o
tw
by
Can you work out which of

ilt
bu
these facts are real, and which

as
ew
ones are completely made up?

1 The microsco
p
to
a is used
3 Mic

ma
ore than
as m

ke the
h 60
ti er m
p

oo
Ju

silicon
n s.
2

chips
in calcu
lators.
4
uc
N

lea
r pow
er stati the Sun.
ons harness energy from

122 5: False – they are called palaeontologists 6: True 7: True 8: True 9. False – they eat for about 16 hours a day.
 True or false?

gists.
a re ca lled ecolo
sils
tu dy fos
s
ts who ntis

milk.
5 Scie

g
6 Crea
m an a tin

ar
sep
d
ch
ee
se a by
re made

gh their
hrou
skin.

n t
oxy ge
orb
can abs
s
og
Fr

9
Ele
7

ph
ant
s eat for more than 20
8 Glass i
s made with sa
n
d,
ground limestone, and

hour
s a day.
soda ash
.

Answers. 1: True 2: True 3: False – quartz is used 4: False – they harness energy by splitting atoms 123
Reference section

Quiz 4 What makes objects float?

Test your knowledge

of science with these
quiz questions.
A: Gravity B: Centrifugal force
C: Buoyancy D: Insulation
1 What is the name of the chemical reaction that
makes silver slowly turn grey and dull?
5 Leaves have a green pigment called…

A: Rusting B. Tarnishing A: Pollen B. Chlorophyll

C. Photosynthesis D. Rotting C. Hyphae D. Xylem

2 Which kind of energy wave is used in hospitals 6 When rain seeps underground and eats away
to kill cancer cells? at soft rock, it forms…
A: Gamma rays B: X-rays A: Sea arches B: Sea stacks
C: Infrared waves D: Ultraviolet light C: Caves D: Stalactites

3 Which one of these minerals can be found 7 Which year was Teflon invented in?
in nail polish?

A. Mica B. Sulphur A. 1941 B. 1948

C. Graphite D. Illite C. 1938 D. 1950

124
 Quiz

8 What is the wide part of a river where 13 What is the innermost layer of the Earth called?
it nears the sea called?
A: Wetland B: Estuary
C: Reservoir D: Bay

9 A pit viper has heat sensors on its…

A: Mantle B: Plate
C: Core D: Crust

A. Tongue B. Skin
C. Head D. Tail 14 What is the fastest thing in the Universe?

A: Sound B: Heat
10 Which one of these elements is a halogen?
C: Wind D: Light

A. Silicon B. Mercury
C. Cobalt D. Chlorine 15 Butterflies taste with their…

11 How many stars are there in the Milky Way?

A: 200–400 billion B: 500–600 million A. Feet B. Antennae

C: 50–100 billion D: 900 million C. Tongue D. Wings

12 When a pulley has more than one wheel, the 16 What is the process of the atmosphere trapping the
pulling force is… Sun’s rays called?
A. Increased B. Decreased A. Echolocation B. Greenhouse effect
C. Divided D. The same C. Radiation D. Carbon cycle

Answers. 1:B 2:A 3:A 4:C 5:B 6:C 7:C 8:B 9:C 10:D 11:A 12:A 13:C 14:D 15:A 16:B
125
Reference section

Who or what am I?
Can you work out who 2: I am
or what is being talked the brightest
and hottest
about from the clue? planet in the
solar system.

Saturn

Rock

Venus

Plant

1: Botanists study
Ostrich
Monkey me and learn
about my world.

Insect

Crocodile
Pottery
126
 Who or what am I?

Mars
Fireworks

Road-drill

3: I can be
Jet engine as loud as
140 decibels.

Drums

Mercury

Gold
Diamond

Quartz

Tortoise 5: I am the
hardest of all
minerals.

4: I lay the
largest egg in the
animal kingdom. Python
Topaz

Answers. 1: Plant 2: Venus 3: Jet engine 4: Ostrich 5: Diamond

127
Reference section

4: This
medicine,
discovered by the
Scottish scientist
Alexander Fleming,
kills bacteria.
1: Located in
Hawaii, this is the
most active volcano
on the Earth.

2: The Grand
Canyon was 5: This was
formed due to first tested
years of erosion in 1617 by
caused by this Faust Vrancic,
body of water. 3: This NASA in Italy.
orbiter was part of
the Space Shuttle

Where in programme that

ended in 2011.
6: This animal
lives in the

the world? African grasslands

and uses its body
colour as
camouflage.
Match the description of each of
these objects or animals with the
pictures, and discover what part
of the world each belongs to.

Blood Mount Kilauea Sputnik 1 Parachute Dead Sea Emperor penguin

128 7: Blood 8: Dead Sea 9: Mount Everest 10: Sputnik 1 11: Paper 12: Emperor penguin
 Where in the world?

7: Austrian
scientist Karl 10: Launched
Landsteiner by the Soviet Union
discovered that this in 1957, this was
9: Part of the first satellite
substance can be the Himalayas,
divided into four in space.
this is the tallest
groups. mountain peak
in the world.

11: This was

created in China in
105 BCE, but was
kept a secret for
many years.

8: This body of
water in Asia
is so salty that
you can easily
float in it.

12: This
Antarctic
animal has a
heat-trapping layer
on its body.

The Atlantis Lion Colorado River Penicillin Paper Mount Everest

Answers. 1: Mount Kilauea 2: Colorado River 3: The Atlantis 4: Penicillin 5: Parachute 6: Lion
129
Reference section

Glossary genes Chemical instructions

in your cells, holding the
information that makes
you who you are
atmosphere Mass of air that electromagnet Powerful
surrounds the Earth magnet created by a flow of
global warming Slow rise
electricity through a coil
attraction Force that pulls in average temperatures
things together. The opposite around the world, believed
endorphins Chemicals released
ends (poles) of two magnets to be caused by the
by the brain that make you feel
attract each other greenhouse effect
happy and reduce pain
bacteria Tiny one-celled greenhouse effect When the
erosion Wearing down of rock
creatures found all around us. atmosphere traps in heat,
Some bacteria are good, but by water or the weather
the Earth becomes warm
others cause disease enough for life to thrive
estuary Wide part of a river
carbohydrate Along with fats where it meets the sea
habitat Area where a particular
and proteins, energy-rich species of plant, fungus, or
carbohydrates, such as sugar fertilization Process in animal lives
and starch, are one of the which the male and female
three major food groups parts of an animal or plant
herbivore Animal that eats
join together to reproduce
only plants. Cows, koalas,
carnivore Animal that eats only
and elephants are herbivores
meat. Lions, wolves, sharks, and force Push or a pull.
crocodiles are carnivores Gravity is the force that
invertebrates Animals that
keeps you on the ground
don’t have a backbone
carrion Remains of dead
animals that other animals eat fossil fuels Fuels that come
laboratory Place
from the earth and are the
where scientists carry
chlorophyll Pigment in plants remains of living things.
that traps the energy of sunlight out their experiments
Coal, oil, and natural
for photosynthesis and gives gas are all fossil fuels
them their green colour

circuit Loop that an electric

current travels around

compound Chemical made

when two or more elements are
joined by a chemical reaction

continent One of the Earth’s

huge landmasses, like Asia.
There are seven continents

130
When was the word “scientist” first used?
 Glossary
limestone Rock made from orbit Path taken by an object reservoir Place where water
the skeletal remains of marine in space as it moves around is collected and stored
animals, built up in layers another object
over thousands of years satellite Natural or
ores Minerals that are man-made object that moves
migration Movement of important sources of metals around another object. The
animals, particularly birds, Moon is the Earth’s natural
from one place to another to organ Group of tissues that satellite. Man-made satellites
find food or warmth form a body part designed circle the Earth and send back
for a specific job. The information on things such
mineral Solid chemical heart is an organ as weather
substance usually found
as crystals in rock organic matter species Type of living
Remains of dead plants thing that can breed with
mixture Two or more and animals. Organic others of the same type
substances combined together, matter is an important
but not joined chemically part of soil because it spore Special cell made
contains lots of nutrients by organisms such as
nerves Threads of tissue fungi. Spores can grow
that carry high-speed signals organism Living thing that into new organisms
around the body has a number of parts working
together as a whole temperature Measure of how
nutrients Foods or chemicals hot or cold things are
that a plant or animal needs in parasite Organism that lives
order to live and grow on or inside another plant or tissue Group of cells that look
animal, often harming it and act the same. Muscle is a
omnivore Animal that eats type of tissue
both meat and plants. Pigs, particle Very, very small bit
bears, and humans of matter, such as an atom transpiration Evaporation
are omnivores or a molecule of water from a plant into
the atmosphere
repulsion Force that pushes
objects apart. The same ends vacuum Place where there
(poles) of two magnets repel is nothing, not even air
each other
vertebrae Bones that link
together to form an animal’s
backbone or spine

vertebrates Animals
that have a backbone

It was used in 1833, at The British Association for the Advancement of Science. 131
Reference section

C
carbohydrates 39, coal 76, 110

Index 41, 50
carbon dioxide 37,
48, 49, 50, 116
colour blindness 33
comets 98, 99
compounds 66, 67

A
air 53, 87, 108,
109 114, 116, 117 carbon 48, concrete 71, 111
alloy 66 49, 50, condensation 56, 61
aluminium 63, 65, 111 51 61, conductors 54, 62, 77, 87
amphibians 28, 29 62, 63 constellations 97
animals 14, 26–27, continents 103
28–29, 30–31, 42, 43, convection 87
44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, copper 63, 111
72, 82, 108, 112, 116 crystals 60, 105
communication 27

D
food 26, 47, 48 Dead Sea 66,
movement 26 113
reproduction 27, deserts 23, 45,
30–31 107
arteries 36 diamonds 61
astronauts 101 digestion 38–39, 40
atmosphere 52, dinosaurs 51
99, 102, diseases 13, 17, 18
116–117, 120 distillation 67
atoms 58–59, DNA 32
60–61, 62, 63, drought 115
73

E
Earth 52, 88,
94, 96, 97,

B
backbone 14, 34
bacteria 16, 48, 70 98, 99, 100,
Big Bang 94 101, 102–103, 104, 106,
birds 28, 29, 31, 87 112, 114, 116, 117
black holes 97 crust 102, 103, 104
blood 36, 112 magnetic field 78
bones 34, 84 structure 102–103
breathing 37, 49, 116 earthquakes 103
butterflies 31 carbon cycle 50–51 earthworms 42, 49,
carnivores 26, 43 109
catkins 24 echoes 85
caves 106 eclipses 101
cells 14, 16, ecosystems 44–45
17, 32 electricity 12, 73, 76–77, 119
chlorine 63, 65 electric circuits 77
chlorophyll 22 static electricity 77, 89
chromosomes 32 electromagnets 79
climate 44, 45 elements 62–63, 64–65, 66
clouds 73, 118, 119 elephants 30, 31, 47
132
 Index

JK
elephants 30, 31, 47 gears 92 joints 35
energy 72–73, 74–75, genes 32, 33 Jupiter 98, 99
76, 80–81 glaciers 106, 112 kidneys 39
chemical energy 72, 74 glass 111

L
electrical energy 73, 74, global warming 120 lakes 44, 112
75 gold 63, 64, 111 lead 65
energy changes 74–75 graphite 61, 105 levers 92
energy waves 80–81 grasslands 45, 46 light 81, 82–83
heat energy 72, 74, gravity 88, 91, 98 lightning 73, 77,
75, 86–87 greenhouse effect 119
light energy 72, 74, 116 limestone 104, 106
82–83 greenhouse gases 120 liquids 52, 54, 56, 60, 84
movement (kinetic) groundwater 115 liver 38
energy 73, 74, 75 lungs 36, 37

H
nuclear energy 59, 73, habitats 44, 47
120 hail 118, 119
saving energy 75 halite 105
sound energy 74, 84–85 halogens 63, 65
stored energy 72 health 13, 40–41
estuaries 113 hearing 84, 85
evaporation 57, 61, 67 heart 36
exercise 40, 41 heat 86–87
helium 63

F
fats 39, 40 herbivores 26, 42
fault lines 103 humus 108
ferns 21 hunting 46
filtration 67 hydrogen 97
fish 28, 29, 31, 113 hydrosphere 112
Fleming, Sir Alexander 19 hygiene 42
floods 106, 107

I
food 39, 40, 48, 121 ice 56, 57, 106,
food chains 42–43 112, 119
forces 78, 88–89, 90–91, 92, infrared waves 80,
93 86
fossil fuels 51, 72, 120 inheritance 32–33
fossils 104 insects 29
freezing 57, 60 insulators 54, 77
fruit 25, 40 intestines 38, 39
fungi 15, 18–19, 42 invertebrates 14, 28,
29

G
galaxies 94, 95 iron 56, 63, 67,
gamma rays 81 102, 111
gases 52, 53, 56,
61, 84, 110, 111, 116

133
Reference section

M P
machines 92–93 microscopes 11, 16 penguins 31,
Maglev trains microwaves 80 87
79 migration 47 penicillin 19
magma 103, 104 minerals 39, 104–105, Periodic Table
magnetism 78–79 108, 111 62–63
mammals 28, 30, 31, mixtures 66, 67 pewter 66
112 Mohs, Friedrich 55 photosynthesis 22, 49
Mars 98, 99 molecules 58, 59, planes 93
materials 70–71 60–61 planets 98–99
matter 52–53, 54–55, Moon 88, 100–101 plants 15, 17, 20–21,
56–57 moss 21 22–23, 24–25, 42, 44, 45,
medicine 19 motion 90–91 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
melting 57, 60 moulds 15, 18, 19 108, 109, 116
Mercury 99 mountains 45, 103, food 22, 23, 48
mercury 56, 63 106, 114 reproduction 24–25
metals 56, 62, 63, 64, mouth 38 plasma 36, 52
65, 66, 111 muscles 26, 34, 35 plastic 12
meteors 99 mushrooms 15, 18 polar regions 44,
112

N
nebulae 96 pollen 24
neon 65 proteins 39
Neptune 98, 99 pulleys 93
nerves 26, 84

R
Newton, Sir Isaac 90 radiation 86
nickel 64, 102 radio waves
nitrogen 48, 49, 80
116 rain 106, 114, 115,
nitrogen cycle 118, 119
48 rainforests 21
nutrients 18, 38, reactions 68–69
42, 109 chemical reactions 66,
nylon 70 68–69, 70, 71
reading 41

O
oceans 44, reflections 83
112, 113, reproduction 24–25,
114 30–31, 32
oesophagus 38 reptiles 28, 31
oil 50, 76, 110, 120 reservoirs 112,
omnivores 26 115
organisms 14, 45, 47 resources 110–111
oxygen 36, 37, 48, ribcage 34
49, 50, 116, 117 rivers 44, 106, 112,
oxygen cycle 49 114
ozone layer 116 rocks 104–105,

134
 Index
106, 107 sound 84–85
igneous rock 104 speed 91
metamorphic rock 104 stars 96–97,
rock cycle 104 98
sedimentary rock 104 stomach 38
rust 71 storms 73, 119
sulphur 63

S
salts 66, 113 Sun 22, 42, 72, 78, 86,
sand dunes 107 88, 96, 97, 98, 99,
satellites 13, 118 100, 101, 102, 116,
Saturn 99 117, 118, 120
scavengers 43 supernovae 96
screws 93 suspension 66
seashores 45

T
seaweed 20 taste 39
separation 67 Teflon 12
shadows 82 thunder 73,
sight 83 119
silver 62, 64 tides 100
skeleton 34 tin 65
skull 34 titanium 63, 64

W
sleep 41 toadstools 15, 18 water 40, 48,
snow 118 tornadoes 119 49, 52, 58, 72,
sodium 64 transpiration 23 87, 89, 108,
soil 42, 45, 51, transport 13, 109, 110, 112–113
108–109 76 saving water 115
soil erosion 109 truffles 19 sea water 66
solar system 94, 95, tundra 44 water cycle 114–115
98–99, 102 twins 33 water vapour 56, 57
solids 52, 56, waves 106
weather 118–119

U
57, 84 ultraviolet rays
81 wetlands 115
Universe 94–95 wheels 92
Uranus 98, 99 wind, 72, 107, 118,
119, 120

V
vaccinations 17

XYZ
vegetables 40 X-rays
veins 36 81
velocity 91 yeasts
Venus 99 19
vertebrates 14, 28 zinc 62
viruses 17
vitamins 39
volcanoes 55, 103, 106, 107

135
Reference section

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Museum, London 61cr, 105br; Dave King / Courtesy of Armyagov 9cra, 58bl; Orkhan Aslanov 13tl; Lara Terekhov 12cra; Leah-Anne Thompson 39tl; Mr
The Science Museum, London 56c, 56cl, 56cr; Richard Barrett 26bl; Diego Barucco 101tr; Giovanni Benintende TopGear 86bl; Tramper 108cb; Triff 87tr; Robert
Leeney 109cr; NASA 5r, 52cr, 53bl, 88r, 95tr, 99bc, 5t, 96-97c; Claudio Bertoloni 7br, 81tr; Mircea Paul van Beets 8bc; Specta 29bl; vnlit 14tr; Li Wa 8c;
99bl, 99cr, 100tr; Rough Guides / Alex Robinson 44cb; Bezergheanu 118-119tl; Murat Boylu 58cb, 64crb; T Linda Webb 6cra; R T Wohlstadter 117cr; Grzegorz
Harry Taylor / Courtesy of the Natural History Bradford 66tr; Melissa Brandes 104c; Karel Brož 14br; Wolczyk 63cr; Feng Yu 86cra; Jurgen Ziewe 6br,
Museum, London 56tl; M. I. Walker 16-17; Greg Ward Buquet 37cl; Vladyslav Byelov 66bl; Michael Byrne 95crb, 98-99, 112br; SuperStock: age fotostock 10bl
(c) Rough Guides 71cl; Barrie Watts 25br, 51cl; Paul 12b; Cheryl Casey 32cb; William Casey 4cr; cbpix 113c;
Wilkinson 9c; Jerry Young 44bc; Dreamstime.com: Andraž Cerar 63cl; Bonita R Cheshier 60tr; Stephen All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Ifeelstock 9ca, Mikephotos 129bl, Paul Moore 127, Coburn 112-113cb; dani 92026 1; digitalife 4-5, 25cla, For further information see: www.dkimages.com
Vladimir Ovchinnikov 9tc, Sophiejames 127tc,
Marinko Tarlac 128bc, Jorge Villalba 128bl; ESA:
2007 MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS / UPD / LAM / IAA /
RSSD / INTA / UPM / DASP / IDA 127tl; FLPA: Mike
Amphlett 24br; Dickie Duckett 39c; Frans Lanting
46ca, 87br; D P Wilson 43crb; Martin B Withers 47r;
Konrad Wothe 85br; Fotolia: shama65 123br, Vadim
Yerofeyev 123b; Getty Images: AFP 74tr; Doug Allan
111tl; Philippe Bourseiller 106tl; Bridgeman Art
Library 6tc; James Burke 103tr; Laurie Campbell
47clb; Demetrio Carrasco 115tl; Georgette Douwma
14bl; Tim Flach 37tl; Jeff Foott 104-105c; Raymond
Gehman 113bl; G K & Vicky Hart 91t; Thomas
Mangelsen 47tl; Manzo Niikura 41tl; Joel Sartore 69c;
Marco Simoni 106cl; Erik Simonsen 13tr; Philip &
Karen Smith 102bl; Tyler Stableford 73crb, 89tr;
Heinrich van den Berg 29ca; Frank Whitney 83r; Art
Wolfe 31br; Keith Wood 110-111c; iStockphoto.com:
Rosica Daskalova 94bl; esemelwe 74clb; Mark Evans
53cr, 61tl; Filonmar 61br; Sergey Galushko 76cr; kcline
56bl; kiankhoon 74-75c; Jason Lugo 65;

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