Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Chapter 7
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
1. Introduction 439
2. Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion of Sludges 440
3. Thickening of Sludges 456
4. Dewatering of Sludges by Vacuum Filtration 458
5. Pressure Filtration 471
6. Centrifugation 471
7. Bed Drying of Sludges 472
8. Predewatering Treatment of Sludges 478
9. Sludge Disposal 479
Problems 481
References 483
1. INTRODUCTION
Most primary treatment processes (Chapter 3), as weh as secondary treatment

sequences (Chapters 5 and 6), yield sludges which must be disposed of in some
adequate way. Sludges resulting solely from solid-liquid separation processes
(sedimentation, flotation) are referred to as primary sludges, and those resulting
from biological processes are designated as secondary sludges. Primary sludges
consist of solid particles, mainly of organic nature. Secondary sludges consist
predominantly of excess biomass produced in the biological process.
A substantial fraction of the polluting substances removed during wastewater
treatment processes is uhimately found in these sludges. For the case of primary
sludges, as indicated in Chapter 3, Section 3.6.1, Table 3.10, from 30% to 50% of
the total influent BOD is removed in the sludge from the primary clarifier as
insoluble BOD. For the activated sludge plant, about f of the soluble B O D
removal corresponds to organic compounds oxidized for production of energy
of maintenance, but the remainding ^ of the soluble B O D removal corresponds
to microbial cells found in the excess sludge, which are removed in the wastage
stream. Obviously all these sludges should not be released to the environment
before appropriate treatment since this would defeat the purpose of all processes
described so far.
One possibility in the treatment sequence is reducfion of the total a m o u n t of
organic and volatile content by submitting the sludge to digestion. Aerobic and
anaerobic digestion of sludges are discussed in Secfion 2. The sludge resulting
439
440 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
from digestion, with considerably lower content of organic matter, is referred to

as stabilized sludge. The main objectives of stabilization are (1) reduction or
elimination of offensive odors, (2) reduction of the hquid volume or weight of
solids that are to be treated in subsequent operations and (3) reduction of the
count of pathogenic microorganisms of the sludge.
Another approach in sludge treatment is to increase the percentage of solid
contents in the sludge before final disposal by a sequence of processes which fall
under the headings of thickening and dewatering, studied in Secfions 3-7. Figure
7.1 illustrates the increase in solid content which might be expected in such
treatment sequences.
-SLUDGE HANDLIN6- -SLUDGE DISPOSAL—Η
Sequence ' Solid-liquid

of processes t separation Thickening Dewatering Disposal
processes
Solid ; 0.5-5 % 2 - 15 % 15-50 % Land disposal

concentration 5 , 0 0 0 - 5 0 , 0 0 0 ppm 2 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 ppm 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 ppm (I) Lagooning
(2)Oxidation ponds
Typical ¡ (I) Sedimentation (I) Gravity thickening (1) Vacuum filtration Incineration
processes ί (2) Flotation (2)Flotation thickening (2) Centrifugation (I) Multiple hearth
(3) Pressure filtration furnaces
(4) Bed drying (2)Fluidized bed
drying and burning
Aerobic and anaerobic Predewatering treatment:

digestion of sludges (1) Chemical coagulation
(2) He at treatment
(Porteus and Zimpro
processes)
Fig. 7.1. Flow diagram (alternatives) for sludge treatment and disposal.
Special treatment preceding dewatering becomes necessary for certain sludges

which are difficult to dewater. These include chemical coagulation and heat-
treatment processes, described in Section 8.
The end of the treatment sequence involves disposal of the remaining sludge,
which is discussed in Secfion 9. Sludge disposal methods fall into two schemes
involving either land disposal or incineration. All these alternatives are indicated
in Fig. 7.1, which is the overah plan of study for this chapter.
2. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF SLUDGES
2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Aerobic Digestion of Sludges

Aerobic digestion is a process in which a mixture of primary digestible sludge
from primary clarification and acfivated sludge from aerobic biological
treatment is aerated for an extended period of time. This results in cellular
destruction with a decrease of volatile suspended solids (VSS).
2. Aerobic arid Ar)aerobic Digestion of Sludges 441
The main purpose of aerobic digestion is to reduce the amount of sludge that is
to be disposed of subsequently. This reduction results from conversion by
oxidation of a substantial part of the sludge into volatile products ( C O 2 , N H 3 ,
H2). If bacterial cells are represented by the formula C 5 H 7 N O 2 , oxidation
taking place in aerobic digestion is given by Eq. (5.25). This oxidation occurs
when the substrate in an aerobic system is insufficient for energy maintenance
and synthesis. It corresponds to the endogenous respirafion phase indicated in
Fig. 5.7 of Chapter 5.
Primary Aerator Secondary Effluent

Wastewater clarifier (Activated clarifier
sludge process)
S
liquor-
Recycled sludge ~T~^Wostage I ^grobic

|(or anaerobic]
^Secondary sludge
Primary sludge sludge) digester
Stabilized
sludge—I
Fig. 7.2. Flow diagram showing aerobic digester of sludge.
Figure 7.2 shows a flow diagram of a confinuous sludge digester for the
treatment sequence involving primary sedimentation and the acfivated
sludge process. When there is a small a m o u n t of sludge to be digested, batch
operation is utilized, with intermittent discharge of digested sludge. The
digester shown in Fig. 7.2 handles a mixture of primary and secondary
sludge.
Destruction rate of cells decreases when the food to microorganism rafio
(F/M) increases. Therefore, the greater the proportion of primary sludge utilized
in the process, the slower is the digesfion because primary sludge has relafively
high B O D (high F) and low VSS content (low M ) , thus leading to high F/M
rafios.
Figure 5.3, in Chapter 5, shows two variables (mass of activated sludge and
remaining soluble BOD) plotted versus aerafion time. The curve for remaining
soluble B O D becomes nearly flat as the mass of MLVSS reaches its maximum.
Since aerobic digestion of sludge occurs in the endogenous respiration phase
region, there is essentially no soluble B O D removal. The fundamental objecfive
of aerobic digestion is reducfion of the mass of sludge for disposal and not
removal of soluble BOD.
Lower residence times are required for aerobic digestion as compared to

anaerobic. This imphes lower capital investment in digester volume. On the
other hand, however, high power costs for aeration may become an important
factor in large plants.
2.2. Design Procedure for Aerobic Digesters of Sludge

2.2.1. Introduction
A typical laboratory-scale batch reactor utilized for obtaining design data for
aerobic digesters is shown in Chapter 5, Fig. 5.2. Even when designing
continuous aerobic digesters, as that shown in Fig. 7.2, a laboratory-scale batch
reactor is usually employed to obtain the required design information. This is the
case because typical residence times selected for digestion of sludges are quite
high. As a result, required flow rates for continuous operation are impractically
low for small volume laboratory reactors and consequently cannot be measured
with reasonable accuracy. Consequently, continuous laboratory-scale reactors
are not recommended for determination of design parameters in the case of
sludge digestion.
Assuming steady-state conditions, a continuous digester operates with a
constant concentration of suspended solids. For the batch laboratory-scale unit,
concentration of suspended solids decreases with time because of gradual
oxidation of VSS. Nevertheless, the reaction rate coefficient for sludge
digestion, determined with a laboratory batch reactor, can be used in
conjunction with the material balance equations written for the continuous
flow process in order to arrive at the design equation. This equation is
derived in Section 2.2.2 and its application is illustrated by Example 7.1.
Subscript b indicates that the rate constant is obtained with a batch
reactor.
Similarly, the oxygen uptake rate for the batch reactor decreases with time
(Fig. 7.6). An average value is taken to simulate the prevailing constant oxygen
uptake rate for the continuous digester operating at steady-state conditions.
This computational procedure is also illustrated in Example 7.1.
The fundamental design information obtained from the batch laboratory-
scale reactor is (1) suspended volatile solids remaining (mg/liter) versus aeration
time (day) and (2) oxygen uptake rate [mg/liter h ] versus aeration time
(day).
Several batch units, each with a capacity of about 2 liter, are used
simultaneously and results obtained are averaged. The units are filled with
sludge with an initial concentrafion which encompasses the range which might
be expected for the proposed continuous digester unit. Samples are withdrawn at
selected time intervals and VSS concentrafions and oxygen uptake rates are
determined.
Calculated design values are: (1) required residence time (and volume of the
digester) and (2) oxygen requirements (lb 0 2 / h ) , from which required horse
power is calculated and aerators are specified.
2.2.2. Design Equations
For a batch reactor, the reduction in the content of volatile degradable solids
may be approximated by first-order kinetics, i.e.,
dXJdt= -ky,X^ (7.1)
where X¿ is the degradable VSS remaining after aeration time t in mg/liter, and
is the reaction rate constant for destruction of degradable VSS in d a y ~ ^
Separating the variables in Eq. (7.1),
dXJX^= -k^dt (12)
Integrating between a time / = 0, corresponding to a concentration of degrad-

able VSS equal to (X^)^ and a time / corresponding to a degradable VSS
concentration (X^)^ (where the second subscripts, o and e, stand for influent and
effluent, respectively), one obtains
ln[(A^d)e/(A'd)o] = - k^t (7.3)

or
( W W o = e~'^^ (7.4)
Let X^ and X^ be the total VSS concentration (degradable plus nondegrad-
able) in influent and effluent, respectively. Equation (7.4) may be rewritten in
terms of total VSS, taking into account that
(X,)^ = X.-X^ (7.5)
(A'd)o = Xo-Xn (7.6)
where X^ (mg/hter) stands for the nondegradable portion of VSS, assumed
constant throughout the aeration period. The experimental determination of X^,
will be illustrated in Example 7.1. Utilizing Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6), Eq. (7.3) is
rewritten as
ln[(Xe - Xn)l(Xo - Χη)Λ = " ^t (7.7)
F r o m Eq. (7.3) [or Eq. (7.7)], it follows that a semilog plot of the fraction of
degradable VSS remaining at time / versus aeration time yields a straight line
from which slope the reaction rate constant k^ is obtained. Instead of the
fraction of degradable VSS, one can utilize directly for the ordinate, the mg/liter
of degradable VSS remaining at the times t indicated by the abscissa. This
amounts to multiplying all ordinates in the log scale by a constant term (Ä'd)o»
which, of course, does not alter the value of the slope. A typical plot for
determination of ky, is shown in Fig. 7.5 (Example 7.1).
For the case of a continuous reactor under steady-state and complete-mix
conditions, the following material balance can be written (see Fig. 7.3):
Degradable Degradable Degradable

= + sohds (7.8)
solids IN solids O U T ^^^^^^^^^
dt ^
Fig. 7.3. Material balance for a continuous digester under complete-mix and steady-state
conditions.
or
QoiXéX = Qo(Xä)e + (- d(x,)jdt)V (7.9)*
Utilizing Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6),

(7.10)
Simplifying,
QoiXo -X.)=- Ld(X. - Xn)/dQ V (7.11)
Since there is no recycle for the case of the continuous reactor in Fig. 7.3,
t = ίγ,= V/Qo = residence time
and Eq. (7.11) yields
Xo-X, = [- d(X, - X,)/dtV (7.12)
The rate of reduction of the VSS content is given by Eq. (7.1), letting
Xd — XQ ~ Xn
d{X, - X^)ldt = - k^{X, - XJ (7.13)
Substitution of this value in Eq. (7.12) leads to

Xo-Xe = W e - Xn)t
or
(Xo-X.)/i = k,(X^-X,) (7.14)
The residence time / is then
i = {Xo-XMX.-Xn) (7.15)
Example 7.1 illustrates the design of a continuous plant-scale digester from
data obtained from a laboratory batch reactor. Design procedure for a plant-
scale batch reactor is quite direct since in this case the laboratory-scale batch unit
is essentially a small size replica of the plant-scale digester.
* Notice that the derivative α{Χά)^ /dt is negative as indicated by Eq. (7.1). Therefore in Eq. (7.9), it
is preceded by a minus sign.
2. Aerobic arid Anaerobic Digestion of Sludges 445
The rate of degradation of sludge is temperature dependent. Laboratory data

should be corrected to the actual plant operating temperature by the equation
A:r„ = A:2oö^*"'° (7.16)

where T i s in °C, and the temperature coefficient θ can be taken as 1.05.
22.3. Example 7. /
An aerobic digester is proposed for treatment of a sludge for which the fiow
rate is 0.05 M G D . D a t a in Table 7.1, for VSS remaining and oxygen uptake rate
versus time of aeration, were obtained with a laboratory-scale batch reactor at
20°C.
TABLE 7.1
Laboratory data {TQ = 20 C)
(1) (2) (3)

Time of aeration VSS remaining Oxygen uptake
(day) (mg/liter) rate ( O U R )
(mg/liter h)
0 10,000 42.5
1 7,950 32.5
3 5,550 22.8
5 4,250 18.0
7 3,570 15.0
9 3,230 12.5
11 3,050 11.0
13 2,955 9.50
18 2,850 7.75
22 2,850 7.00
1 1 1 1 1 τ T T I-
10000
^ 8000
Ε
Ε 6000
Ε
- 4000
c/)
(Λ
>
2 0 0 0 >-Xn = 2 8 5 0 mg/liter
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 IB 20 22
Aeration time (day)
Fig. 7.4. VSS remaining versus aeration time; Γο = 20°C (laboratory data) (Example 7.1).
1. Design a continuous aerobic digester for this service, i.e., calculate digester
volume (MG), based on a reduction of 80% of degradable VSS content for
winter conditions, when the sludge temperature is taken as 60.8°F (16°C). Then
estimate the percent reduction of VSS content which would occur under summer
conditions, for this continuous digester, when sludge temperature is taken as
86°F ( 3 0 X ) .
2. Calculate the lb 02/h required based on summer conditions.
Solution to Part 1 Design of the aerobic digester (Basis: Winter conditions)

Step I. Determination of (nondegradable VSS in the sludge).
Plot VSS remaining (mg/liter) [Column (2), Table 7.1] versus time of aeration
[Column (1), Table 7.1], as shown in Fig. 7.4. The curve is asymptotic to a VSS
value estimated at 2850 mg/liter, which corresponds to nondegradable VSS in
the sludge, (i.e., X^ = 2850 mg/liter). Therefore the percentage of nondegradable
VSS is
2850/10,000 X 100 = 28.5%
or 71.5% of the sludge is degradable.

Step 2. Construct a material balance table (Table 7.2) for the aerobic digester
(winter conditions).
TABLE 7.2
Material Balance Table for Winter Operation: Example 7.1"
IN OUT
{
Degradable: mg/liter mg/liter
(A'd)o = (0.715X10,000) = 7,150 (A'A = (0.2)(7,150) = 1430

Nondegradable:
X, = (0.285)( 10,000) = 2,850 X, = 2850
Total VSS (AO): 10,000 A^, = 4280
" Basis: 80% destruction of degradable VSS.
Step 3. Calculation of rate constant k¿.

1. Construct Table 7.3 (Degradable VSS remaining versus time of aeration).
2. Plot degradable VSS remaining versus time of aeration on semilog paper.
This plot is presented in Fig. 7.5. The value of k^, from Eq. (7.3), is then
k^,= - (Slope) = = 0.1407 d a y " ^ (base 10)
or
ytb = (2.303)(0.1407) = 0.3241 day"' (base e) (20X)

TABLE 7.3
Degradadle VSS Remaining versus Time of Aeration
(1) (2)
Time of aeration Degradable VSS remaining
(day) (mg/liter)
[Column (2) of Table 7.1 - 2 8 5 0 ]
0 7150
1 5100
3 2700
5 1400
7 720
9 380
11 200
13 105
1 Q
lo
22
lOOOOi ^ , , , , , ,
5000 h
2 4 6 θ 10 12
Time of aeration, t (day)
Fig. 7.5. Degradable VSS remaining versus time of aeration; Γο = 20 C (laboratory data)
(Example 7.1).
3. Correct for summer and winter operating temperatures:
(a) Summer conditions (Γ^ = WC)\
k,o = (0.3241)(1.05)^^-'^ = 0.528 day'^
(b) Winter conditions (T^ = 16°C):
kie = (0.3241)(1.05)^^-2^ = 0.267 day"^
Step 4, Calculation of residence time and reactor volume.
1. Residence time. Basis: 80% reduction of VSS content at winter conditions

(refer to material balance table, Table 7.2, and take k^ = ki^ = 0.267 d a y " ^).
Equation (7.15) yields
Xo-X, 10,000 - 4280

t= = = 15.0 day (contmuous reactor)
k^{X,-X^) 0.267(4280 - 2850)
For sake of comparison, calculate the required residence time for the case of a
batch reactor operating at these same conditions {k^, = kê = 0.267 d a y " ^ ) ,
specifying the same 80% reduction of VSS content. Take Eq. (7.7) and solve
for t:
. /X - / , , / 4280 - 2850 \ ,
t = \n{ — - ] -k^ = \n[ - 0.267
Xo-Xjl νΐΟ,ΟΟΟ - 2 8 5 0 ; /
= 6.03 day (batch reactor)
As expected, the batch reactor is more efficient. This follows from the fact that
the continuous reactor at steady state, operates at a constant total VSS
concentration value X^ = 4280 mg/liter. For the batch reactor, the total VSS
concentration is X^ = 10,000 mg/liter at the start of the operation, dropping
gradually to a value X^ = 4280 mg/liter at the end. Since first-order kinetics is
assumed, it follows that a faster degradation will occur for the case of the batch
reactor for which the "average" VSS concentration is higher than the constant
value XQ = 4280 mg/liter for the continuous reactor.
2. Reactor volume. Take
v=Qot
where = 0.05 M G D . Then
F = 0.05 X 15.0 = 0.75 MG
or
V = 750,000 gal χ ftV7.48 gal = 100,267 ft^

Step 5. Estimate the percentage of VSS reduction under summer conditions

for the digester designed in Step 4 :
= 86°F (30°C)
yt3o = 0.528 day-^
= 10,000 mg/liter
^ „ = 2850 mg/liter
/=15.0 day
Solve Eq. (7.15) for X,:
X.^KXJ 10,000 + (0.528)(2850)(15)
X^ = = = 3652 mg/hter
1+y^b^ 1 +(0.528)(15) ^'
For the winter conditions, X^ was 4280 mg/liter (refer to Table 7.2).
For the material balance table for the summer operation, see Table 7.4. This
corresponds to a reduction of (7150 - 802)/7150 χ 100 = 88.8% of the degrad
able VSS, as compared to 80% for the winter conditions.
TABLE 7.4
Material Balance Table for Summer Operation: Example 7.1
IN OUT
{
Degradable: mg/liter mg/liter
(A'd)o = (0.715X10,000) = 7,150 (Λ^Λ = 3652 - 2850 = 802

Nondegradable:
X, = (0.285)( 10,000) = 2,850 X, = 2850
Total VSS (X,): 10,000 X, = 3652
Solution to Part 2 Specification of the aerators [Basis: Summer conditions)
The procedure for specification of the aerators for a continuous digester
operating at a temperature (Example 7 . 1 : = 30°C), from the data
obtained in a batch laboratory reactor operating at a temperature 7Ό (Example
7.1: T^ = 20°C) is described next.
Step 1. Determine the effluent VSS concentration X^ for a batch laboratory-
scale reactor which is aerated for a period of time t (Example 7 . 1 : / = 15.0 days)
at 20°C.
This is done by solving Eq. (7.7) for X^:
X, = (Xo - XJe-'"^' + Xn
For the case of Example 7.1
X, = (10,000 - 2850)^-^^·^^^')<''·^^ + 2850 = 55 + 2850
X, = 2905 mg/liter
. ·. (Xd)e = Xc-Xn = 2905 - 2850 = 55 mg/liter
Step 2. Plot the oxygen uptake curve (see Fig. 7.6 for Example 7.1). This is a
plot of column (3) versus column (1) of Table 7.1.
8 10 12 14 22
Aeration time (days)
Fig. 7.6. Oxygen uptake curve (laboratory data) (Example 7 . 1 ) .
Step 3. Determine the area under the curve bound between the abscissas / = 0
and / (in Example 1Λ: t = 15.0 day). This area equals to the oxygen utilization
(mg/liter) for a batch reactor charged with an initial VSS concentration X„ (in
Example 7.1: = 10,000 mg/liter), which is aerated for a time period of t days
(in Example 7.1: ί = 15.0 day), at 20°C, namely.
(OUR)
i
i 24 h mg
Oxygen *' mg
(θυΚ)Λ = - - ^ X day X
utilization 0 hter h day liter
As indicated, the shaded area in Fig. 7.6 must be multiplied by a factor of 24

(h/day) so that the oxygen utilization is expressed in mg/liter. For the specific
case of Example 7.1, the area was calculated as
mg 24 h mg
255.Ο77-Λ-
liter h X day X -—
day = 6120 liter
Step 4. Obtain the average oxygen utihzation rate (mg/hter day) for the batch
aeration during time interval 0 to /. This is the mean value of the integral, i.e..
Average oxygen j
utilization rate = {ουκ)ώ = - (OUR) Λ
(batch reactor) ^ ^ 0 t 0
For the case of Example 7.1
Average oxygen ,
utilization rate = -— χ 6 1 2 0 - — = 408
(batch reactor) ^^.O day liter literday
Step 5. The oxygen utilization can be assumed to be proportional to the

reduction of degradable VSS accomplished in a given operation. In this way, the
average oxygen utilization for the batch operation [(1//) ( O U R ) ¿ / í ] can be
corrected for the conditions at the continuous digester by the relationship
J.^ , ίο (OUI^)^^ [(^d)o ~ ( - ^ d ) e ] c o n t . reactor, Tw(Summer)
rate
Utilization = — — -
(continuous reactor) ^ [(^d)o - ( ^ d ) e ] b a t c h reactor at T w i L a b . )
In the case of Example 7.1
Oxygen 7,150 - 802 mg

rate
Utilization = 408 = 365
, , , 7,150 - 55 literday
(continuous reactor) ' ^
Step 6. From the oxygen utilization for the continuous reactor obtained in
Step 5 and the reactor volume established in Part 1 (Step 4.2), calculate the
lb 02/day required. F o r Example 7.1 (since 365 mg/hter day = 365 Ib/Mlb
day)
lb O7 lb liauor
lb 02/day = 3 6 5 - - — - — X 8.34 ——^ χ 0.75 Mgal liquor
Mlb hquor day gal hquor
lb 02/day = 2283
or
2283
= 95 lb O2 transferred/h
24
The specification and layout of the aerators can now be made following the
procedures described in Chapters 4 and 5.
2.2.4. Performance of Aerobic Digesters as Function

of Operating Temperature
The performance of the aerobic digester in Example 7.1 was evaluated at two
temperatures (30°C and 16°C). Evaluation of digester performance can be made
Dearodable VSS-
reduction
II
2
Aeration basin temperature (**C)
Fig. 7.7. Performance of aerobic digesters as a function of aeration basin temperature.
at several temperatures and a curve showing percent reduction of degradable

VSS content versus temperature is plotted. Also a curve of versus t can be
obtained. Typical curves of this type are shown in Fig. 7.7.
2.2.5. Concept of Sludge Age for the Case of Sludge Digesters
The concept of sludge age is discussed in Chapter 5, Section 8 and is expressed

by Eqs. (5.165) [or (5.166)], in which the denominator is the net o u t p u t of VSS
from the system. For the case of the biological reactors discussed previously
(activated sludge basins, aerated lagoons, and stabilization ponds), con
centration of sludge in the reactor effluent was greater than that in the influent.
As a result, there was a positive net output of VSS for the system. For aerobic
sludge digesters, however, there is less sludge leaving than entering, the
difference corresponding to sludge which is biodegraded. As a result, the
denominator in Eq. (5.165) [or (5.166)] is negative, corresponding to a net input
of VSS to the system. Therefore, for sludge digesters the expression for sludge
age öc is rewritten as
lb MLVSS in the digester

>0 (7.17)
net input of VSS to the system (lb/day)
Example 7.2. For the sludge digester in Example 7.1, calculate the sludge age
for the operation at winter and summer conditions.
Solution The corresponding material balance is that presented in Table 7.2.
The calculated digester volume was 0.75 M G (Part 1, Step 4.2). Therefore the
pounds of MLVSS in the digester is
KXe(8.34) = 0.75 X 4280 χ 8.34 = 26,771 lb
The net input of VSS to the system is
- Jre)(8.34) = (0.05)(10,000 - 4280)(8.34) = 2385 lb/day
and
öe = 26,771/2385 = 11.2 day
For the summer conditions = 3652 mg/hter and similar calculations yield
öc = 8.63 day.
2.2.6. Improved Model for Reduction of Total Suspended

Solids in Aerobic Digestion
The mathematical model utilized as basis for designing the aerobic reactor
(Example 7.1) involves the assumption that only the volatile solids content of the
sludge decreases during digestion. It has been observed that a decrease in the
nonvolatile fraction of suspended solids does also occur during digestion.
Benefield and Randall [1] have developed an improved mathematical model in
which the total suspended solids are divided into active and inacfive fractions
rather than into volafile and nonvolafile fracfions. Applicafion of this model to
design of aerobic digesters is described in Ref. [ 1 ] .
2.3. Anaerobic Sludge Digestion
2.3.1. Introduction to Anaerobic Sludge Digestion
It has been known for at least a century that if settled sewage solids are kept in
a closed tank for a period of fime, they are converted to a liquid state and a
combusfible gas containing methane is generated. A patent was issued to Imhoff
in 1904 for the design of anaerobic digesfion vessels, which are known as Imhoff
tanks. Most sludge digesfion processes in use today are anaerobic, although
aerobic digesfion is increasingly more popular, especially for small units.
Anaerobic sludge digesters are usually of two types: (1) single-stage digesters
(standard-rate process) and (2) two-stage digesters (high-rate process). A typical
single-stage sludge digester is shown in Fig. 7.8.
Raw sludge is fed to the zone where the sludge is actively digesting and gas is
produced. As the gas rises, it lifts sludge particles and other materials (grease, oil.
Gas removal
• * Gas · ·
Supernatant layer
Supernatant layer
outlet
Row sludge — ~-~ ~ ~— "
feed -Actively digesting ~ Sludge

sludge heater
^ Digested s l u d g e " ^
Digested sludge outlet
Fig. 7.8. Single-stage anaerobic sludge digester (standard-rate process).

fats), forming a supernatant layer that is drawn off from the digester. Digested
sludge is withdrawn from the bottom of the tank.
The digestion process is favored by high temperature (usually from
85-105°F), so digesting sludge is heated either by steam coils within the vessel or
by means of an external sludge heater (Fig. 7.8). G a s is removed from the top of
the digester and often utilized as fuel, owing to its high content of methane.
Retention time in the standard-rate process is high, of the order of 30-60 day,
even for heated digesters. The reason for this large retention time is the fact that,
as suggested by inspection of Fig. 7.8, only about one-third of the volume of the
vessel is utilized for active digestion. As a result of this poor volume utilization,
the standard-rate process is not recommended for anaerobic digestion plants of
sludge handling capacity above 1 M G D .
Gas removal
Gas Gas
Supernatant
Superriatan^t layer outlet
— layer
Row siudge_
feed Sludge 1 Digested.
-ή heater - Sludge -
Digested sludge
outlet
Stage I Stage 2
Fig. 7.9. Two-stage anaerobic sludge digester (high-rate process).
A typical two-stage unit (high-rate process) is shown in Fig. 7.9. The main
purpose of the high-rate process is to provide a better volume utilization. The
first-stage is used only for digestion. The second stage serves as a solids-liquids
separator and allows for removal of the gas. Retention time required for the first
stage is usuahy 10-15 day. Only the first stage is heated. Mixing is provided in the
first stage either mechanically or by means of gas recirculafion.
2.3.2. Comparison of Anaerobic and Aerobic Digestion

of Sludges
As indicated in Section 2.1, anaerobic digesters will result in higher capital

investment than aerobic digesters, as far as vessel volume, owing to the higher
residence times required. On the other hand, there are savings in capital costs due
to absence of aeration equipment, as well as savings in power expenditure.
Operation of anaerobic digesters is more difficult than that of aerobic units, the
process being more sensifive to shock loads. Also the supernatant liquor for the
case of anaerobic digesters is very high in nutrients and organic compounds.
Since this supernatant liquor is usually recycled back to the process, as indicated
in Fig. 7.2, this might be a factor against selection of anaerobic digestion of

sludges.
2.3.3. Design of Anaerobic Sludge Digesters

Empirical methods are usuahy employed for sizing anaerobic sludge digesters.
Metcalf & Eddy [4] present four of such methods, which are summarized in this
section. For details of the application of these methods, the reader should
consult Ref. [ 4 ] .
Method 1. Mean cell residence time method. This procedure involves

utilization of recommended values for the sludge age for sizing the digester.
For the case of anaerobic sludge digesters, assuming that all anaerobic growth
is formed within the digester, there is no anaerobic biomass in the feed.
Therefore, from considerations similar to those for the case of aerated lagoons
[Chapter 6, Section 5.3, Eq. (6.48)], it follows that the sludge age is numerically
equal to the hydrauhc detention time. Consequently, the anaerobic digester
volume is calculated as
V=Qot = QoO. (7.18)

Recommended values for sludge age öc, as well as for the minimum sludge age
0"^, are presented in Table 7.5 as function of the digester operating temperature.
TABLE 7.5
Recommended Values of Sludge Age for Anaerobic

Sludge Digesters"
Suggested
Temperature 0":
sludge age 0^
( F) (day)
(day)
65 11 28
75 8 20
85 6 14
95 4 10
105 4 10
" From Ref. [ 5 ] .
TABLE 7.6
Growth Rate Parameters for Anaerobic Digesters"
Substrate Y (lb/lb) (day-^)
Fatty acid 0.054 0.038

Carbohydrate 0.240 0.033
Protein 0.076 0.014
From Ref. [ 5 ] .
It is also possible to estimate the anaerobic growth (lb/day) from typical

values for the yield parameter F a n d the microbial decay constant k^. Table 7.6
presents values of these parameters for various types of wastes.
This estimate is based upon a relationship similar to Eq. (6.58), which was
established in Chapter 6, Section 5.8 for the case of the aerated lagoon. For
application to the anaerobic digester, assuming that all anaerobic growth is
formed in the digester, the term Χγ,ο ^ 0. If one assumes a reasonable value for
the B O D removal, then (since / = öc)
A^v = r S r / ( l + Mc) (7.19)
If S, is in terms of B O D removal per day, then Xy corresponds to pounds of

volatile solids produced per day. The volume of methane produced per day can
be estimated by the procedure described in Chapter 6, Section 9.6.
Method 2. Loading factors method. This method involves utilization of
recommended values for the digester loading (e.g., in Ib/ft^day).
Method 3. Volume reduction method. This method is based upon an
empirical relationship between the volume of the digester, the volumes of fresh
feed and digested sludge, and the digestion time.
Method 4. Population basis. This method, applicable to sludges of domestic
origin, involves allowance of a certain number of cubic feet of digester volume
per capita.
3. THICKENING OF SLUDGES
3.1. Introduction
Thickening is the usual first step in sludge disposal processing. It can be done
(1) by gravity and (2) by dissolved air flotafion.
3.2. Advantages of Thickening

1. It improves digester operation and reduces capital cost whenever sludge
digesfion is ufilized.
2. It reduces sludge volume prior to land or sea disposal.
3. It increases economy of sludge dewatering systems (centrifuges, vacuum
filters, pressure filters, etc.).
3.3. Gravity Thickener
Thickeners are tanks of circular cross section provided with a rotafing rake
mechanism similar to the clarifiers discussed in Chapter 3, Section 3.8.
3.4. Design Principles f o r Gravity Thickeners
The purpose of thickeners is to provide a concentrated sludge underflow.

Sedimentation in thickeners takes place under conditions of zone settling for
3. Thickening of Sludges 457
which the design principles were studied in Chapter 3, Section 3.7. The same
design procedure utilized for solution of Example 3.5 is applicable to thickeners.
3.5. Edde's and Eckenfelder's E q u a t i o n *
The fundamental problem in thickener design consists in determining the

cross sectional area required for an influent slurry of solids concentration
be compacted to a specified underflow concentration X^. A graphical procedure
was described in Chapter 3, Section 3.7 to arrive at the value of the required total
solids fiux [lb solids/ft^ d a y ] , from which the area Ai is obtained directly from
Eq. (3.51).
Edde and Eckenfelder developed a correlafion for thickener design, which is
as follows
X^ Κ Κ
— - 1= = (7.20)
Χ, (GT)" {\/UAr
where X^ and X^ are the mg/liter of suspended solids in infiuent and underflow,
respecfively, and Gj is the total solids flux [lb solids/ft^ d a y ] . Parameters η and Κ
should be determined from bench-scale experiments. It was found that η is only a
funcfion of the rheological properfies of the sludge, whereas A: is related not only
to the influent suspended solids concentrafion X^, but also to the height of the
setthng column.
Term U A , referred to as unit area, is the reciprocal of the total solids
flux, i.e..
_ 1 _ 1 _ ft'
^^~G^~ lb solids/ftMay ~ lb solids/day ^^'^^^
Consequendy, UA corresponds to the area (ft^) required per lb solids/day.

The determinaron of parameters η and Κ is made by writing Eq. (7.20) in
linear form, taking logarithms of both members:
\og(^-\^ = logK-nlogGj = \ogK-n\ogi\/UA) (7.22)
F r o m Eq. (7.22), a plot on log-log paper of l(Xu/Xo) - 1] versus Gj (or versus

l/UA) yields a straight hne of slope = — η and ordinate intercept (at Gj = 1.0)
equal to K. A procedure for design of gravity thickeners from data obtained
from bench-scale units based upon this correlation is described by Eckenfelder
and Ford [2].
Once the values of A: and η are determined, Eq. (7.20) is solved for the unit area
UA. F r o m the knowledge of the lb sohds/day to be handled, Eq. (7.21) then
permits the calculafion of the ft^ of thickener cross-secfional area required.
* See Ref. [ 3 ] .
458 7. S/udge Treatment and Disposal
3.6. Flotation Thickening

Flotation thickening can be utilized for sludges and is specifically recom-
mended for gelatinous ones such as those from the activated sludge process.
Design of flotation equipment is discussed in Chapter 3, Section 4.
4. DEWATERING OF SLUDGES BY V A C U U M FILTRATION
4.1. Introduction
Vacuum filtration is the most widely used procedure for dewatering
wastewater sludges. In vacuum filtration, water is removed under applied
vacuum through a porous media that retains solids but allows liquid to pass.
Several types of media are used, such as nylon and dacron cloth, steel mesh, and
tightly wound stainless steel coil springs.
The central unit is a rotary drum which revolves in a slurry tank (Fig. 7.10).
Knife edge
To conveyor belt
Water spray
Submergence
Fig. 7.10. Diagram of rotary filter. · ·, form time, /f; , dry time, t¿; , wash time, t^.
Vacuum is applied to the submerged part of the drum and solids are retained
on the drum surface. The cake starts building u p at point A as the drum dives
into the slurry tank, and reaches full thickness at point Β as the drum emerges.
Time elapsed from A to Β (i.e., submergence time) is designated as form time (if).
From 5 to C the cake is dewatered, and time elapsed is designated as dry time
(id). At the end of the filter cycle, the cake is removed onto a conveyor belt. The
filter media is washed with a water spray prior to being immersed again in the
slurry tank. The time taken for removal of the cake and washing the filter media
will be denoted as t^ (wash time). The total cycle time is denoted as t^ {cycle time).
(Refer to Fig. 7.10 for if, and i^.)
Obviously,
= if + + ^ (7.23)
Since the drum revolves at a constant speed, the following relafionship applies
[Eq. (7.24)]:
t{/(c = (percent submergence)/100 (7.24)

Usually drum submergences between 10% and 60% are utilized, i.e.,
0.6/c > if > 0.1/c

Therefore, form time is usually between 10% and 60% of total cycle time.
Usually the wash time t^ is taken at about 20% of the total cycle time, i.e.,
t^ ^ 0.2/, (7.25)
In general, iffy, is the fraction of the total cycle time taken as wash time:
iw^/w^c (/w-0.2) (7.26)

Substituting in Eq. (7.23), if and by their values given by (7.24) and (7.26) and
solving for t^ one obtains
tc = - / w ) - (percent submergence)/100] (7.27)
4.2. Variables in V a c u u m Filtration

Variables to be considered in vacuum filtration fall into two groups: those
related to sludge characteristics and those pertaining to filter operafion.
Variables related to sludge characteristics are as follows:
1. Solids concentration in the sludge. This is determined by the nature of the
sludge (i.e., primary or secondary, domestic or industrial) and by thickening
processes preceding the filtrafion step. The moisture content of the filter cake
ranges from 60% to 80% (i.e., 20% to 40% solids in cake), depending on the type
of raw sludge and condifioning chemicals used.
2. Viscosity of sludge and filtrate, the latter being approximately taken as that
for water at the same temperatures.
3. Sludge compressibility, which is related to the nature of the sludge
particles.
4. Chemical and physical composifion, including particle size and shape and
water content.
Filter operafion variables are as follows.
1. Operating vacuum. Usually from 10 to 20 in. of mercury.* Higher
vacuums are more effective with incompressible cakes. For very compressible
cakes, applying higher vacuums may result in clogging the filter media.
2. Drum submergence. This varies from 10% to 60%, high-porosity sludges
permitting higher submergences. Sludges of low porosity must be filtered with
* Notice that a vacuum of 10 in. Hg (i.e., Ρ = - \0 in. Hg gauge) equals 29.92 - 10 = 19.92
in. Hg absolute pressure. This is (19.92/29.92) χ 14.7 = 9.79 psia, or: (19.92/29.92) χ 760 = 506
mm Hg absolute pressure. Similarly, a vacuum of 20 in. Hg (i.e., Ρ = - 20 in. Hg gauge) equals 9.92
in. Hg absolute pressure, or 4.87 psia, or 252 mm Hg absolute pressure.
low submergence, otherwise the resulting compact and thick cake does not allow
an adequate flow of filtrate.
3. Sludge conditioning by chemical addition. Many sludges require coagu-
lants (e.g., FeCl3, lime, polyelectrolytes) to coagulate smaller particles which
might otherwise clog the filter media, resulting in reduction of filtration rate.
4 . Type and porosity of the filter media. High-porosity media results in
higher filtrafion rates.
4.3. D e f i n i t i o n of Parameter c
Filtrafion equafions in Secfion 4 . 4 employ a parameter c, which is defined as

the mass of solids (g) deposited on the filter (solids in filter cake) per unit volume
of filtrate (cm^). An expression for c is derived as follows. Refer to Fig. 7 . 1 1 .
Cj slurry
Cake
Fig. 7.11. Diagram to illustrate deriva-

tion of Eq. (7.28). c = l / [ c ¡ / ( 1 0 0 - C j ) -
Filtrate Cf/(100 - C f ) ] .
Select as basis 1 0 0 g of incoming slurry, for which q is the percent weight of

water. The solids deposited on the filter are, therefore, ( 1 0 0 - c-^ g. The grams of
filtrate correspond to the difference between the grams of water in the slurry (c¡)
and the grams of water retained on the cake. If Cf is the moisture percent in the
filter cake, the grams of water retained in it, correspond to the difference
between the total mass of cake, i.e., ( 1 0 0 - c ¡ ) / [ ( 1 0 0 — C f ) / 1 0 0 ] g, and the grams
of solids in the cake ( 1 0 0 - c¡) g. Furthermore, since the grams of filtrate (taken
as water) equals numerically the cm^ of filtrate, the parameter c is then
100 - c¡
c =
Ci - {(100 - Ci)/[(100 - Cf)/100] - (100 - q)}
1
(7.28)
cj{m - Ci) - Q/(ioo - Cf)
4.4. Filtration Equations

The basic filtration equafion derived from the Poiseuille and d'Arcy law is
dVldt = AP/(R,,^, + /inedia) (V.29)
where V is the volume of filtrate, / is the time, dV/dt is the rate of filtration a n d
ΔΡ is the driving force = pressure difference. ΔΡ is numericaUy equal to the

applied vacuum in gage units since ΔΡ = Patmospheric - ^vacuum = 0 - Pvacuum
= — ^vacuum-* Hcucc Δ Ρ will bc simply denoted as P, where Ρ is the applied
vacuum, Pâke is the resistance offered by cake to the flow of filtrate, and Pmedia
the resistance offered by media to the flow of filtrate.
This equafion is rewritten as [7]
dVldt = PA^/lß(rcV + RÂ)^ (7.30)
where Κ is the volume of filtrate, / is the form time,^ Ρ is the apphed vacuum, A is
the filter area, and c is the parameter defined in Secfion 4.3, i.e., mass of solids
deposited per unit volume of filtrate. Consequently, product cK is the mass of
solids in cake (lb) corresponding to volume V of filtrate and r is the specific
resistance of cake to the flow of fiUrate (i.e., resistance per pound of cake).
Physical significance of r and its units is discussed in this section; is the inifial
resistance of the filter media. This resistance is usually neghgible as compared to
that developed by the filter cake and μ is the viscosity of the filtrate.
The physical significance of parameter r can be appreciated if in Eq. (7.30)
media resistance R^ is neglected. Solving for r,
r = PA^|μcV{dV|dt) (7.31)
From Eq. (7.31) it fohows that r is numerically equal to the pressure difference
(apphed vacuum P) required to produce a unit rate of fiUrate flow (i.e.,
dVjdt = 1.0) through a unit mass of cake (i.e., cV = 1.0) and a unity filter area
(^ = 1), if filtrate viscosity is unity (μ = 1, e.g., 1 c P ) ; or r = Ρ if dV/dt = 1.0,
cV = 1.0, μ= 1.0, and A = \.0. Thus the specific resistance r measures the
ability of the sludge to be filtered; the higher the value, the more difficult is the
filtrafion.
Integrafion of Eq. (7.30) is usually performed assuming that specific resistance
is constant throughout form fime. If at ί = 0, Κ = 0, and at / = ί, V = V,
integrafion of Eq. (7.30) yields
(μ/Α'Ρ) {rcV + RÂ)dV = dt

0 0
Assuming the specific resistance of cake to be constant.

rv
rc VdV+ RÂ dV] = dt
A^P 0 0 0
or
(/i/^^P)[rc(KV2) + P „ . ^ K ] = r
* E . g . , for a vacuum of 10-in. H g (i.e., ^vacuum = - 10 in. H g ) , then = - ( - 10) = 10 in. H g .

^ In Section 4.9 and subsequently, t^ will denote form time. Subscript f will be omitted until then
for simplicity of notation. Until Section 4.9 the only time variable to be considered is form time,
consequently no subscript is needed.
Dividing both members by V and rearranging,

tlV = (μΓ€/2ΡΑ')ν+ μΚ^ΑΡ (7.32)
F r o m Eq. (7.32) it fohows that a plot of / / F v e r s u s Fyields a straight line. Values
of specific cake resistance r and media resistance are evaluated from the slope
and intercept of this line, respectively:
r = (2ΡΑ^μ€)Ξ (7.33)
Rm = ιΑΡ/μ (7.34)
where S a n d / denote the slope and the intercept of the straight line. A typical plot
of (t/V) versus Vis shown in Fig. 7.14. Specific resistance is primarily useful for
comparing filtration characteristics of different sludges and determining
optimum coagulant requirements to produce a cake offering a minimum
resistance (Section 4.5).
4.5. Laboratory D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Specific Resistance r

and O p t i m u m C o a g u l a n t Dosage
Laboratory determination of specific resistance r is based on construction of a

plot of t/V versus V and calculation of r from Eq. (7.33). The laboratory
equipment needed is an ordinary Büchner funnel apparatus (Fig. 7.12).
The procedure [2] is as fohows:
1. Prepare the Büchner funnel and filter paper.
2. Wet filter paper and adjust vacuum to 15 or 20 in. of Hg.
3. Record filtrate volumes at selected time intervals until the vacuum breaks.
Vacuum exists as long as there is a pool of hquid over the cake. As soon as the
liquid is drained off, air is sucked in and the vacuum breaks.
Büchner funnel-H
Filter paper /
Vacuum η gauge
gaugey \ /
To-
vacuum pump
ClampJ
4
Graduated
cylinder— 50
Coagulant dosage (lb/ton)
Fig. 7.12. Büchner funnel apparatus. Fig. 7.13. Typical curve for the effect of
coagulant dosage on sludge specific resist
ance.
4. Determine solids content in incoming slurry and in filter cake by filtering

the solids out, drying in an oven and weighing. F r o m the values of Cj and C{ thus
obtained, the value of parameter c is calculated from Eq. (7.28).
5. Calculate r from a plot of t/V versus V utilizing Eq. (7.33).
6. Repeat Steps 1-5 using various concentrafions of coagulant. Depending on
the nature of the sludge, FeCla and/or lime dosages are 2-10% by weight and
polyelectrolyte dosages 0.1-1.5% by weight.
7. Compute specific resistance of all samples as indicated in Step 5. Determine
optimum coagulant dosage from a plot of specific resistance versus coagulant
dosage. Optimum dosage corresponds to the minimum on the specific resistance
curve (Fig. 7.13).
4.6. Units for Specific Resistance of Cake (r)

The following observafions should be m a d e :
1. Applied vacuum (in. Hg) is usually converted to dyn/cm^ before utilizafion
in Eq. (7.33). The conversion factor is
(in. Hg)(33864) = dyn/cm^ (7.35)
If applied vacuum is expressed in psi, the conversion factor is
(psi)(68948) = dyn/cm^ (7.36)
2. Specific resistance r is usually expressed in cm/g. From Fig. 7.14, units for
slope S are (for / = sec, V = ml)
S = (t/vyv = (sec/ml)/ml ^ (sec/cm^)/cm^ = sec/cm^
Units for c are
c = g/ml = g/cm^
and those for μ are
μ = g/cm sec = Poise
If Ρ is expressed in dyn/cm-^ ufilizing the conversion factors indicated in Eqs.
(7.35) and (7.36), and the area is in cm^, then from Eq. (7.33), units for r are
(dyn/cm^) χ cm"^ sec
r =
(g/cmsec) X g/cm^ cm 6
g(cm/sec^)/cm^ χ cm"* sec cm
g(cm/sec) X g/cm^ cm^ g
4.7. Numerical Example: D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Specific

Cake Resistance Using t h e Büchner Funnel
Example 7.3. The data tabulated as follows were obtained from a filtrafion
laboratory test ufilizing a Büchner filter apparatus. The slurry to be filtered
contained 7% of sohds.
Volume of filtrate Time

(ml) (sec)
25 27.5
50 110.0
75 248.0
100 440.0
125 688.0
150 990.0
Operating vacuum is 20 in. of Hg and temperature is 20°C. Area of the fiUer is

73.6 cm^. Assume that the fiUrate has the properties of water at 20°C (μ = 1.0
cP). The percentage of solids in the filter cake is 27%. A concentration of 10
mg/liter of a polymer was added as coagulant prior to the filtration.
Determine the specific resistance of cake in cm/g.
Solution
Step 1. Construct the following table:
κ (ml) / (sec) / / F (sec/ml)
25 27.5 1.1
50 110.0 2.2
75 248.0 3.3
100 440.0 4.4
125 688.0 5.5
150 990.0 6.6
Step 2. Prepare a plot of t/V versus F. This is shown in Fig. 7.14.
25 50 75 100 125 150

V(ml)
Fig. 7.14. Plot of t/V versus V (Example 7.3).
Step 3. F r o m Fig. 7.14

Slope = S = (6.6 - 1.1)/(150 - 25) = 0.044 sec/cm^
Step 4. Calculate c [Eq. (7.28)]: Notice that c¡ = 100 - 7 = 93 and Cf -

100 - 27 = 73.
c = l/[Ci/(100 - c,) - a i O O - c,)]
c = l/[93/(100 - 93) - 73/(100 - 73)] = 0.0945 g/cm^
Step 5. Calculate r [Eq. (7.33)]:
Ρ = (20)(33,864) = 677,280 dyn/cm^ = 677,280 g/cm sec'
r = {2PA^/ßc)S
2 X 677,280 g/cm sec' χ (73.6)'cm^ sec ,, cm

= - - - - ^ — X 0 . 0 4 4 — r = 3.416 χ 10^' —
0.01 g/cm sec χ 0.0945 g/cm^ cm^ g
In this case, since the straight hne in Fig. 7.14 passes through the origin, i.e.,
/ = 0, it follows from Eq. (7.34) that the media resistance R^, is neghgible, i.e..
Step 6. Determinations similar to the one illustrated in this Example 7.3 were
performed varying the concentration of the coagulant between 0 and 20 mg/liter.
Values of the specific resistance of cake were determined for coagulant
concentrations of 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/liter. These values of the specific
resistance were plotted versus concentration of coagulant yielding a graph of the
type of Fig. 7.13. The minimum value for the specific resistance of the cake
occurred at a concentrafion of coagulant of 10 mg/hter. This was the value
r = 3.416 X 10^^ sec'/g, calculated in Step 5.
4.8. Specific Resistance f o r Compressible Cakes
Most industrial wastewater sludges form compressible cakes for which

filtration rate and specific resistance are funcfions of the pressure d r o p across the
cake. This effect is*
r = r,P' (7.37)
where s is the compressibility coefficient for the cake. The larger the value of ^,
the more compressible is the cake. When ^ = 0, the specific resistance is
independent of pressure and the sludge is incompressible. In this case, Eq. (7.37)
yields
r = r^ = const (7.38)
F r o m Eq. (7.37) parameter corresponds to the value of the specific resistance r

for a unit value of P.
• Equation (7.37) appears at first inspection to be dimensionally incorrect. However, this obstacle
is removed by writing it as r = r^{PIPo)\ where P^ is a reference pressure drop, which is taken as 1.0
psi. At this low pressure drop the cake can be considered incompressible, i.e., r = T Q . Since P^ is taken
as 1.0 psi, Eq. (7.37) is numerically correct, and is also dimensionally consistent if one considers the
term Ρ as a dimensionless ratio PjP^ = P/1.0 = P .
The values for parameters s and are obtained by writing Eq. (7.37) in linear
form as
\ogr = \ogr^^s\ogP (7.39)
From Eq. (7.39) a logarithmic plot of a series of values of r obtained for a

given slurry by only varying the pressure d r o p across the cake versus the
corresponding pressure drops yields a straight line which allows determination
of parameter s from its slope. It should be noticed that the numerical value of s is
independent of the units utilized for Ρ and r. Typical values of s range from 0.4 to
0.9 for sludges in wastewater treatment processes. T h e value of r for Ρ = 1
equals r^. These values of r are determined by Büchner funnel experiments and
calculated as shown in Example 7.3 for each pressure drop utilized.
Some generalizations on filtration characteristics of sludges are as follows:
1. Ease of filterability of wastewater sludges decreases with degree of

treatment, i.e.,
r < r < r
raw primary secondary
sewage sludge sludge
sludge
Raw sewage sludge is the easiest to filter (lower specific resistance), whereas
secondary sludge is the most difficult.
2. Filterability is influenced by particle size, shape, a n d density, a n d by
electrical charge on the particle. T h e larger the particle size, the higher the
filtration rate (lower specific resistance), and thus the final cake moisture is
lower. Addition of coagulants promotes agglomeration of particles, thus
increasing filtrafion rate.
4.9. Filtration Design Equation

For purpose of filter design, it is convenient to modify Eq. (7.32). Neglecting
resistance of media {R^ ^ 0) and recalling that / is the form fime {t = if):
tflV={prcl2PA^)V (7.40)
It is convenient to write the equafion in terms of filter loading (Lf), i.e., lb of

deposited cake/ft^ h. Since product cV represents the weight of cake (Section
4.4), filter loading (Lf) based on form fime (form loading) is
Lf = cVIAtf = lb of deposited cake/ft^ h (7.41)
Equation (7.40) can be rearranged as
VÎA^ = {2Ptd/(ßrc) (7.42)
Substituting in the right-hand member of Eq. (7.42) the identifies tf = tf/tf and
c = c^/c and rearranging,
(cV/At^y = (2Pc)/(/ir/f) (7.43)
The left-hand member of Eq. (7.43) is the square of form loading [Eq. (7.41)].
Therefore,
Lf = l{2Pc)|{μrt^r 12 (7.44)
which is the equation for form loading. If metric units are utilized (Example 7.3),
the set of units for parameters in Eq. (7.44) is presented in column (2), Table 7.7.
TABLE 7.7
Utiits for Form Loading Equation
(1) (2) (3)

Practical units Metric units Conversion factors
Lf = Ib/ft^ h g/cm^ sec Lf Ib/ft^h X 454g/lb X ftVBO.S^cm^ χ h/3600sec

= 1.356 X 1 0 - ^ Lf
P= psi dyn/cm^ = g/cm sec^ P(psi) X 68,948(g/cm2)/psi = Px 68,948 [Eq. (7.36)]
c = g/ml = g/cm^ g/cm^ -
ß = C? g/cm sec = Poise μ(οΡ) X Poise/102cP = μ χ 1 0 " '
r = c m / g x 10"^
= practical unit cm/g r X 10'
/f = min sec /f(min) X 60 sec/min = if χ 60
For design purposes it is convenient to express form loading in terms of lb of

cake/ft^ h, and other parameters in the practical units indicated in column (1),
Table 7.7. Conversion factors from column (1) to column (2) are indicated in
column (3). Substitution of these conversion factors in Eq. (7.44) leads to Eq.
(7.45), where all parameters are in the practical units listed in column (1) of
Table 7.7.
Lf=\m[_{Pc)|{μrt^V" (7.45)
[ F o r units, see Table 7.7, column (1).]

Equation (7.45) is referred to as the form loading equation.
4.10. Filter Leaf Test

The operation of a rotary vacuum filter can be conveniently simulated in
laboratory-scale by a filter leaf apparatus, shown in Fig. 7.15 [ 2 ] . The apparatus
is operated by alternatively submerging the test leaf in the sludge to simulate
form time /f, and taking it out to simulate dry fime t^.
Typical cycle times range from 1-6 min (i.e., usual number of drum
revolufions per minute falls between ¿ and 1 rpm) and the percentage of
submergences vary from 10% to 60%. F r o m Eq. (7.24) it fohows that selecfion of
a percentage of submergence is equivalent to fixing the form time /f as a fraction
of the total cycle time t^.
Table 7.8 can be used as a guideline for preparing a network of leaf filter
experiments.
IVocuum gauge
vacuum pump
Fig. 7.15. Leaf filter apparatus.
TABLE 7.8
Usual Range of Values for if and t¿
Equation (7.26)
Equation (7.24)
= / w ^ c (min) td = tc-tf- t^
Submergence (%) /f = /e submergence (%)/100
(min) e.g., take = 0.2 (min)
(min)
= 0.2 rc
6 60 3.6 1.2 1.2

6 10 0.6 1.2 4.2
1 60 0.6 0.2 0.2
1 10 0.1 0.2 0.7
For selected values of the submergence (e.g., values between 10% and 60%),
operating vacuum (e.g., values between 10 and 20 in. Hg) and slurry
concentrations, one should also plot sets of graphs like the one shown in Fig.
7.16, from which the required dry time t¿ to yield a cake of specified percentage
of moisture can be determined. The selection of the desired percentage of
moisture in the cake depends upon the nature of the slurry and characteristics of
Dry time, (min) Fig. 7.16. Selectivity of í ¿ .

the intended operations fohowing the vacuum fiUration (bed drying, in-
cineradon, land disposal, etc.).
Procedure for each run is as follows:
1. Add the optimum coagulant dosage as determined in Section 4.5.
2. Flocculate the mixture for 30 sec. In some cases a series of tests are made to
determine o p d m u m flocculation time.
3. Submerge the leaf in flocculated sludge mixture for the specified form time
(if) (Table 7.8). Maintain gentle mixing to avoid deposidon of sludge.
4. Remove leaf from sludge and hold it vertically for the specified dry time,
keeping it under full vacuum.
5. Transfer entire cake from the filter leaf to a tared dish. Compressed air may
be genfiy applied to loosen the cake from the leaf
6. Weigh wet cake, dry at 103°C, and reweigh; measure and record cake
thickness.
7. The loading in lb/ft' h is
Lf = dry weight of sludge in g χ (cycles/h)/[454 χ test leaf area (ft')]
4.11. Procedure for Rotary Filter Design

Step 1. Select:
1. Operafing vacuum.
2. Percentage of submergence.
3. Percentage of cake moisture desired.
From a graph like Fig. 7.16 prepared from leaf filter studies for the slurry to be
filtered (solids concentration fixed) and the selected values for the operafing
vacuum and the percentage of submergence, determine for the specified
percentage of cake moisture the value of the required dry time t^.
Step 2. Select the f r a c f i o n o f the total cycle fime taken as wash fime [usually
^ 0.2 (i.e., 20%)]. F r o m the percentage of submergence and t^ values selected
in Step 1, compute total cycle time t^ [Eq. (7.27)], form time t^ [Eq. (7.24)], and
wash time t^ [Eq. (7.26)].
Step 3. The loading Lf (lb/ft'h) may be obtained ufilizing the leaf filter
procedure described in Secfion 4.10.
Alternafively, one may compute Lf from Eq. (7.45) ufilizing Büchner funnel
data. In this case c is calculated from Eq. (7.28) and the specific resistance of the
cake is determined as described in Secfion 4.7.
Step 4. The value of the loading (lb/ft' h) calculated on Step 3 (Lf) was based
upon the form time tf. One must calculate the so-called cycle loading ( L J , based
on total cycle time t^ i.e.,
Lc = L,{tjt,) (7.46)
Step 5. Calculate the required filter area from
Ib/h of solids to be removed ^^ _ _
ΣΑΗ)
Usually a scale-up factor F(0.7 to 0.9) is utilized, so
Design filter area = [Filter area, Eq. (7.47)]/F (7.48)
This design procedure is illustrated by Example 7.4.
Example 7.4. Design a vacuum rotary filter for the applicafion in Example 7.3.
The following additional informafion is available.
1. Base design on an operafing vacuum of 20 in. of Hg and a percent

submergence of 50%. Assume that filtrate has the properties of water at 20°C
{μ = 1 cP).
2. A graph similar to Fig. 7.16 was prepared from leaf filter studies for this
application (P = 20 in. Hg, submergence = 50%). For a selected percentage of
cake moisture of 73% (i.e., 27% solids), this graph indicated a required dry fime
of 0.7 min.
3. Assume = 0.20 (i.e., wash time is taken as 20% of total cycle fime).
4. Take a scale-up factor F = 0.9.
5. Parameters (Example 7.3):
c = 0.0945 g/cm^
r = 3.416 X 10^^ cm/g = 3.416 χ 10"^ practical units
μ = 1 cp
6. 950 Ib/h of dry solids are to be removed by the filter.

Solution
Step 1.
1. P = 20 in. Hg or
^ = ^ x 14.7 = 9.83 psi
2. Percent submergence: 50%

3. Percentage of cake moisture: 73%, . ' . id = 0.7 min
Step 2. U = 0.2. Total cycle fime [Eq. (7.27)]:
tc = tJi{\ - / w ) - (percent submergence)/100] = 0.7/[(l - 0.2) - (50/100)]
= 2.33 min
Form time [Eq. (7.24)]:
if = /^(percent submergence)/100 = (2.33)(50/100) = 1.17 min
Wash time [Eq. (7.26)]:
t^ =f^t^ = (0.2)(2.33) = 0.46 min
6. Centrifugation 471
Therefore the complete schedule is

Form time: U = 1.17 min
Dry time: td = 0.70 min
Wash time: 'w = 0.46 min
Total cycle time: tc = 2.33 min
Step 3. Filter loading Lf [Eq. (7.45)]:
Lf = 1118[P^r/f]^/2 ^ 1118(0.0945 χ 9.83/1.0 χ 3.416 χ 10^ χ 1.17)^/^
= 5.39 Ib/ft^h
Step 4. Cycle loading L, [Eq. (7.46)]:
Le = Lf(íf/íJ = 5.39 X 0.5 = 2.695 Ib/ft^ h

Step 5. Design filter area [Eq. (7.48)]:
_ . Ib/h of solids to be removed 950
Design area = = = 392 ft^
^ FxL, (0.9)(2.695)
This corresponds to a cake yield of
= 2.42 Ib/ft^ h
950
392 Ib/h
ft^
5. PRESSURE FILTRATION
Filtration of sludges in filter presses is economically feasible whenever labor

costs are relatively low, owing to the difficulty of full automation of the
operation. Recently, systems with fully automatic operation have been available
commercially, with automatic opening of the press, cake discharge, and washing
of the filter media between cycles. These new developments tend to make filter
presses economically feasible.
The main advantage of filter presses over rotary vacuum filters is that a drier
cake can be obtained. This is especially advantageous if filtrafion is followed by
incineration. The degree of dryness of the cake is a function of the applied
pressure. Operating pressures range from 50 to 225 psig.
6. CENTRIFUGATION
Dewatering of sludges by centrifugation has been applied with increasing

frequency in the last few years. A sketch of a typical centrifuge for this service (a
confinuous solid bowl type) is shown in Fig. 7.17.
The components of the centrifuge are (1) fixed casing, (2) rotating bowl, (3)
rotating inner conveyor, (4) driving components (motor and gear system), (5)
slurry inlet port, (6) solids discharge port, and (7) liquid discharge port.
Slurry
inlet-
Rotating
inner
Fixed
conveyor
casing
Solids
discharge
port
Liquid
discharge
Fig. 7.17. Bird continuous solid bowl centrifuge. (Courtesy of Bird Machine Company, Inc.)
Sludge solids are compacted by centrifugal force against the inner walls of the
rotating bowl, then picked u p by the conveyor and taken to the solids discharge
port. Liquid is discharged at the opposite end of the bowl. N o estabhshed design
procedure is available from laboratory data, but feasibility of centrifugation for
a specific sludge may be evaluated from tests employing laboratory centrifuges.
The centrifugal field falls usually in the range of 1000 to 6000 fimes the force of
gravity.
7. BED DRYING OF SLUDGES
7.1. Introduction
Air drying of sludges on sand beds is one of the most economical methods for
dewatering. It is the most common method for small and medium-size treatment
plants, for both domestic and industrial wastewaters.
Economic feasibility of the process depends greatly on (1) availability of land

at a reasonable cost and (2) favorable climatic conditions (dry and warm
climate) conducive to optimum evaporation conditions. The area needed is a
function of (1) rainfall and evaporation rates and (2) sludge characteristics (for
example, gelatinous sludges require a larger area).
7.2. Mechanisms of D e w a t e r i n g Sludges on Sand Beds
Dewatering of sludges occurs by two mechanisms:
1. Percolation of water through the sand bed. The proportion of water

removed by percolation varies from 20% to 55% depending on initial solids
content of sludge and characteristics of solids. Percolation is generally complete
in 1-3 day, resulting in solids concentration as high as 15-25%.
2. Evaporation of water. Evaporation occurs by mechanisms of radiation
and convection. The rate of evaporation is slower than that of dewatering by
percolation and is related to temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity. A
typical evaporation rate curve is shown in Fig. 7.18 and exhibits two distinct
sections corresponding to constant and falhng rate periods.
Moisture (%)
Fig. 7.18. Evaporation rate curve.
During the constant rate period, the sludge surface is wet and the rate of
evaporation is relatively independent of the nature of the sludge. This rate is less
than that which is observed from a free water surface (free water evaporation)
owing to the fact that the plane of vaporization is below the surface of the solid.
Evaporation proceeds at a constant rate until a critical moisture content is
reached.
When the critical moisture content is reached, water no longer migrates to the
surface of the sludge as rapidly as it evaporates and the fahing rate period occurs.
Rate of drying during this period is related to thickness of the sludge, its physical
and chemical properties, and atmospheric conditions. Subsurface drying

continues until an equihbrium moisture content is reached.
7.3. Construction of Sand Drying Beds
Typical sand bed construction is indicated in Fig. 7.19, which shows a vertical
section of a drying bed. Underdrain piping may be of vitrified clay, with a
minimum diameter of 4 in. and a minimum slope of 1%. The filtrate is returned
to the treatment plant.
Size: 0.3-1.2 mm
•· · diameter
Underdrain • Filtrate
piping-
Fig. 7.19. Sand drying bed.
Sludge is usually applied to drying beds at depths of 8-12 in. It is left to dry
unfil it reaches a solids content between 30% and 50%. It is removed when solids
reach a liftable state, which varies with individual judgement as well as the final
disposal means.
The period of time between application of sludge to sand bed and its removal
in a liftable state is called bed turnover fime. It varies between 20 and 75 day,
depending on the nature of the sludge. It is possible to reduce substanfially the
bed turnover time by prior treatment with chemical coagulants, for example,
alum and polyelectrolytes. By chemical pretreatment, it is possible to reduce
drying time by as much as 50% and it is feasible to apply the sludge in a thicker
layer. Bed yield is reported to vary hnearly with coagulant dosage.
7.4. Drying Bed Design
In the past, drying beds have been designed on an empirical basis of ft^ of bed
area/capita or lb of dry solids/ft^ yr. Values of these parameters employed in the
United States are given in Ref. [ 9 ] .
A rafional method of design has been developed recently by Swan wick [8] and
is recommended by Eckenfelder and Ford [ 2 ] . The procedure is as follows, and
Example 7.5 illustrates its applicafion.
Step 1. Fill a glass cylinder (1-2 in. diameter) containing a sand base with test
sludge to a depth of 8-12 in. (depth envisioned for the actual unit to be designed).
Step 2 . Allow complete drainage of water from sludge. This requires a

drainage period of 1-3 day, depending on sludge characteristics and initial
moisture content. This corresponds to the percolation phase of the drying
mechanism.
Step 3. Once drainage is completed, remove the sludge core from cylinder.
Utilize a small fraction of it to determine moisture content (by oven drying and
weighing before and after).
Step 4. Place the sludge core in an open dish to allow evaporation to occur.
Check the sample periodically until desired moisture content is reached
(moisture content when sludge cake is liftable).
Step 5. The difference between weights of water (moisture content) at the end
of Steps 3 and 4 corresponds to the water to be evaporated (evaporation phase in
the drying mechanism). Water to be evaporated is expressed in inches
evaporated per ft^ of bed area (details of calculation in Step 5, Example 7.5).
Step 6. Obtain local meteorological records for rainfall (in.) and evaporation
(in.) tabulated on a monthly basis.
Step 7. Prepare in tabular form a record of inches of rainfall multiplied by a
factor 0.57 versus month. This is based on experimental evidence that 4 3 % of the
rainfall drains through the cake, leaving 57% to be evaporated. Rainfall fraction
to be evaporated varies according to rainfall patterns and intensity. A value of
less than 57%, for example, might be expected in regions where rainfall is intense
and of short duration. Prepare also in tabular form a record of inches of
evaporation muhiplied by a factor 0.75 versus month. This is based on
experimental evidence that average evaporation of wet sludge is 75% of that for
free water.
Step 8. Calculate average evaporation rate (day/in.) for each month.
Step 9. Based on values calculated in Step 8, determine time required to
evaporate inches of water calculated in Step 5 for each month.
Step 10, Based on values calculated in Step 8 and inches of rainfall multiplied
by factor 0.57, calculate time required to evaporate rainfah (days) for each
month.
Step 11. The total time for evaporation of water, i.e., that for evaporation of
water from slurry, calculated in Step 9, plus that to evaporate rainfall (Step 10) is
then obtained for each month.
Step 12. Take the largest of the total times obtained in Step 11 as the design
requirement. Calculate the ft^ of bed area required as indicated in Example 7.5
(Step 12).
Example 7.5. Sludge drying beds are considered to dewater 4000 lb/day (dry
weight) of a sludge produced in an industrial wastewater treatment plant. The
sludge is apphed to beds in 10-in. lifts.
A laboratory study shows that percolation increased solids concentration
from its initial value of 5% to 20% in 25 h. Sludge is considered liftable from
drying beds at 25% sohds. Meteorological records for the region are indicated in
Table 7.9. Determine the required area of beds.
TABLE 7.9
Rainfall and Evaporation Record [Example 7.5)
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Rainfall (in.) 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 4.0 3.5 2.1 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.8
Evaporation (in.) 5.8 6.5 7.5 8.7 11.2 11.0 13.2 11.3 9.1 6.5 4.6 3.1
Solution Take sludge density as 62.4 Ib/ft^. Base calculations on total pounds
of wet sludge applied in a lift per ft^ of bed, as indicated in Fig. 7.20.
10 in.= 0 . 8 3 f t
I ft^
Fig. 7.20. Basis of calculations for Example 7.7. 10-in. lift -> 10/12 = 0.83 ft. 1 ft^ χ 0.83 ft
X 62.4 lb/ft3 = 51.8 1b.
Steps 1 and 2. Perform laboratory tests as described.

Step 3. Solids content at beginning of percolation equals 5% as stated. Based
on a 10-in. lift per ft^ of bed, this corresponds to (51.8 lb)(0.05) = 2.6 Ib/ft^ (dry
solids). After drainage to 20% solids the total weight of wet cake per ft^ of area
(10-in. lift) is (2.6 lb/ft2)/0.2 = 13 \h/ñ\
Step 4. E v a p o r a d o n proceeds to a final cake containing 25% solids. This
corresponds to a total weight of wet cake per ft^ of area (10-in. lift) of
2.6 lb/0.25 = 10.4 Ib/ft^
Step 5. Water evaporated per ft^ of area (10-in. lift) is
13.0 — 10.4 = 2.6 lb of water evaporated/ft^ of bed area
(Step 3) (Step 4)
Water evaporated is expressed in terms of inches evaporated per ft^ of bed area.
Volume of water evaporated (ft^/ft^ of bed area) is
2.6 Ib/ft^ X ftV62.4 lb = 0.0417 ft^ft'
or
0.0417 ftVft^ X 12 in./ft = 0.5 in. of water to be evaporated/ft^ of bed area
Step 6. Maintain meteorological records (Table 7.9).
Step 7. Record inches of rainfah χ 0.57; see columns (2) and (3) of Table
7.10. Record inches of evaporation χ 0.75; see columns (4) and (5) of Table
7.10.
TABLE 7.10
Evaporation Time Requirement
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Month Rainfall Rainfall (in.) x 0.57 Evaporation Evaporation (in.) x 0.75 No. of Average Time Time Total days
(in.) = (2) x 0.57 in. (in.) = (4) x 0.75 in. days evaporation rate required to required to =(8)+(9)
(Table 7.9) (Table 7.9) per (6)/(5) evaporate evaporate
month (days/in.) 0.5 in. (days) rainfall (days)
=0.5 x (7) =(3) x (7)
Jan. 4.0 2.280 5.8 4.350 31 7.126 3.563 16.25 19.81

Feb. 3.0 1.710 6.5 4.875 28 5.744 2.872 9.82 12.69
Mar. 3.1 1.767 7.5 5.625 31 5.511 2.756 9.74 12.50
Apr. 4.1 2.337 8.7 6.525 30 4.598 2.299 10.75 13.05
May 4.0 2.280 11.2 8.400 31 3.690 1.845 8.41 10.26
June 3.5 1.995 1l.0 8.250 30 3.636 1.818 7.25 9.07
July 2.1 1.197 13.2 9.900 31 3.131 1.566 3.75 5.32
Aug. 3.0 1.710 11.3 8.475 31 3.658 1.829 6.25 8.08
Sept. 3.2 1.824 9.1 6.825 30 4.396 2.198 8.02 10.22
Oct. 3.0 1.710 6.5 4.875 31 6.359 3.180 10.87 14.05
Nov. 2.7 1.539 4.6 3.450 30 8.696 4.348 13.38 17.73
Dec. 2.8 1.596 3.1 2.325 31 13.333 6.667 21.28 27.95
Step 8. Take the average evaporation rate (days/in.) for each month. This
calculation is indicated in columns (6) and (7) of Table 7.10.
Step 9. Determine the time required to evaporate 0.5 in. of water (see Step 5).
This calculation is indicated in column (8) of Table 7.10.
Step JO. Calculate the time required to evaporate rainfall (days). This
calculation is indicated in column (9) of Table 7.10.
Step ¡1. Estimate the total time required to evaporate 0.5 in. of water plus
rainfah; see column (10), Table 7.10.
Step 12. Take December as the control m o n t h [largest value of total time, i.e.,
27.95 days, column (10) of Table 7.10]. Required area of sand bed is then
4000 lb dry sludge/day χ ftV2.6 lb dry sludge χ 27.95 day
= 43,000 ft^ of bed area required
8. PREDEWATERING TREATMENT OF SLUDGES
Frequently dewatering of sludges is difficult, especially when of gelafinous

consistency. Dewatering these types of sludges by vacuum fikration, for
example, is exceedingly difficult and predewatering treatment may be recom
mended. Two types of predewatering treatment are discussed in this secfion: (1)
chemical coagulation and (2) heat treatment.
8.1. Chemical Coagulation
Addifion of chemical coagulants promotes coalescence of sludge particles and

thus improves their ability to be filtered. It may be preceded by washing of the
sludge, an operation that is known as elutriation. Elutriafion reduces alkalinity
and therefore minimizes coagulant requirements. Clean water or treated sewage
is used for washing. Elutriafion may result in a reduction of 50% or more of
sludge conditioning chemicals. The amount of water used for elutriation is about
2 parts per 1 part of sludge. Countercurrent washing in multiple-stage units is the
usual scheme for elutriafion. The elutriated sludge underflow is pumped from
one stage to the next, countercurrenfiy to the overflow of wash liquor.
The most common coagulants are F e C ^ , lime, and polyelectrolytes.
8.2. Heat T r e a t m e n t of Sludges

Two processes of heat treatment are described in this secfion: (1) Porteus and
(2) Zimpro processes. These processes involve wet oxidation of sludge. This
consists of chemical oxidafion of organic solids in an aqueous phase by dissolved
oxygen in reactors operating at high temperatures and pressures. Advantages of
heat treatment are that sludge is sterilized, deodorized, and can be easily filtered
either in vacuum or pressure filters. A combined flow diagram for the Porteus
and Zimpro processes is shown in Fig. 7.21.
The Porteus process involves confinuous operafion under pressures of
180-210 psig and temperatures of approximately 400°F. After passing
9. Sludge Disposal 479
through a grinder, the sludge is pumped from the accumulator through a heat
exchanger, where it is preheated by hot sludge effluent from the reactor. High-
pressure steam is injected into the reactor. Retention time in the reactor is
approximately 30 min. An 80-90% reduction of organic matter can be
accomplished; thus some organic matter and ammonia are found among the end
products.
Coagulated sludge
Sludge inlet
I 1, steam injectii
jection
(Porteus)
or compressed air
(Zimpro)
Sludge outlet
(To thickening and/or
filtration/or drying beds)
Fig. 7.21. Combined flow diagrams for the Porteus and Zimpro processes.
The Zimpro process differs from the Porteus primarily in the fact that air
(instead of steam) is injected by an air compressor (Fig. 7.21). Maximum
operating temperatures are 300-600°F and design operating pressures are
150-3000 psi (gauge). Combustion is 80-90% complete. Heat release per pound
of air is 1200-1400 Btu.
9. SLUDGE DISPOSAL
Two fundamental approaches are utilized in sludge disposal: land disposal or

incineration.
9.1. Land Disposal of Sludges
Two types of land disposal of sludges are mentioned here: lagooning a n d

oxidation ponds. Lagooning may be an economical disposal method when large
land areas are available at low cost. Supernatant liquor is removed continuously
and eventually the lagoon becomes filled with sohds. In a 2- to 3-yr period, a
50-60% moisture content can be attained. Then the lagoon is abandoned a n d a
new location is selected.
Oxidation ponds similar to those discussed for wastewaters in Chapter 6,

Section 6 can be utilized. An aerobic condition is maintained on the surface, due
mainly to the presence of algae. Anaerobic conditions prevail in deeper layers.
9.2. Sludge Incineration

Sludge incineration is a frequently employed disposal method. Self-sustaining
combustion is sometimes possible after burning an auxiliary fuel which raises the
temperature of the incinerator above ignition point. The combustion products
are mainly carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and ash.
Two types of incineration operations are (1) multiple hearth furnaces
and (2) fluidized bed drying and burning. A diagram of a multiple hearth
To Storage
Hopper
Flyash Slurry
Air
Recirculation
Duct
Cooling Air
Dry Ash
Handling System
Fig. 7.22. Burning flow diagram of Nichols-Herreshoff multiple hearth furnace for sludge
incineration. (Courtesy of Nichols Engineering and Research Corporation.)
Problems 481
furnace for incineration of sludge (Nichols-Herreshoff furnace) is shown in

Fig. 7.22.
Sludge passes downward through a series of hearths. Vaporization of
moisture occurs in the upper hearths, fohowed by incineration in the lower ones.
Ashes from the bottom of the furnace are collected by a dry ash handhng system.
An alternative water scrubbing system can also be provided.
Exhaust gases coming from the upper section of the furnace flow into a
Venturi high-energy type scrubber for removal of fly ash. Furnace temperature
is 1000-1800°F. The furnace is air cooled, air being blown by a fan. Coohng air is
recirculated through the air recirculation duct. A fraction of the cooling air is
wasted to the atmosphere. Furnace temperature is controlled by adjustment of
the ratio of air vented to the atmosphere to recirculated air. This adjustment
is made by proper posidoning of the vanes in the venting and recirculating
ducts.
Flue gasest
Fluidizing
air blower Ash slurry
Fig. 7.23. Sketch of a fluidized bed disposal system.
A sketch of a ñuidized bed disposal system is shown in Fig. 7.23. Sludge is fed
into a bed of sand fluidized by air. The temperature of the fluidized bed is
1400-1500°F. There is rapid drying and combustion of the sludge. Ash is carried
up by the combustion gases and separated by water scrubbing and cycloning.
Auxihary fuel is utilized at least for stardng the combustion process.
PROBLEMS
I. The following data are obtained from batch bench-scale aeration at 20°C
of a sludge for which a c o n d n u o u s digester is to be designed.
VSS
Time of aeration . . Oxygen uptake rate
0 6750 50
5 5350 21
10 4520 11
15 4070 7
20 3820 6
25 3680 5.5
30 3600 5.5
0.1 Mgal/day of this sludge are to be treated in a continuous aerobic digester,

which is designed to achieve 80% reduction of degradable suspended sohds at an
operating temperature of 20°C. Estimate the digester volume (Mgal and ft^) and
the oxygen requirements (lb 02/h).
IL A slurry is to be filtered in a vacuum rotary filter. Experimental studies

were made at vacuums of 10, 15, and 20 in. Hg with a Büchner filter of 5-cm
diameter. Take the viscosity of filtrate as 1.0 cP. The slurry and the cake contain,
respectively, 6% and 30% of solids.
The data obtained are presented in the following table:
/(min)
P=10in.Hg Ρ = 15in.Hg F = 20in.Hg
5 11.9 12.6 13.1

20 23.7 25.2 26.3
100 53.0 56.3 58.8
400 106.0 112.7 117.7
Determine the coefficients (units: cm/g) and s in Eq. (7.37), where Ρ is in

dyn/cm^.
III. A wastewater treatment sludge from an industrial plant is concentrated

to 6% solids prior to filtration in a rotary filter. The sludge fiow to the filter unit
is 50 gal/min.
A laboratory study was performed before designing a rotary filter system for
the sludge. This study indicated the following:
1. A cake containing 28% solids was obtained after a 2-min dry fime under a
vacuum of 20 in. Hg.
2. The specific resistance of the cake was determined by a Büchner filter test
as 1.0 X 10^^ cm/g. The test was performed at a vacuum of 20 in. Hg.
References 483
Calculate the following:

1. Required rotary filter area in ft^ for a vacuum of 20 in. Hg for operation at
a 40% submergence. Take wash time as 20% of the total cycle time and a safety
factor F = 0.9.
2. Determine the filtrafion schedule for the operafion.
3. What is the actual cake yield in Ib/ft^ h.
IV. Air drying is being considered to dewater 1500 lb/day (dry weight) of a
sludge ufilizing 8-in. lifts. A laboratory study has shown that percolation
increased solids concentrafion from its inifial value of 2% to 20% solids in 20 h.
Calculate the areas of drying beds (ft^) required for liftable sludges with 30% and
35% solids, respecfively. Base calculafions on 3 in. of rainfall and 4.5 in.
evaporation for a 30-day period.
REFERENCES
1. Benefield, L. D., and Randall, C. W., '^Biological Process Design in Wastewater Treatment."
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1980.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D. L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press, Austin
and New York, 1970.
3. Edde, H. J., and Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 40, N o . 8, 1486 (1968).
4. Metcalf & Eddy Inc., "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, Disposal." McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1972.
5. McCarthy, P. L., Public Works 95, 9-12 (1964).
6. Nichols Engineering & Research Corporation, "Nichols Heat Treatment Process for Sludge
Conditioning," Form. HT 123. Nichols Eng. & Res. Corp., Belle Mead, N e w Jersey, 1975.
7. Ruth, B. P., Ind Eng. Chem. 25, 157 (1933).
8. Swanwick, J. D., Lussignea, F. W., and Baskerville, R. C , Adv. Water Pollut. Res. 2, 387-402
(1963).
9. Water Pollution Control Federation, "Sewage Treatment Plant Design," Manual of Practice 8.
Water Pollut. Control. Fed., Washington, D.C., 1959.

Sludge Treatment and Disposal

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Sludge Treatment and Disposal

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Chapter 7

Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Most primary treatment processes (Chapter 3), as weh as secondary treatment

from digestion, with considerably lower content of organic matter, is referred to

-SLUDGE HANDLIN6- -SLUDGE DISPOSAL—Η

Sequence ' Solid-liquid

Solid ; 0.5-5 % 2 - 15 % 15-50 % Land disposal

Aerobic and anaerobic Predewatering treatment:

Special treatment preceding dewatering becomes necessary for certain sludges

2. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF SLUDGES

2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Aerobic Digestion of Sludges

Primary Aerator Secondary Effluent

Recycled sludge ~T~^Wostage I ^grobic

Fig. 7.2. Flow diagram showing aerobic digester of sludge.

Lower residence times are required for aerobic digestion as compared to

2.2. Design Procedure for Aerobic Digesters of Sludge

2.2.2. Design Equations

dXJdt= -ky,X^ (7.1)

dXJX^= -k^dt (12)

Integrating between a time / = 0, corresponding to a concentration of degrad-

ln[(A^d)e/(A'd)o] = - k^t (7.3)

Degradable Degradable Degradable

Utilizing Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6),

QoiXo -X.)=- Ld(X. - Xn)/dQ V (7.11)

t = ίγ,= V/Qo = residence time

and Eq. (7.11) yields

Xo-X, = [- d(X, - X,)/dtV (7.12)

d{X, - X^)ldt = - k^{X, - XJ (7.13)

Substitution of this value in Eq. (7.12) leads to

(Xo-X.)/i = k,(X^-X,) (7.14)

The residence time / is then

The rate of degradation of sludge is temperature dependent. Laboratory data

A:r„ = A:2oö^*"'° (7.16)

Laboratory data {TQ = 20 C)

(1) (2) (3)

Solution to Part 1 Design of the aerobic digester (Basis: Winter conditions)

2850/10,000 X 100 = 28.5%

or 71.5% of the sludge is degradable.

Material Balance Table for Winter Operation: Example 7.1"

(A'd)o = (0.715X10,000) = 7,150 (A'A = (0.2)(7,150) = 1430

" Basis: 80% destruction of degradable VSS.

Step 3. Calculation of rate constant k¿.

ytb = (2.303)(0.1407) = 0.3241 day"' (base e) (20X)

Degradadle VSS Remaining versus Time of Aeration

3. Correct for summer and winter operating temperatures:

(a) Summer conditions (Γ^ = WC)\

k,o = (0.3241)(1.05)^^-'^ = 0.528 day'^

(b) Winter conditions (T^ = 16°C):

kie = (0.3241)(1.05)^^-2^ = 0.267 day"^

Step 4, Calculation of residence time and reactor volume.

1. Residence time. Basis: 80% reduction of VSS content at winter conditions

Xo-X, 10,000 - 4280

F = 0.05 X 15.0 = 0.75 MG

V = 750,000 gal χ ftV7.48 gal = 100,267 ft^

Step 5. Estimate the percentage of VSS reduction under summer conditions

Material Balance Table for Summer Operation: Example 7.1

(A'd)o = (0.715X10,000) = 7,150 (Λ^Λ = 3652 - 2850 = 802

Fig. 7.6. Oxygen uptake curve (laboratory data) (Example 7 . 1 ) .

As indicated, the shaded area in Fig. 7.6 must be multiplied by a factor of 24