Unit: 2

Classification of rock

Stone( ढुङ्गा) चट्टान rock बाट प्राप्त हुन्छ्न हरूलाई ननम्न तीन
तरिकामा वगीकृत गरियको छ|

1. Geological classification प्राकृनतकको आधािमा वगीकिण

2. Physical classification भौनतक वगीकिणको आधािमा

3. Chemical classification िासायननक वगीकिणको आधािमा

1) Geological classification
On the process of formation, rocks are classified as a) igneous rocks
b)sedimentary rocks c) metamorphic rocks
A)Igneous Rocks: These are the rocks formed by cooling of
magma or lava above the earth surface is called igneous rock .
These rocks are strong and durable
i)Volcanic rocks
Which are formed on Cooling of magma at earth’s surface is
called volcanic rock.
Examples: Basalt and trap.
ii)Hypahyssal rocks
Cooling of magma at shallow depth
Examples: Quartz, dolerite and gneiss.
iii)Plutonic rocks
Cooling of magma at considerable depth – very strong and
crystalline structure.
Examples: Granite and dolerite

B) Sedimentary rocks
Types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface
and within bodies of water is called sedimentary rock . It is formation by erosion,
Weathering deposition, Transportation, Diagenesis .
Example sandstones, mudstones, lime stones.

C) Metamorphic Rocks: These are the rocks formed after igneous rocks
and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to pressure, heat and chemical
actions. These rocks have foliated structure.
For example:
• Granite becomes gneiss.
• Basalt changes to schist and laterite
• Limestone changes to marble
• Mudstone becomes slate.
2) Physical classification
Based on the structure, rocks may be classified as stratified, unstratified and
foliated rocks

(a) Stratified Rocks:

They have layered structure. Examples Sandstones, limes tones mud-stones.
(b) Unstratified Rocks:
They possess crystalline and compact grains. Examples: Granite, trap, marble.
(c) Foliated Rocks
 They have foliated structure. Along the planes of foliation they split easily
These planes are not parallel to each other

3. Chemical classificati
(a) Siliceous Rocks
Main constituent is silica. These rocks are hard and durable. Examples:
Granite, trap, sandstone
(b) Argillaceous Rocks
Clay is the main constituent. These rocks are brittle. They cannot withstand
shock. Examples: Slate, laterite
(C) Calcareous Rocks
Calcium carbonate is the main constituent. Examples: Limestone, marble

Masonry Works

Masonry is used to indicate the art of building a structure in either stones or bricks. The masonry
wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as stones, bricks, concrete, hollow blocks,
cellular concrete and laterite, usually in horizontal courses cemented together with some form of
mortar. The binding strength of mortar is usually disregarded as far as the strength of the wall is
concerned.

Masonry can be classified into the following categories:

1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hollow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry

1.Stone masonry
The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone masonry where
the stones are available in a abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to the proper
shape, they provide an economical material for the construction of various building
components such as walls, columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.

Types of stone masonry

a) Rubble masonry
In rubble masonry, the blocks of stones that are used are either undressed or
comparatively roughly dressed. The masonry has wide joints since stones of irregular
size are used.
i) Random rubble
• Un-coursed

Fig Stone masonary wall

It is the roughest and the cheapest form of stonewalling. Since stones are not of uniform
shape and size, they are arranged with great care so as to distribute pressure over the
maximum area and at the same time avoid long vertical joints

Course

Fig Uncoursed and Built to course It is similar to un-coursed except

that the work is roughly leveled up to form courses 30 to 45 cm
thick.

ii) Square rubble

• Un-coursed

Stones having straight beds and sides are arranged in an irregular pattern to give a
good appearance and avoid the formation of long, continuous joints.

• Built to course

Stones having straight bed and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying depth.

• Regular course

fig Uncourced built on course Regular coursed

Stones having straight beds and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying depth
but the height of stones in each course is the same.
iii) Miscellaneous type rubble
. Polygonal rubble masonry

In this type, stones are hammer finished on the face to an irregular polygonal shape.

If stones are roughly shaped to form rough fitting, such a work is called rough picked
work. If stones are carefully shaped to form close fitting such a work is called close-
picked work.

Flint rubble masonry

In this type the main material is “flints or cobbles” and is used that have vary in width
and thickness from 7.5 cm to 15 cm and length vary from 15 cm to 30cm . The stones
are extremely bard but brittle.

Fig Polygonal Rubble Flint Rubble masonry

the strength of such walls can be increased using a lacing course of thin long stones or

bricks at 1 to 2m vertical intervals.

iv) Dry rubble masonry

In this masonry, as the name suggests the mortar is not used in the joints, therefore it is
the cheapest but more skilled manpower is required in construction. The use of the dry
rubble masonry is for non-load bearing walls like compound walls.

b) Ashlar masonry
In ashlar masonry, square or rectangular blocks that are used are dressed and have an
extremely fine bed and end joints.

i) Ashlar fine tooled

i) Ashlar fine tooled

It is the finest stone masonry. The beds, joints, and faces of the stones are chisel
dressed to remove all unevenness and obtain perfectly horizontal and vertical joints.
ii) Ashlar rough tooled
The beds and sides are finely chisel dressed but the exposed face is dressed by rough
tooling.

iii) Ashlar rock faced.

The exposed face of the stones is not dressed but is kept as such to give rough facing.

iv) Ashlar chamfered

It is a special type of ashlar rock-faced in which the strip provided around the perimeter
of the exposed face is chamfered at an angle of 45° to a depth of 25 mm.

Ashlar Chamfered

v) Ashlar block in course

It is immediate between ashlar and rubble masonry. Faces of each stone are hammer
dressed but the vertical joints are not as straight and fine as in ashlar masonry.

Vi) Ashlar facing

It is provided along with brick or concrete blocks to give a better appearance. The outer
faces of the stone are rough tooled and chamfered.

Tool used for stone masonary

• Mallet
• Chisels
• Straight edge
• Masonary trowel
• truck pointers
• Pointing trowels
• Margin trowel
• Mason Hammer/Punch Hammer
• Walling Hammer/Catchy Hammer
• Lewis
• Angle grinders

Tool for dressing

• Drafting chiesel
• Mason Hammer
• Plane Chisel
 • Scabbling Hammer
• Punch Chisel
• Pointed Chisel
• Club Hammer
• Dressing of stone

Dressing of stone

The surfaces of stone obtained from quarrying are rough. The blocks are irregular in
shape and non-uniform in size. Hence, dressing is essential. Dressing is the process of
making irregular stone block in its required shape and size and dressed

Methods of Quarrying
The methods of quarrying the stone may be five:

1. Digging or excavating
2. Wedging
3. Heating
4. Quarrying with channeling machine
5. Blasting

Dressing of stone

The surfaces of stone obtained from quarrying are rough. The blocks are irregular
in shape and non-uniform in size. Hence, dressing is essential. Dressing is the
process of making irregular stone block in its required shape and size and dressed

Purpose of Dressing:

• To give them good looking.

• To provide horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry.
• To make them fit, to be used for particular construction.
• Generally to give them neat/good appearance.

Method of stone dressing

1- Manually (manual dressing)

2- Mechanical dressing

1)Manually (manual dressing)

a) pitched dressing
b) hammer dressing
c) chisel dressing
d) rough tooling
e) punched dressing
 f) close picked fine tooling
g) boasted finish

2-Mechanical dressing

a) sew fitted machine

Specification of stone masonry

Followings are the specification of stone masonry and with Ashlar Masonry is as below:

a) The mortar used in work shall have the strength of not less than 5 N/mm2 or 7.5
N/mm2 at 28 days specified. Mortar shall be fluid, mixed thoroughly and then poured in
the joints.

b) All stratified stone possessing bedding planes shall be laid with the natural bed as
nearly as possible at right angles to the direction of load. The natural bed shall be radial
for use in arch rings.

c) Except for dry rubble walling, all joints shall be sufficiently thick to prevent stone to
stone contact and the gap shall be completely filled with mortar.

d) Stones shall be clean and properly wetted before they are used so as to avoid
sucking of water from mortar.

e) The bed which is to receive the stone shall be cleaned, wetted and covered with a
layer of fresh mortar.

f) All stones shall be laid full in mortar both in bed and vertical joints and settled carefully
in place with a wooden mallet

immediately after placement and solidly embedded in a mortar before it has set.

g) Clean and wet chips and spalls shall be wedged into the mortar joints and bed
whenever necessary to avoid thick joint or bed of mortar.

h) Dressing of the stones shall be done before they are laid and as per the stipulated
requirement.

i) Continuous vertical joints shall be avoided.

j) The verticality of the wall shall be frequently checked with plumb-bob.

k) Through stones shall be used within 1.5 m distance.

l) TI1e height of masonry shall be used uniformly.

m) Under the beams, trusses, sills, etc., large flat stones shall be used.

n) Before continuing work, the masonry built on previous day shall be well cleaned and
freed from loose particles.
o) Curing shall be done properly for 2 to 3 weeks.

p) Masonry shall not be laid when the_eir temperature is less than 3 C. Newly laid
masonry shall be protected from the harmful effect of weather.

2-Brick Masonry
The art of construction in bricks is called brick masonry; Bricks are laid with
cement mortar or lime mortar. In ordinary and inferior quality of works, mud
mortar is also used. Brick masonry laid with cement mortar is stronger and
more durable than that laid, with lime mortar. But lime mortar is very commonly
used due to its low cost

Types of Bonds in brick masonry

1. Stretcher bond

2. Header bond

3. English bond and

4. Flemish bond

1. Stretcher bond

1. Stretcher bond

In this type of bond, all the bricks are laid with their lengths in the direction of the wall.
This pattern is used only for walls having thickness of half brick wall 9 cm.This bond is
also termed as running bond and is commonly adopted in the construction of half brick
thick leaves of cavity walls, partition walls, etc.

2. Header bond
In this type of bond, all the bricks are laid with their ends towards the face of the
wall.This type of arrangement is suitable for walls which are one brick thick.

3. English bond and

This type of bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers is called
english bond. This pattern is used only for walls having thickness of 20 cm above

• popular this bond is mainly used today

• strongest bond

4. Flemish bond
This is were alternate bricks are placed as header and stretcher in every course. Each header is
placed centrally between the stretcher immediately above and below to maintain an even bond.
Flemish Bond, bond like others, is rarely used today on new modern buildings and is more suited to
garden walling and feature structures. It can be a very difficult bond to get to grips with because it
requires great attention to detail

Difference between English bond and Flemish bond are as follows:

1. English bond is much stronger than flemish bond for the walls thicker
more than 1½ brick.

2. Flemish bond shows more attractive and pleasing appearance of masonry

work.

3. Flemish bond is economical as it uses broken brick bats, although it

requires some extra mortar for additional joints.

4. Uses of flemish bond is a bit difficult than english bond. Flemish bond
requires more skilled labour and supervision.

Supervising Brick Masonry

1-Use bricks of good quality with uniform colour, well burnt, with exact
shape and size.

2. Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2
hours so that bricks do not absorb water from the mortar

3. Bricks should be laid with the frog pointing upward.

4. Construction of brick wall should start from the end or corner.

5. Brick courses should be perfectly horizontal.

6. Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with

plumb-bob.

7. Mortar used should be as per specification.

8. Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed

end.

9. Use of brick bats should be avoided.

10. Walls should be raised uniformly. In no case difference between

adjoining walls be more than 1 m. In a day no wall should be raised by
more than 1.5 m.

11. To get proper key for plastering or pointing, the face joints should be
raised to a depth of 12 to 20 mm, when the mortar is green. If plastering or
pointing is not to be provided, face joints should be stuck flush and finished
neatly.

12. Holdfasts for doors and windows should be embedded in brick masonry
with cement mortar or concrete, at the time of constructing the wall itself.

13. Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.

14. For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding
should be used.

Supervision of stone masonry

The following principles should be followed during construction of stone

masonry:

1. The stone used in masonry should be durable and strong.

2. All stones should be well watered before laying to avoid absorption of

moisture from mortar.

3. All stones should be properly dressed.

4. The stones should be laid on their natural bed so that pressure acts
normal to their bed.

5. The different sized stones should be placed so that continuity of vertical

joints is broken in the structure.

6. The stones from opposite faces should make proper bond with each
other.

7. The height of stone should never be greater than their minimum

horizontal dimension.

8. Small stone chips should never be used in bed joints.

9. Quoins should be laid as stretcher and header in alternate courses.

10. Large flat stones used as bed plates should be provided under the ends
of beams, girders etc.

11. The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with stone
chips to avoid hollows.
12. The upper surface of old structure must be cleaned before placing fresh
mortar.
13. The joints on the surface should be raked at least 2.5 cm deep and
pointed with rich cement mortar.
14. Double scaffolding should be used.
15. After masonry is laid, it should be cured for a period of 2 to 3 weeks.