A study on wear characteristics

of high strength steels under

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However

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regards to Abdulbaset Mussa

and damage mec
define the typical wear

Faculty of Health, Science and Technology

Materials Engineering

LICENTIATE THESIS LICENTIATE THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2020:18

A study on wear
characteristics of high strength
steels under sliding contact

Abdulbaset Mussa

LICENTIATE THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2020:18

A study on wear characteristics of high strength steels under sliding contact

Abdulbaset Mussa

LICENTIATE THESIS

Karlstad University Studies | 2020:18

urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-77660

ISSN 1403-8099

ISBN 978-91-7867-112-0 (print)

ISBN 978-91-7867-117-5 (pdf)

©
The author

Distribution:
Karlstad University
Faculty of Health, Science and Technology
Department of Engineering and Physics
SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
+46 54 700 10 00

Print: Universitetstryckeriet, Karlstad 2020

WWW.KAU.SE
Abstract
In the last decades, significant improvements regarding the design,
materials and technology of rock drills have been made. Likewise, in
sheet metal forming, forming tools experience very high contact pres-
sures when processing high strength steel sheets. In both applications
components operate under extremely tough contact conditions that re-
sult in an accelerated component failure. Enhancements on mechanical
properties of components material subjected to extreme contact condi-
tions are highly required in order to withstand the application loads
and prevent severe wear.
The present thesis was focused on understanding of machinery compo-
nent damage mechanisms under severe contact conditions. A case
study of worn components used in rock drilling and sheet metal cold
work was carried out. Thread joints from rock drilling and punches
from sheet metal pressing were selected for the investigation. For these
components, sliding contact under high contact pressure is a common
load condition under the components usage. Then, to understand and
quantify the influence of contact parameters, load and surface quality
on material performance, laboratory simulations were performed. The
results were used for a comparative analysis of the typical damage
mechanisms observed in the tests and the case study of the compo-
nents.
The case study results showed that the threaded surfaces underwent
severe plastic deformation due to the high-pressure sliding contact.
The microstructure beneath the worn surface was altered and surface
cracks and delamination were frequently observed at the worn surface.
The dominant damage mechanism found on the investigated punches
was adhesive wear. Material transfer adds friction stresses at the punch
surface and ultimately, with repeated punch strokes, it leads to initia-
tion and propagation of fatigue cracks.
Wear process in thread joint and punch wear was simulated using the
SOFS. The worn specimens tested experimentally showed similar wear
mechanisms obtained in the case study. The thread joint wear simula-
tion showed that the total damage at the worn surface was a result of
adhesive wear, plastic deformation, and initiation and propagation of
fatigue cracks. In addition, the results showed that the type of motion
had a significant influence on the worn volume and crack initiation,
and more severe wear was observed at reciprocal motion. The punch
wear simulation showed that the friction quickly increased as work ma-
terial from metal sheets transferred to the disc surface. The rate of the
material transfer was strongly dependent on the combination of sheet
material and tool steel. Further, the present experimental simulations
were applicable to characterize and predict wear of components in the
application.
i
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Pavel
Krakhmalev and Prof. Jens Bergström for the guidance and advices
they provided during my study. I also want to thank Christer Burman
for his assistance with the technical equipment.
This thesis work was financially supported by the Swedish Knowledge
Foundation, project no. 20150090, and their support is gratefully
acknowledged. Thanks to the project partners, Sandvik Mining and
Rock Technology AB, Epiroc Rock Drills AB, Ovako AB and Uddehom
AB for the material supply.
Thanks to Mohamed Sadek, Reza Karimi and Mikael Åsberg for making
every working day a bit easier.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge the support and great love of my family.

ii
List of papers

Paper I

Failure analyses and wear mechanisms of rock drill rods, a case

Abdulbaset Mussa, Pavel Krakhmalev and Jens Bergström
Engineering Failure Analysis 102, August 2019, 69-78.

Paper II

Sliding wear and fatigue cracking damage mechanisms in recip-

rocal and unidirectional sliding of high-strength steels in dry con-
tact
Abdulbaset Mussa, Pavel Krakhmalev and Jens Bergström
Wear 444–445, 15 March 2020, 203119.

Paper III

Mapping of galling initiation and wear mechanisms at reciprocal

sliding of PM tool steels against high performance steel sheets
Abdulbaset Mussa, Pavel Krakhmalev, Jens Bergström, Anna Med-
vedeva and Aydin Selte
Proceedings of the 11th International conference, TOOLING 2019, May
2019, Germany.

Literature review

Wear mechanisms in rock drilling and sheet metal forming, a lit-

erature review
Abdulbaset Mussa

iii
The Author’s contribution to the publication

Paper I Major part of planning, experimental work, evalua-

tion and writing

Paper II Major part of planning, experimental work, evalua-

tion and writing

Paper III Major part of planning, experimental work, evalua-

tion and writing

Paper IV Major part of planning, evaluation and writing

iv
 Contents
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
2 BACKGROUND ................................................................................... 2
2.1 THREAD JOINTS USED IN ROCK DRILLING ........................................... 2
2.2 PUNCHES USED IN COLD WORK SHEET METAL FORMING ...................... 3
3 CHARACTERIZATION OF WEAR MECHANISMS ............................. 4
4 SURFACE DAMAGE MECHANISMS.................................................. 5
4.1 WORN THREAD JOINTS .................................................................... 5
4.1.1 Thread joint wear ...................................................................... 7
4.1.2 Drill rods failure ......................................................................... 9
4.2 WORN PUNCHES ........................................................................... 10
4.2.1 Punch wear............................................................................. 10
5 THE SLIDING WEAR TEST METHOD .............................................. 13
5.1 THE SOFS TEST ........................................................................... 13
5.2 CALCULATION OF CONTACT PRESSURES .......................................... 14
6 THREAD JOINT WEAR SLIDING SIMULATIONS ............................ 17
6.1 MATERIAL ..................................................................................... 17
6.2 WEAR TESTS ................................................................................ 18
6.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 18
7 PUNCH WEAR SLIDING SIMULATIONS ......................................... 24
7.1 MATERIALS ................................................................................... 24
7.2 WEAR TESTS ................................................................................ 26
7.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 26
8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................... 31
FUTURE WORK ........................................................................................ 34
REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 35

v
1 Introduction

Interconnected machinery components are frequently subjected to sur-

face damages through wear due to interaction between contacting sur-
faces. The degree of surface damage is dependent on material mechan-
ical properties, application loads, surface roughness, interface chemis-
try of contacting surfaces, etc. [1]. In many applications, wear is a life-
limiting factor for the involved components and therefore its reduction
is of high importance to have components operating with prolonged
lifetime [1-4].
Whenever two solid surfaces are brought into contact under relative
motion, one or both surfaces will suffer due to wear phenomenon [3].
Wear severity is influenced by several factors and to reduce it in a par-
ticular tribopair, the entire system has to be taken into consideration.
Wear can be reduced by increasing the hardness of contacting surfaces.
According to the Archard equation, surface material removal rate due
to sliding wear is inversely proportional to the surface hardness [4].
Wear can also be reduced by introducing a lubrication film between
contacting surfaces. Effective lubrication decreases friction and results
in a reduced heat and shear stresses between contacting surfaces. Also,
wear can be reduced by decreasing the contact pressure between the
contacting surfaces [3-4]. The contact pressure reduction between con-
tacting surfaces requires a decrease in application loads. Unfortu-
nately, procedures attempting to decrease wear in a certain system are
not always straightforward. Additionally, there are also applications
where the presence of a lubricant film between contacting surfaces is
not always possible. Besides, decreasing contact pressures between
contacting surfaces is not a simple option either for some applications.
Hence, nature of some applications requires high loads to perform its
intended function. Wear of contacting surfaces that operate under high
contact pressures and dry condition mode results in significant surface
damages. It results in an alteration of the surface condition due to ma-
terial removal and severe plastic deformation. Moreover, surface crack-
ing and failure of the component might take place [1]. Additionally, in
most dynamic applications, besides relative motion between contact-
ing surfaces cyclic loads are present. Therefore cyclic softening or hard-
ening of the surface will influence the fatigue life of the component [5].
A balance between surface hardness and surface toughness has to be
controlled to achieve good wear resistance and long fatigue life. Com-
monly, the lifetime of a machinery component is designed concerning
fatigue life [6]. The surface damage in many cases may serve as initia-
tion sites for fatigue cracks. The synergetic effect of wear and cyclic
loads will accelerate the crack initiation and decrease the total fatigue

1
life of components [5]. Therefore, it is important to consider wear re-
sistance of components when designing the lifetime of machinery com-
ponents.
In order to be able to predict the wear of a certain component, a thor-
ough understanding of the component with regards to its material
properties, application loads and working environment is required.
Moreover, knowledge about material’s response to generated internal
stresses due to applied loads is essential. The wear knowledge will help
to prevent or delay surface damages and probably prolong the lifetime
of future components. In the present work, components from two dif-
ferent applications, rock drilling and sheet metal forming exposed to
severe wear were investigated in a case study. The common basis for
the investigated components is that they operated under tough contact
conditions where the contact pressures may exceed the yield strength
of the surface material. The present work aimed to define the typical
wear damage mechanisms in the case study. Also, it highlighted the
factors that influence the wear of the components in these applications.
Further, the aim was to simulate the active wear mechanisms observed
in the case study by performing laboratory tests.

2 Background

In the present research work, components of rock drilling and sheet

metal forming equipment were selected for the study. In the applica-
tion they are continuously exposed to high mechanical stresses due to
repeated high-pressure sliding contact, and therefore of high interest
for wear characterization.

2.1 Thread joints used in rock drilling

Rock drilling involves breaking rock material by applying sufficient
pressure to the rock surface. The pressure required to crush the rock
material is generated and transmitted to the rock surface by several in-
terconnected components [7]. Generally, a hydraulic system that drives
the rock drill generates energy in the form of shock waves when the
hydraulic piston repeatedly strikes the anvil or shank adapter based on
the type of rock drill. The anvil is usually connected to a drill rod that
transmits the energy waves to the rock material. At the end of the drill
rod, there is a drill bit pressing the rock surface and is continuously in
contact with rock material during drilling, Figure 1. There are different
rock drilling methods mainly developed based on the mechanical prop-
erties of rocks. Percussive drilling, for example, is frequently used for
hard rocks whereas rotary drilling rock drills are used for soft rocks.
There are also rock drills that combine both percussion and rotation to
optimize the rock drilling process [8].

2
 Figure 1: A schematic of a rotary percussive rock drill.

Commonly, thread joints are used in rock drilling applications to con-

nect multiple drill rods for long-hole mining. Thread joints are also
used to connect drill bits with drill rods. The idea is to assemble and
disassemble individual drill rods and bits smoothly. From the energy
transmission point of view, the threaded parts must be well-tightened
to minimize energy dissipation during rock drilling [9]. However, as
energy waves transmit and reflect through the thread joints, repeated
sliding contact between opposing surfaces takes place. This sliding con-
tact has a reciprocal sliding mode with a very short sliding stroke at the
start with unworn threads. The sliding contact causes wear of the
threaded surfaces [10]. Sliding contact between threaded surfaces
might also take place due to the high frictional forces between the drill
bit and the rock fragments in a hole. The frictional forces for a short
period can prevent the drill bit from rotating while the drill rod is still
rotating. As the sliding contact occurs, the threaded surface is worn
down and the more material is worn out the longer the sliding stroke
becomes. Finally, the worn thread joints became loosen and it results
in higher energy dissipation that decreases the efficiency of the process
[9]. Accumulated wear might also lead to total failure of the thread joint
with production stops and replacement of the component. It will in-
crease the total time and costs of the rock drilling process. Therefore,
wear of thread joints is considered as one of the main concerns for rock
drill manufacturers.

2.2 Punches used in cold work sheet metal forming

During cold work operations like punching, stamping or blanking,
blank holders clamp a work material to the die. A punch is moved to-
wards the die cavity, Figure 2, and the punch either penetrates through
the work material and cuts it or deforms the work material to the de-
sired shape [11]. Usually, when the punch cuts through the working ma-
terial, the process is referred to as punching or blanking. Whereas, the
process is called deep drawing when the work material is only de-
formed without any cutting. In either case, the magnitude of the punch
3
force depends on the mechanical properties of the work material and
its thickness. Stronger work materials require higher punch forces.
High punch forces generate extreme contact pressures between the die,
punch and work material that accelerate the surface damage and wear
of the die and punch. At critical locations such as punch corners or
edges, the contact pressures can be as high as 1 – 2 GPa [12]. Each time
a part has to be produced, the punch is subjected to a high pressure
sliding contact against work material. The surface damages of the
punch will be accelerated due to the severity of contact conditions and
failure of the punch due to wear, crack initiation and propagation may
occur [13].

Final product Final product

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Schematics of cold work sheet metal forming a) punching or blanking
and b) deep drawing.

3 Characterization of wear mechanisms

In the present research work, the surface damage characterization was
carried out by utilizing different surface investigation techniques. A
stereo microscope, Olympus CZH10, was used to study the surface
damages at low magnifications in the early stage of characterization. It
provided valuable information for the further damage characteriza-
tions at higher magnifications. A Light Optical Microscope (LOM),
Riechert-Jung Polyvar Met, was employed to study different phases of
the investigated materials. Polished and etched samples performed ac-
cording to the standardized sample preparation from Struers were used
for the metallography analysis in LOM. A high-resolution scanning
electron microscope (SEM), Leo 1530 FEG, equipped with Oxford EDX
INCA-sight system was employed to analyze the morphology of worn
4
surfaces and to characterize surface damages. Further, cross-sections
of worn surfaces were investigated by SEM to study the microstructural
response of worn surfaces to the application loads. Energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to identify the chemical composi-
tions of the investigated materials, identify material transfer and inves-
tigate chemical composition of tribolayer. A Vicker’s hardness tester
from Future Tech was used to study the hardness of the worn surfaces
and depth profile.

4 Surface damage mechanisms

Worn tools used in the field were investigated in order to identify the
typical damages of these tools, and to characterize the dominant wear
mechanisms. The wear characteristics of the worn tools were later com-
pared with the results from laboratory tests. The laboratory tests were
performed to simulate the wear mechanisms of tools encountered in
the field applications, and to rank materials tested under different con-
ditions.

4.1 Worn thread joints

Six threaded drill rods failed in the field were studied to characterize
wear mechanisms at the threaded surface. Each studied drill rod was
connected with a drill bit through a thread joint. Figure 3 shows the
cross-section of a typical thread joint that connects a threaded drill rod
with a threaded drill bit. From the cross-section, it is seen that the crest
of the external thread does not meet the exact location of the root of the
internal thread. Therefore, it seems like only one flank of each external
thread is in contact with the opposing flank of the internal thread. In
the present investigations, these two flank regions were defined as con-
tact and non-contact regions, Figure 3. The drill rods and drill bits were
made of a low alloy high strength steel, 22NiCrMo12-5F. The nominal
chemical composition of the material and its mechanical properties are
presented in the Tables 1 and 2. The threaded surfaces were soft ma-
chined and carburized by gas carburizing using (N2+CH3OH) atmos-
phere. The carburized threaded surfaces were quenched and tempered.
Final surface hardness was up to 700 HV with a case depth was of 1.2
mm. The carbon content at the carburized surface was around 0.6 wt%.

5
Figure 3: Cross-section of a typical thread joint connecting a drill rod with a drill
bit. The double arrow indicates the sliding contact direction between
threaded parts.

Table 1. Nominal chemical composition, weight %, of 22NiCrMo12-5F.

C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Al
0.20 0.30 0.70 0.02 0.02 1.30 2.95 0.25 0.03

Table 2. Mechanical properties of 22NiCrMo12-5F in hardened and tempered con-

dition.
Rp0.2, MPa Rm, MPa Z, % A5, % E, GPa v KV, J
1050 1300 58 11 210 0.3 40

In addition to the wear characterization of threaded surfaces, a detailed

study on failure mechanisms of two fractured drill rods was performed.
The idea was to identify the mechanisms that led to the failure initia-
tion. The selection of failed drill rods was based on the location of frac-
ture initiation. In drill rod 1, the failure initiation outside the thread
joint while drill in rod 2, it was inside the thread joint, Figure 4.

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Images of failed drill rods with failure initiation a) outside the thread
joint, drill rod 1, b) inside the thread joint, drill rod 2.

6
4.1.1 Thread joint wear
The investigation revealed that sliding wear occurred at the threaded
surfaces. The typical damages at worn threads were severe plastic de-
formation and adhesive wear, Figure 5. Severe plastic deformation at
the worn surface confirms the occurrence of high pressure sliding con-
tact between the connecting threaded surfaces. Surface delamination
was also observed at the worn surfaces.

(a) (b)
Figure 5: SEM images of a) typically worn morphology of a worn threaded rod
and b) higher magnification of the worn surface.

Cross-sections of the worn surfaces were studied by light optical and

scanning electron microscopy. It was revealed that the material be-
neath the worn surface was deformed and the microstructure was
changed. Surface cracking and cracks, in general, were frequent dam-
age observed at the studied cross-sections. In the LOM, the deformed
layer was white etching without any clear microstructural features, and
the white layer followed by a darker layer, Figure 6a. However, with the
SEM analysis, it was revealed that the deformed layer consisted of two
distinct regions named I and II in Figure 6b. In the very first layer be-
neath the worn surface, with a depth up to 20 µm, the microstructure
contained ultra-fine grains with grain size almost undepictable by
SEM. Beneath this nanostructured layer, there was a heavily deformed
layer with a depth up to 80 µm, region II. Note, the depth of the de-
formed layer was not the same along the worn surface.

7
 (a) (b)
Figure 6: A) LOM image showing the white etching layer, and b) SEM image show-
ing the depth of region I the nanostructured layer, Region II the plastically
deformed layer, and Region III unaffected material.

Hardness measurements were performed on the cross-sections of the

worn surfaces. Later, the hardness values were compared with the
hardness values of the cross-section of the unworn, non-contacting
surface. The unworn surface was the surface where it is assumed that
the loads are of a minimum. It was observed that the hardness of the
worn surface was elevated in a depth equivalent to the depth of the de-
formed layer. Moreover, the hardness of the worn surface was around
800 HV, and it decreased towards the depth of the material, Figure 7.

Figure 7: Hardness profiles of the worn surface, contact, and unworn surface, non-
contact.

8
4.1.2 Drill rods failure
The failed drill rods, drill rod 1 and drill rod 2, Figure 4, were investi-
gated to study the failure initiation mechanisms. It was found that both
drill rods were failed due to fatigue started at the outer surface of the
threaded rod. It was also observed that both drill rods were failed
through the initiation and propagation of multiple fatigue cracks. The
fatigue cracks were initiated at the surface and propagated into the sub-
surface material. As these cracks propagated, the adjacent fatigue
cracks merged and created larger cracks. The fatigue cracks propagated
until the final failure took place. For drill rod 1, the fatigue cracks were
initiated outside the thread joint. The side surface near the fracture sur-
face showed a high number of fatigue cracks. These cracks were initi-
ated from corrosion pits that were observed at the surface, Figure 8a.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8: SEM images of the side surface and cross-section near fracture surface,
a) drill rod 1, fatigue cracks initiated from corrosion pits, black rings mark
pits, b) cross-section near fracture surface, drill rod1, c) plastically de-
formed surface with fatigue cracks and pits, drill rod 2, cracks are indicated
by black arrows, d) cross-section near fracture surface. Double arrows in-
dicates the load direction.

Cross-section of the surface revealed cracks propagating from the cor-

rosion pits in a perpendicular direction to the impacting direction, Fig-
ure 8b. On the contrary, the failure of drill rod 2 initiated inside the
thread joint. The side surface near the fracture surface was worn and

9
plastically deformed as the result of sliding contact between threaded
surfaces, Figure 8c. Fatigue cracks were found at the worn surface. Fur-
ther, when the cross-section of the worn surface was studied, it was
found that the cracks were propagating perpendicular to the impacting
direction, Figure 8d.

4.2 Worn punches

Surface damage mechanisms of three worn punches were investigated.
The punches were cylindrical with a diameter of 9.8 mm and were used
to cut ultra-high-strength steel with a thickness of 1 mm. The punches
were made from a powder metallurgical tool steel, Vanadis 4 E, with
the chemical compositions presented in Table 3. The tool steel was
quenched and tempered to a hardness value of around 61 HRC. This
tool steel contained a relatively small and evenly dispersed hard phase
of carbides in a tempered martensitic matrix. The punching process
was performed by a semi-industrial punching test rig with a 15 000 kg
four-pillar eccentric press, manufactured by ESSATM. The die clearance
used for the investigated punches was 10%. Docol 1000 DP was used as
the work steel sheets. This dual-phase steel contain a uniform distribu-
tion of ferrite and martensite. The chemical composition of Docol 1000
DP is presented in Table 3. The steel sheet grade was used in two dif-
ferent surface conditions, uncoated and coated surfaces. The coated
surface was electro-galvanized and is designated as Docol 1000 DPZE.
The thickness of the coated layer was around 22 µm. One punch was
used against Docol 1000 DPZE under a lubricated condition with an
Eco lubricant. While the other two punches were used against the un-
coated Docol 1000 DP and in dry condition. During the punching, each
punch made 200 000 strokes without undergoing a catastrophic fail-
ure.
Table 3. Nominal chemical composition, weight %.
Steel grade C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo V P Al S Nb
Vanadis 4 E 1.4 0.4 0.4 4.7 2.95 3.5 3.7 - - - -
Doc.1000 DP 0.15 0.50 1.50 - - - - 0.01 0.04 0.002 0.015

4.2.1 Punch wear

The SEM investigation revealed that the dominant damage mecha-
nisms for all three punches were sliding wear and surface cracking. It
also revealed that the magnitude of the damage observed on the
punches was dependent on the type of the work material. It was ob-
served that the punch that was used against Docol 1000 DPZE was
worn more compared to the punches used against uncoated Docol 1000
DP sheets. Chipping around the cutting edge and fatigue cracks were
the most detrimental damages for the punch that used against Docol
1000 DPZE. Extensive material transfer from the work material to the
punch surface was also common for this punch. Besides, abrasive
10
scratches were found at the worn surface of the punch, Figure 9a. EDS
analysis showed that the transferred material on the punch side surface
contained a high amount of zinc transferred from the work material. A
cross-section of this punch was studied in SEM. It was seen that near
the cutting edge, fatigue cracks were propagated from the side surface
into the subsurface material, Figure 9b.

(a) (b)
Figure 9: SEM images showing surface damages of the punch used against DPEZ,
a) side surface of the punch and b) cross-section near the cutting edge.

The worn punches that were used against Docol 1000 DP showed quite
similar damage mechanisms. The worn morphology of these punches
consisted of two distinct regions, Figure 10a. The first region extended
from the cutting edge to 100 µm below. In this region, the dominant
wear mechanism was abrasive wear with abrasive scratches parallel to
the punching direction. The cross-section investigation of this punch
revealed that the tool material was removed from the punch surface
due to abrasion, Figure 10b. Below the abrasive region followed a sec-
ond region with dominantly adhesive wear. In this region, material
transfer from the working sheets to the tool surface was pronounced.
SEM analysis at higher magnification showed that this region was
slightly covered by adhered material transferred from the steel sheet,
Figure 10c. The adhered material was found to be sheared in a direction
parallel to the punching direction. Micro-abrasive scratches were also
detected in this region. Moreover, this region contained a large number
of surface cracks that were perpendicular to the punching direction,
Figure 10c.

11
 (a)

(b) (c)
Figure 10: SEM images showing surface damages of the punch used against un-
coated DP, a) side surface of the punch, b) cross-section near the cutting
edge and c) high magnification of the cracked surface in the adhesive re-
gion.

During punching, the punch presses the working material against the
die cavity. The press force deforms the working material plastically un-
til cracks are formed and rupture of working material occurred which
results in the penetration of the punch through the work material. As
the punch penetrates through the working material and moves back to
its initial position, sliding contact between the punch and the working
material takes place. This sliding contact commonly results in the ma-
terial transfer between them. Material transfer from one surface to an-
other during sliding contact is referred to as galling. The more material
is transferred to the punch surface, the higher the friction is between
the contacting surfaces. Additionally, high friction is related to high
shear stresses at the punch surface. Thus, the transferred material
changes the stress condition and generates a high tensile stress compo-
nent at the punch surface. Repeated punching gives rise to cyclic
stresses at the punch surface, and fatigue crack initiation and propaga-
tion may take place until failure. Note, the investigated punches were

12
made of tool steels that contain a martensitic matrix which is relatively
ductile comparing to an evenly distributed hard carbide phase. The
hard phase particles create stress discontinuities in the tool steel, and
during repeated punching localized accumulated strain damage
around the periphery of particles may lead to decohesion of particles
from the tool matrix. The particle decohesion presumably led to the
nucleation of cracks that later propagated during further punching.

5 The sliding wear test method

5.1 The SOFS test
A slider on a flat surface, SOFS, tribotester was used in the present
work, Figure 11. The SOFS wear tests involve sliding of a disc under
action of a normal load against a stationary flat surface. The disc is usu-
ally 10 mm thick with a double curvature shape with 25 mm and 10 mm
as major and minor radii, respectively. The minor radius can be varied
depending on the level of contact pressure needed between the disc and
the flat specimen. The sliding speed for the wear tests can be selected
in a range of 0.1 – 1 m/s. The normal load may vary between 20 – 1000
N. If long-distance wear tests are desired, a single sheet of 1 × 1.2 m2 in
size enables a test up to 1 km as a total sliding distance. During the wear
test, the disc is pressed against the sheet surface and forced to slide to
create a wear track. In all tests the disc is prevented from rotating. At
the end of each wear track, the disc is unloaded and removed from the
sheet surface. Then, the disc is moved back to its initial position and
moved aside by 1 – 2 mm to start a new wear track. The process is re-
peated until the desired total sliding distance is achieved. As another
option, it is possible to run wear tests in the same wear track. It is also
possible to run sliding wear tests with the SOFS in dry or lubricated
condition. During the sliding contact, the current coefficient of friction
between the disc and the sheet is recorded continuously. The coeffi-
cient of friction is the ratio between the friction force and normal load
µ = FT/FN. Both friction force and normal load are recorded simultane-
ously as a function of the sliding distance. Previously, the SOFS has
successfully been used to simulate the wear in sheet metal forming. It
provides sufficient information to rank different materials based on
their resistance to sliding wear, friction and also their sticking tendency
during sliding contact. In the present work, the SOFS was utilized to
simulate the wear mechanisms that occurred in rock drill thread joints
and punches used in cold work punching. Further, it was used to eval-
uate the wear characteristics of high strength steels used in thread
joint. Moreover, it was used to grade the galling resistance for different
tool steels used in punches.

13
 Figure 11: The SOFS tribotester configuration.

5.2 Calculation of contact pressures

In order to perform wear tests to simulate wear mechanisms for a spe-
cific application, the key tribological parameters typical for the appli-
cation have to be simulated under a controlled laboratory environment.
However, in real applications tribological systems are complex and
simulating all parameters affecting the system is nearly impossible. If
the wear mechanisms acting in a real system have to be simulated, then
at least the most crucial parameters influencing the system need to be
comparable to reality. In the present work, it was attempted to perform
wear tests under similar contact pressures encountered between con-
tacting surfaces in the thread joints used in rock drilling and punching
applications. From the case study on component surface damage, it was
revealed that the threaded surface underwent plastic deformation
when exposed to the sliding contact. The blanking punches deform and
penetrate through the high strength steel sheets. Thus, means the con-
tact pressures between the punch and the work material are high dur-
ing to fracture of the work material.
To determine contact pressures similar to the applications finite ele-
ment method (FEM) simulations were performed. The static contact
pressures between the disc and the flat surface for the tested materials
were calculated using analytical and numerical methods. The Hertzian
elastic contact theory was used for analytical calculations, while FEM
was used for numerical calculations. The disc and the flat specimen ma-
terials were modeled according to the tested material’s stress-strain
curve. The contact between the disc and the flat surface is symmetrical
and therefore only one-quarter part of the contact geometry was mod-
eled for the numerical calculations. The 3D model had the following
restrictions, face 1 and 2 in Fig. 12a for the disc and the flat surface had

14
their translation locked in the X- and Y-directions. The bottom face of
the flat surface was constrained in all X-, Y- and Z- directions. A coef-
ficient of friction (CoF) equal to 0.2 was assumed as the initial CoF be-
tween the contacting surfaces. The normal load was adjusted to a uni-
form distributed pressure and applied to the top surface of the disc seg-
ment, red arrows in Figure 12a. A C3D10 Element type with a 10-node
quadratic tetrahedron controlled hourglass shape was used. The mesh
was refined in the contact area, to approximately 0.2 mm, to obtain
higher precision of the contact pressure, Figure 12b.

(a) (b)
Figure 12: A) the 3D model used for numerical calculations and b) the distribution
of the mesh.

In the case of the thread joints contact simulation, the disc and plate
were modeled as elastic-plastic material with a strain hardening effect
according to the stress-strain behavior of the tested material. The con-
tact pressure calculations were performed with FEM calculations and
Hertzian elastic contact theory for elliptical contacts. Using a normal
load range between 20 - 700 N, the FEM calculations revealed that the
maximum static contact pressure was centered in the contact area and
it decreased as moving towards the circumferences, Figure 13a. All the
results were plotted against the corresponding normal loads in Figure
13b. At normal loads up to 300 N, only a small deviation was observed
between the two methods. The deviation became more pronounced
with increased normal load, Figure 13b. The equivalent plastic strain
(PEEQ) values obtained by FEM were plotted against the normal loads,
and the PEEQ value was zero up to 300 N and then increased with in-
creasing normal load. This means that the plastic deformation is initi-
ated at a normal load higher than 300 N. Moreover, the FEM calculated
width of the initial elliptical contact between the disc and the plate was
around 0.8 mm when a normal load of 500 N was applied. It was in
good agreement with the measured width during the experimental
tests, e.g. close to 0.72 mm.

15
 2500 0.0014

Maximum contact pressure [MPa]

Hertzian Abaqus PEEQ 0.0012
2000

Equivalent plastic strain

0.001

1500
0.0008

0.0006
1000

0.0004

500
0.0002

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Normal load [N]

(a) (b)

Figure 13: Calculations of the contact pressure, a) the distribution of contact

pressure for a normal load of 500 N obtained by numerical calculations
and b) equivalent plastic strain PEEQ and comparison between contact
pressures obtained numerically and analytically.

Static contact pressure calculations between the discs made of a tool

steel and the sheets were performed numerically by FEM to calculate
the obtained contact pressure between the surfaces. Here, the disc was
modeled as an elastic material with an elastic modulus of 236 GPa. The
sheet material was modeled as an elastic-plastic material with a work
hardening effect according to its stress-strain curve. The sheet materi-
als used in these calculations were an AHSS 1180 CP and an austenitic
stainless steel EN-1.4031, designated as CP and SS, respectively. Evi-
dently, the deformation hardening in the contact following the onset of
plastic deformation is much greater in the case of CP than with SS
sheets, Figure 14.

2.5
Tool steel vs CP
Maximum contact pressure [MPa]

2 Tool steel vs SS

1.5

0.5

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Normal load [N]

Figure 14: The numerically calculated contact pressures as a function of the nor-
mal load when an elastic disc is pressed against CP and SS sheets.

16
6 Thread joint wear sliding simulations
The SOFS test was used to simulate thread joint wear and to investigate
the typical damage mechanisms occurred in the case study performed
for the worn thread joints.

6.1 Material
The specimens used for simulations of thread joint wear were discs and
plates made of high strength steel with a high hardenability,
22NiCrMo12-F. The chemical composition and the typical mechanical
properties of this steel grade are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Nominal chemical composition, wt. %, and nominal mechanical proper-
ties of the core steel grade 22NiCrMo12-F.
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Al Rp0.2* MPa Rm MPa
0.20 0.30 0.70 0.02 0.02 1.30 2.95 0.25 0.03 1050 1500
* Rp0.2. and Rm are the proof strength and the ultimate strength of the tested material, respectively.

(a) (b)

Figure 15: a) the microstructure of the case hardened layer at 0.5 mm depth and
b) the hardness profile from the hardened surface into the core material of
the steel grade 22NiCrMo12-F.

The plates’ geometry were 600 mm in length, 100 mm in width and 10

mm in thickness. The discs and plates were carburized in a carbon-rich
atmosphere (N2 + CH3OH) followed by water quenching and temper-
ing. The microstructure of the case hardened layer is presented in Fig-
ure 15a. According to the manufacturer, the carbon content at the sur-
face of the case hardened layer was up to 0.6 wt. %. The carburized case
depth was around 1.2 mm with a surface hardness up to 720 HV and
the core hardness was around 450 HV, Figure 15b. The carburizing pro-
cess resulted in the formation of about 15 µm thick oxide layer at the
top surface of treated specimens. The specimens were tested under two
different surface conditions, as-delivered and ground surface condi-
tions. The as-delivered specimens were tested with the oxide layer.
17
Whereas, the specimens tested with the ground surface had its oxide
layer removed by manual grinding to a metal shine surface. Although,
the metal surface was obtained, the oxide layer was not removed com-
pletely and a thin discontinues layer up to 5 µm still was observed when
cross-sections of the ground surface were studied. The ground surface
specimens had Ra roughness values around 0.51 µm and 0.8 µm for
discs and plates, respectively. The specimens tested in as-delivered sur-
face condition had Ra roughness values around 0.65 µm and 7.7 µm for
discs and plates, respectively.

6.2 Wear tests

The characterization of worn thread joints revealed that plastic defor-
mation and severe sliding wear of the surface material were the domi-
nant wear mechanisms. Before the wear tests, the initial static contact
pressure between the disc and the plate was calculated, at different nor-
mal loads, analytically and numerically. For the simulation of thread
joints wear, reciprocal and unidirectional sliding modes between discs
and plates were selected. The tests were performed under dry contact
condition. The tests involved pressing the disc against the plate surface
with a preselected normal load, FN, and forcing it to slide with a con-
stant sliding speed of 0.3 m/s. The selected stroke length was 150 mm.
The sliding contact between the disc and the plate was repeated in the
same track until the predetermined total sliding distance was achieved.
For the reciprocal sliding contact, the disc was pressed against the plate
surface and slid forward and backward in the same wear track. While,
for the unidirectional sliding contact, the disc was pressed and slid
against the plate and until the end of the stroke. Subsequently, the disc
was removed from the plate surface and moved back to its starting po-
sition to start a new sliding stroke in the same track. Normal loads were
selected at 100, 300 and 500 N, and at each normal load three different
sliding distances of 100, 200 and 300 m were run. The normal load
range selected here ensures running wear tests at elastic initial contact
at 100 N and elastic-plastic initial contact at 500 N. The sliding dis-
tances were chosen so as to obtain a significant wear damage. The in-
stantaneous coefficient of friction between the discs and plates for each
test was studied and analyzed.

6.3 Results and discussion

The observed CoF as a function of sliding distance for all tests showed
similar features. The coefficient of friction curve consisted mainly of
three distinct regions running-in, increasing friction and steady-state
friction. The running-in region was relatively short with low CoF com-
pared to the increasing and steady-state friction regions. The running-
in CoF values for all tests were around 0.2 – 0.3. Note, the thickness of
the oxide layer did not show any significant influence on CoF in the
18
running-in region. Hence, the running-in CoF were similar for as-de-
livered and ground specimens. However, it was found that the running-
in region for the unidirectional tests performed at low normal load, 100
N, was relatively long compared to the tests performed at higher nor-
mal loads. The CoF in the running-in region was governed by defor-
mation and removal of surface asperities on the oxide layer. Higher
normal loads accelerated the flattening and removal of the surface as-
perities, and thus shorter running-in regions at higher normal loads
[3,4]. The running-in region was followed by increasing friction region
were CoF increased to higher values around 4.5 to 7.5. In this region,
the CoF was likely governed by adhesive wear and formation of wear
debris between contacting surfaces. Further, CoF reached the steady-
state region at which no remarkable change in friction values was ob-
served. In this region, it was assumed that the CoF values were depend-
ent on the interfacial shear strength between contacting surfaces. The
steady-state friction region for all tests was the longest region among
the CoF different regions. The mean value of the CoF at the steady-state
region for each test was plotted against the normal load and sliding dis-
tance and presented as diagrams, Figuer 16.

Figure 16: The influence of the normal load and sliding distance on the CoF, a)
as-delivered surface, reciprocal sliding, b) as-delivered surface, unidirec-
tional sliding, c) ground surface, reciprocal sliding and d) ground surface,
unidirectional sliding.
The diagrams indicate that the mean value of CoF at the steady-state
region was strongly dependent on normal loads. Despite the surface
condition or type of motion, it was observed that the mean value of CoF
19
at the steady-state region decreased with an increase in normal load.
For tests conducted at 100 N, the mean value was around 0.7 whereas
the mean value was around 0.45 for the tests performed at 500 N. Plas-
tic deformation obtained at the contacting surfaces due to high normal
loads presumably influenced the friction values. The influence of con-
tact pressures on the CoF of steels in sliding contact has also been in-
vestigated by others [3,14-16]. It has been reported that the CoF de-
creases with increased normal loads due to factors such as plastic de-
formation, work hardening and grain refinement of the surface mate-
rial.

The SEM analysis showed that the tested surfaces were worn down due
to sliding contact. It was revealed that the disc surface damage had a
clear dependence on the normal load rather than on the type of motion.
At low normal load, 100 N, the worn morphology of the tested speci-
mens was typical for mild adhesive wear. The wear damage consisted
mainly of removal of the oxide layer and flattening of the surface asper-
ities. With increased normal load, a remarkable transition in surface
damage mechanisms from mild wear to severe wear was observed. The
damage was similar for the discs despite the surface condition or the
type of sliding contact. As the normal load increased, the dominant sur-
face damage mechanisms became plastic deformation, severe adhesive
wear, and surface delamination. For the tests conducted at 500 N, plas-
tic deformation and surface delamination were observed at the worn
surface of all discs, Figures 17a and 17b.
The morphology of the worn surface of the plates was found to be de-
pendent on both the type of motion and the type of motion. For the as-
delivered plates tested at low load, 100 N, it was found that the oxide
layer at the wear track transformed into a more flattened and dense
layer when the surface was tested under unidirectional sliding contact.
Whereas, when the surface was tested at reciprocal sliding contact, the
oxide layer showed a rougher surface. During sliding contact, the oxide
layer was sheared along the sliding direction. As the disc slid recipro-
cally, the oxide layer sheared in both directions during each stroke.
This behavior resulted in a rougher surface of the wear track. Note, that
the oxide layer remained in the wear track when the surface was tested
at the lowest normal load and shortest sliding distance, 100 N and 100
m, respectively. With increased sliding distance removal of the oxide
layer occurred. Similarly to the discs, as the normal load increased se-
vere wear of the plates was observed. These damage mechanisms were
mainly plastic deformation, cracking and delamination of the surface
material and they were rather independent on the type of motion or
surface condition.

However, SEM analysis showed that the surface delamination on the

discs’ worn surface was more pronounced than that observed for the
20
plates. The reason was that for each test the disc’s contact surface was
the same during the entire test, and during sliding it was subjected to a
constant normal load. During sliding between the disc and the plate,
the generated surface shear stresses due to sliding friction result in
strains at and beneath the worn surfaces [17,18]. In the present tests,
the resulted strains accumulated and promoted the initiation of cracks
at and beneath the worn surface. Further sliding resulted in crack prop-
agation that in turn led to the delamination of surface material. For the
plates, the surface material at the wear track in each point was exposed
to the loading conditions only once during each time the disc slid along
the wear track. Therefore, surface delamination for the plates was less
pronounced, Figures 17c and 17d.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 17: Typical wear morphology of the tested steel surface, 22NiCrMo12-f, un-
der dry sliding at 500 N and 300 m, a) disc surface after reciprocal sliding,
b) disc surface after unidirectional contact, c) plate surface after reciprocal
contact and d) plate surface after unidirectional contact. The arrows indi-
cate sliding direction. Dashed rings indicate surface delamination for discs.

In order to investigate the influence of the type of motion on wear char-

acteristics of the tested steel, the worn volume removed from the plates
was measured. The worn volume for each test was measured by the 3D
profilometer and was plotted against the wear load, i.e. the product of
normal load and sliding distance, Figure 18. It was difficult to accu-
rately quantify the differences between reciprocal and unidirectional
sliding contact in terms of worn volume, ∆V. For the wear load of

21
150×103 N×m, the worn volume after reciprocal sliding contact was
around 25 – 35 % larger than the worn volume after unidirectional slid-
ing for the same wear load. The worn volume diagram indicated that
the reciprocal sliding contact for all tests resulted in higher worn vol-
ume compared to that for unidirectional sliding contact. This trend was
observed for both surface conditions, as-delivered and ground sur-
faces.

Figure 18: Worn volume as a function of the wear load, normal load x sliding dis-
tance. A is as-delivered reciprocal sliding, B is as-delivered unidirectional
sliding, C is ground, reciprocal sliding and D in ground, unidirectional slid-
ing.

Cross-sections of the worn plates were investigated to further study the

influence of the type of motion on wear characteristics of the tested
steel. Hardness measurements were performed on the cross-section of
the tests conducted at 500 N. The hardness profiles were taken starting
from the worn surface down into the subsurface material. The hardness
profile for the unidirectional test indicated an increase in the hardness
values near the worn surface, Figure 19. Contrary to unidirectional slid-
ing, no increase in hardness values observed for reciprocal sliding tests.
A reduction in hardness was observed close to the worn surface.

22
Figure 19: Hardness profiles of the worn surfaces tested at 500 N and 300 m, C
corresponds the reciprocal sliding test and D corresponds the unidirec-
tional sliding test.

Further, the etched cross-sections were studied in the SEM to investi-

gate the subsurface material response to the testing loads. The SEM
analysis showed that for both types of motions, a plastically deformed
layer due to sliding contact was formed beneath the worn surfaces.
Also, subsurface cracks were observed in the deformed layer. However,
some differences in dependence on the type of motion were noted. Sub-
surface cracks found after the unidirectional contact were at a shallow
depth and the deformed layer consisted of two distinct regions. The
first region was the very surface layer and had a depth around 5 – 7 µm,
Figure 20a. In this region, the grains were ultra-fine to be distinguished
using SEM. It looked like the original grains were deformed and elon-
gated parallel to the sliding contact. This region appeared bright and
featureless in the light optical microscope. The second region was be-
neath the ultra-fine grained region with a depth of 30 – 50 µm. In this
region, the original grains were deformed and bent along the direction
of sliding. The deformed grains were much larger compared to the
grains in the first region. For the reciprocal sliding contact, the subsur-
face cracks were found at a larger depth. Moreover, more cracks were
found for reciprocal sliding contact compared to that for unidirectional
sliding contact. In addition, the deformed region containing ultra-fine
grains was thicker for reciprocal sliding contact. At the same time, the
total depth of the deformed layer beneath the worn surface was found
smaller for reciprocal sliding contact when compared with a unidirec-
tional sliding contact, Figure 20b. Similar behavior for martensitic
steels in dry contact has been observed in other studies [19-23]. It has
been reported that the shear strain profile for dry sliding contact de-
creases sharply with an increased depth into the subsurface material.
The highest shear strains are obtained at the very surface layer. During
repeated contact, the shear strains result in plastic deformation of the

23
surface material. The surface material response to the shear strains is
strengthening throughout grain refinement and work hardening. As
the surface is work-hardened, the plastically deformed region grows
into the subsurface material. In the present work, for the unidirectional
sliding contact, as the material is sheared in one direction presumably
the plastically deformed material continued further down into the sub-
surface during repeated sliding. Whereas, for the reciprocal sliding re-
versed plastic deformation was encountered in the surface and subsur-
face material. This promoted the initiation of a larger number of cracks.
The cracks obtained in reciprocal tests could be the reason for the re-
duced hardness close to the worn surface. Probably, the cracks served
as voids at the surface and influenced the hardness values.

(a) (b)
Figure 20: SEM images of the cross-sections of the worn surfaces tested at 500 N
and 300 m, a) unidirectional sliding and b) reciprocal sliding. The arrows
indicate sliding direction of the disc.

7 Punch wear sliding simulations

The SOFS test was used to simulate punch wear and to investigate the
typical damage mechanisms occurred in the case study performed for
the worn punches.

7.1 Materials
Two high-alloyed powder metallurgical tool steels, Vancron 40 (V40)
and Vanadis 8 SuperClean (V8) were used for simulations of punch
wear. The microstructure of these tool steels contained a fine and
evenly distributed hard phase in the steel matrix, Figures 21a and 21b.
The chemical compositions and the hardness values of these tool steels
are given in Table 5. V40 contained two different types of hard phase,
M6C carbides, the bright phase, and MCN carbonitrides, the dark
phase. V8, on the other hand, had only MC carbides in the steel matrix.
The volume fraction of each hard phase was calculated by ThermoCalc
analysis and is presented in Table 5.

24
 (a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 21: The microstructure of the tested material, a) V40 with bright M6C and
dark MCN particles, b) V8 with MC, c) SS, d) CP-UC and e) CP-EG with EG
Zn layer.

Table 5: Chemical composition wt%, hardness and vol% of the hard phase of the
investigated tool steels.
Mn Mo C N Cr Si V W HV50 M6 C MCN MC Tot
V40 0.4 3.2 1.1 1.8 4.5 0.5 8.5 3.7 825 6 14 - 20
V8 0.4 3.6 2.3 .05 4.8 0.4 8.0 - 750 - - 15 15

In order to evaluate the wear characteristics of the tested tool steels,

two different sheet materials were used, an AHSS 1180 CP (CP) with
complex phase structure and an EN-1.4031 austenitic stainless steel
grade (SS). Figures 21c and 21d show the microstructure of the tested
sheets SS and CP, respectively. The SS contained only an austenitic
phase. Whereas, the CP steel sheet had a fine microstructure with mar-
tensitic, ferritic and bainitic phases. It was used in two different surface
conditions, the uncoated CP-UC and the electro-galvanized sheet with
an 8 µm thick zinc layer, CP-EG, Figure 21e. The chemical composi-
tions and selected mechanical properties of the sheet materials are pre-
sented in Table 6.
Table 6: Chemical composition wt%, mechanical properties and surface roughness
of the sheet materials.
C Si Cr Mn Al Ti Ni B Rp0.2,MPa A80% HV50
CP 0.23 2.0 0.1 3.0 2.0 0.15 - 0.005 900 7 354
SS 0.04 - 18.1 - - - 8.1 - 230 45 178

25
7.2 Wear tests
The galling characteristics of the tool steels were evaluated using the
SOFS tribotester. The discs were made of tool steels and had a double
curvature shape with major and minor radii of 25 and 10 mm, respec-
tively. The discs were polished to a surface finish of Ra <0.06 μm. The
galling tests performed in this study simulated the sliding contact con-
dition between the punch side surface and the working material. Prior
to the testing, the sheets were carefully wiped. The tests were con-
ducted by applying a normal load FN to the disc and forcing it to slide
against the sheet surface. All tests were performed at room temperature
under dry reciprocating sliding contact with a stroke length of 150 mm
and a sliding speed of 0.3 m/s. When one sliding stroke, forward and
backward, was performed, the disc moved 3 mm in the side direction
to start with a subsequent stroke. The process was repeated until the
predetermined total sliding distance, 135 m, was achieved. The CoF for
each test was monitored and associated with the galling initiation of
the tests.

7.3 Results and discussion

The starting CoF value was low and stable for all the tested sheets, and
after sliding a certain distance the CoF increased to higher values for
SS and CP-UC sheets. For the SS sheets, the CoF started at a low value
of around 0.15 and it increased to significantly higher values with an
increase in sliding distance. Similarly, the starting CoF for CP-UC sheet
was about 0.15 – 0.2 and it increased with increasing sliding distance.
However, the observed distance for the CoF to reach high and unstable
values was found to be strongly dependent on the steel grade of the
sheet. Also, the CoF curves indicated that the friction level in the region
where the CoF was high was also dependent on the sheet steel grade,
Figure 22. It is observed that the CoF increased immediately to a high
value around 1.2 when V40 was tested against the SS sheet, but when
V40 was tested against CP-UC the CoF increased after 27 m of sliding
contact to a highest observed value around 0.8. When the V40 steel was
tested against CP-EG sheets the CoF remained on a low level during the
entire test independently of the magnitude of the normal load used for
the tests.

26
 2
Vancron 40 vs SS, 200 N
Vancron 40 vs CP-UC, 600 N
Vancron 40 vs CP-EG, 1000 N

Coefficient of friction
1.5

Galling
1

0.5

0
0 30 60 90 120 150
Sliding distance [m]

Figure 22: CoF curves as a function of sliding distance, for Vancron 40 sliding
against SS, CP-UC and CP-EG sheets.

In the present work, the distance that was needed for the CoF of each
test to reach high and unstable values was denoted as the critical sliding
distance to galling. As the disc slid against the sheet surface, material
transfer from the sheet surface to the disc occurred. The transferred
material changed the surface condition of the disc and hence higher
friction was obtained between the disc and the sheet.

In order to get a correlation between galling and the contact pressures,

a galling diagram was plotted. The diagram is a summary of the critical
sliding distances to galling for all tests plotted against the correspond-
ing contact pressure, Figure 23. The arrows presented in the diagram
indicate the run out of the test without the occurrence of galling. The
critical sliding distance to galling decreased with increased contact
pressure. The influence of contact pressure on the galling properties of
tools steels has been studied elsewhere [24-26], and it is believed that
sliding contact at high contact pressures generates high shear stresses
at the interface. The high shear stresses result in a material flow and
promote material transfer to the countersurface. Therefore, galling is
achieved more rapidly at high contact pressures. The diagram also
showed that the critical sliding distance is dependent on the combina-
tion of sheet material and tool steel. For the tests performed at approx-
imately the same contact pressure, the critical sliding distance for CP-
UC was around three orders of magnitude higher compared to that for
SS sheets. The SS is a much softer material compared to the CP-UC and
the SS has a higher sticking tendency to the countersurface [26]. Thus,
SS is more easily transferred to the disc surface.

27
 2500
V40 vs CP-UC

Maximum contact pressure [MPa]

V40 vs SS
2000 V40 vs CP-EG
V8 vs CP-UC
V8 vs SS
1500
V8 vs CP-EG

1000

500

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Critical sliding distance to galling [m]

Figure 23: The critical sliding distance to galling as a function of maximum con-
tact pressure between the disc and the sheet. Arrows indicate test run-out
without occurrence of galling.

In the present work, the influence of the tool steel microstructure on

the critical sliding distance to galling was more pronounced at lower
contact pressures. It was noted that V40 had better resistance to galling
at lower contact pressures. Nevertheless, at higher contact pressures
the influence of tool steel on galling in the present work was less pro-
nounced and both tool steels, V40 and V8, were observed to have sim-
ilar resistance to galling. Earlier studies have observed experimentally
that the size, volume fraction and distribution of hard phase particles
in the tool steel matrix have a significant influence on galling resistance
[27,28]. It has been reported that the fine particles with a higher vol-
ume fraction and probably shorter distance between particles in the
matrix gave better resistance of the tool steel to material transfer and
galling initiation. This is in good agreement with the present results for
the tests performed at low contact pressure, V40 with a higher volume
fraction of the hard phase showed better resistance to galling. However,
as the contact pressure increased the trend was less pronounced.

SEM analysis confirmed the occurrence of material transfer to the disc

surface. For the tests that reached galling, the disc worn surface was
covered by adhered material. Similar behavior was found on the worn
discs when tested against SS and CP-UC sheets. It was found that the
dominant wear mechanism for the tested tool steels, when the test
reached galling, was the extensive material transfer, Figure 24. During
sliding contact, the transferred material accumulated at the disc sur-
face. Further sliding, required higher shear stresses to overcome the
frictional forces between the disc and the sheet.

28
 (a) (b)
Figure 24: SEM images showing the worn surface of the discs after the occurrence
of galling, a) V40 and b) V8. The test parameters were 500 N and 135 m as
normal load and sliding distance, respectively. The arrows indicate sliding
direction.

For the sliding tests against CP-EG sheets, no significant material

transfer to the discs was observed. Only a thin layer formed from iron
and zinc was observed at the worn surface when it was studied by EDS.
The worn discs tested against CP-UC and CP-EG were investigated by
3D profilometer to obtain a qualitative comparison between them with
regards to the material transfer. It was noted that the worn surface of
the disc tested at 400 N against the CP-EG sheet was relatively smooth
after sliding 400 strokes at 120 m. Moreover, the worn surface con-
tained many abrasive scratches due to the sliding wear between the
contacting surfaces, Figure 25a. On the contrary, for the disc tested at
the same test conditions but against CP-UC, the worn surface was con-
siderably rougher and it was covered by adhered material, Figure 25b.
The adhered material changed the surface quality of the discs and had
a substantial influence on the wear tracks created at the sheet surface.
At the beginning of each test, the disc surface was well polished. There-
fore, the depth of the wear tracks at the very beginning was dependent
on the normal load and the properties of sheet material. However, with
an increasing number of sliding strokes, more and more material was
transferred to the disc surface the deeper the wear tracks became. The
depth of the wear tracks of the CP-UC and CP-EG sheets after 400
strokes and at 400 N was investigated using a 3D profilometer. The
wear track profiles revealed that for the CP-UC, the worn depth was 15
µm deep whereas for the CP-EG the depth was around 3 µm, Figure
25c.

29
 10
V40 vs CP-UC at 400 N
5 V40 vs CP-EG at 400 N

Worn depth [µm]

0

-5

-10

-15

-20
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5

Worn width [mm]

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 25: Worn surface of the discs made of V40 and tested against a) CP-EG and
b) CP-UC, and c) shows the worn depths at the CP-EG and CP-UC sheet
surface formed due to the sliding contact.

The worn surface morphology of the wear track on the CP-UC consisted
of deep ploughing and plastically deformed material. However, the
worn surface morphology of the CP-EG consisted of shallow abrasive
scratches, Figure 26a.
The SEM-EDS analysis of the CP-EG sheets revealed that the zinc layer
was not completely removed from the surface even when it was tested
at high normal loads, up to 1000 N, Figures 26b and 26c. Only, partial
removal of the coating layer was observed in wear tracks.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 26: a) SEM image of the wear scratch formed at the CP-EG sheet tested at
700 N, b) and c) show the Fe and Zn content at the wear scratch, respec-
tively.

30
8 Summary and conclusions
In the present thesis, surface damages of thread joints, used in rock
drilling, and punches, used in sheet metal forming, were studied. The
contact surface of these components was subjected to repeated sliding
contact under severe contact conditions. Wear of the thread joint and
punch wear was simulated by sliding wear testing under dry conditions
using the SOFS.
The investigation of the thread joints showed that the threaded sur-
faces were severely deformed to a depth of about 100 µm due to sliding
contact. It also showed that the studied drill rods failed through fatigue
with the failure initiation started from the surface damage. Two differ-
ent failure initiation mechanisms were observed. The first mechanism
was dominant at the outer surface located outside of the thread joint,
and there the initiation of fatigue cracks from the corrosion pits was
observed. The second failure mechanism was initiated inside the
thread joint by wear induced surface cracking. As the surface was sub-
jected to a repeated high-pressure sliding contact, the surface material
was plastically deformed. The high-pressure sliding contact resulted in
high shear stresses at and beneath the worn surface. The generated
shear stresses resulted in large deformation strains that accumulated
in the surface material. It caused grain refinement, work hardening of
the surface material, and accumulation of defects in the near worn sur-
face that led to an increased surface hardness and crack initiation. The
initiated cracks propagated during further drilling and resulted in the
failure of the drill rod.
The case study about the worn punches showed that adhesive wear was
the most dominant surface damage. Frictional forces between the
punch and work material were obtained increased due to the trans-
ferred material. High friction was related to high shear stresses and
therefore material transfer changed the stress condition at the punch
surface. Repeated punching gave rise to cyclic stresses at the punch sur-
face, and fatigue crack initiation and propagation took place. The crack
propagation resulted in a local failure of the cutting edge. The case
study together with the sliding wear simulations for thread joints and
punches led to the following conclusions:

31
 The dominant wear mechanisms for the investigated thread
joints were severe plastic deformation, adhesive and surface
cracking.
 The drill rods failed due to initiation and propagation of multiple
fatigue cracks. The fatigue cracks were initiated at the surface ei-
ther from the corrosion pits or from the heavily deformed surface
layer. The crack initiation mechanism was dependent on the lo-
cation of the initiation site.
 Similar wear mechanisms, observed on the worn thread joints,
were obtained when sliding tests by the SOFS were performed on
the 22NiCrMo12-5F steel grade. It is assumed that the SOFS is
applicable for wear simulations of thread joints used in rock
drilling.
 Large shear forces due to high friction between the contacting
surfaces where obtained when dry sliding tests were performed.
It resulted in deformation strains at the worn surfaces. The worn
surface work-hardened with repeated straining and the region of
deformation extended into the subsurface material. The depth of
the deformed layer was dependent on the loading conditions
such as the normal load and type of motion mode. It increased
with increasing normal load.
 The deformed layer consisted of two distinct regions. The first
region was a nanostructured layer while the second region con-
sisted of a heavily deformed material with bent martensite laths.
Fatigue cracks observed in the deformed layer. Presumably,
cracks were initiated at the interface between region I and region
II.
 The crack initiation mechanism during sliding contact is de-
pendent on the microstructure of the worn surface. For the worn
punches it is assumed that cracks initiated from the periphery of
the metallic carbides due to the decohesion of carbides from the
tool matrix. Whereas for the 22NiCrMo12-5F, fatigue cracks ini-
tiated beneath the worn surface.
 The sliding wear tests performed on the tool steels V40 and V8
showed that the CoF increased quickly to a significant high level
when a sufficient amount of work material transferred to the disc
surface. High frictional forces are associated with the high shear

32
stresses that resulted in strain accumulation during repeated
contact.

33
Future work
Questions that are yet to be answered regarding severe sliding wear are
suggested as recommendations for the future studies

 The present work showed that severe plastic deformation occurs

at the threaded surfaces used for the connection of rock drill rods
due to sliding contact. As the result of this deformation a
nanostructured layer is formed. It is of interest to investigate the
nanostructured layer with the aids of electron backscatter dif-
fraction. To assess whether the wear induced nano-grains obtain
a preferable crystallographic orientation or not. Is the crystallo-
graphic orientation of the nanostructured layer similar in differ-
ent steel grades?
 It is also of interest to investigate by transmission electron dif-
fraction the orientation and arrangement of the deformation in-
duced dislocations in the deformed layer.
 The present work showed also that wear has a significant influ-
ence on the lifetime of the components subjected to cyclic loads.
Studying the influence of wear induced surface damage on fa-
tigue life of steel grades used in thread joints is of interest. It
yields an understanding of the synergetic effect of wear and fa-
tigue. In order to fulfil this task, fatigue samples with a surface
damage produced by SOFS under controlled test parameters will
be tested and compared with similar fatigue samples but without
any surface damages.
 Regarding the studied tool steels, the present work was focused
on the stage where galling due to sliding contact between the tool
steel and work material was reached. An interesting study will be
investigation of damage mechanisms of tool steels at critical con-
tact conditions e.g. continuing sliding tests under high friction
without stopping it when galling is occurred.

34
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36
A study on wear characteristics of high
strength steels under sliding contact
Components used in rock drilling and sheet metal forming operate under harsh
contact conditions that result in an early-life component failure. Wear and fatigue
are considered as the most common damage mechanism for these components.
Commonly, the service life of a component is designed based on its fatigue life.
However, wear might have a significant effect on the components life too. Wear
results in a surface damage that in turn may cause a fatigue crack initiation.
Therefore, knowledge about wear of materials and components is a key factor
in design and prediction of the lifetime of the components. In order to predict
wear of a certain component, a thorough understanding of the component with
regards to its material properties, application loads and working environment,
and damage mechanisms is required. The overall aim of the present work was to
define the typical wear mechanisms occurred on machinery components used
in rock drilling and sheet metal forming. A comparative analysis of the case
studies and results from performed laboratory tests simulated wear mechanisms
in the applications highlighted wear mechanisms and factors influencing severity
of wear in the applications. Obtained information is crucial for ranking and
selection of the best material in the applications.

ISBN 978-91-7867-112-0 (print)

ISBN 978-91-7867-117-5 (pdf)

ISSN 1403-8099

LICENTIATE THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2020:18