World Journal of Research and Review (WJRR)

ISSN: 2455-3956, Volume-12, Issue-1, January 2021 Pages 01-08

Divorce and Factors Affecting Children’s

Post-Divorce Adjustment
Karake Musaja Vincent

 where they encounter and grapple with certain kinds of

Abstract— Divorce is the final termination of a marital union, problems. These problems are generated, mediated or even
cancelling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage and moderated by certain factors namely Gender, Family
dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties involved characteristics, Ethno-cultural background, Situational
(A.M. Amber, Divorce: Facts, causes and consequences, 2009).
Divorce carries the unpleasant experience that negatively
characteristics, Time since marital disruption happened, and
affects all human relationships: parents, children, relatives, and Conflicts. It is the objective of this article to discuss these
friends. This devastating event affects parents’ emotional, factors which affect children’s post-divorce adjustment.
psychological, social and economic stability. It also impacts
parents’ relationship with their offspring. This article discusses II. PROBLEM STATEMENT:
the factors that affect children’s adjustment after divorce has
actualized in a family. When divorce happens, children of divorce find
In the discussion of factors that affect the adjustment of themselves confronted with certain kind of problems. These
children in the post-divorce period, relevant literature by problems thrive on, are generated, moderated or even
authorities and scholars in the area of Divorce and Marriage mediated through such factors as Gender, Family
was reviewed. Views on factors that affect both parents and characteristics, Ethno-cultural background, Situational
their children were taken to be used and compared to results of
characteristics, Time since marital disruption happened, and
data critically and synthetically analyzed and interpreted.
Conflicts. This research aims at understanding these factors
In the process to collect data, Qualitative Descriptive
research design was used where questionnaire, study guide, and and how they impact post-divorce adjustment of the children
interviews were used to collect data. Basing on the research of divorce so that the adjustment can be better managed and
objectives, the data collected was coded, analyzed and be made less painful.
tabulated. The data was then interpreted, being answers from
85 respondents involved in the study. III. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE:
The findings of the research carried out contained in this
article showed that the following factors, namely Gender,  To explore the impact the factors under consideration
Family characteristics, Ethno-cultural background, Situational namely: Gender, Family characteristics, Ethno-cultural
characteristics, Time since marital disruption happened, and background, Situational characteristics, Time since
Conflicts when properly understood and better managed marital disruption happened, and Conflicts have on
painwill easen and make children’s adjustment process more
post-divorce adjustment of the children of divorce.
effective and less painful. It is recommended that a parent or
parents (single or parents when remarriage of a spouse has  To find out how these factors can be handled so as to make
taken place) get relevant Counselling that will help them the adjustment better managed and less painful to the
understand the factors and their impact on the children of children of divorce.
divorce better. They, will then, be able to help the children
adjust with less difficulty, less pain, and in a shorter period. IV. LITERATURE REVIEW
Index Terms— Adjustment, Children of divorce, Divorce,
Factors. INTRODUCTION
This literature review is intended to review what other
I. INTRODUCTION writers and authorities have said about the problems that
Marriage is a contract sealed by God which only God can divorce children experience and specifically, factors that
raise if the seal should be lifted, which normally happens on moderate or mediate the problems that these children go
the death of a spouse (D.L. Shearer. Perspective on Sexual through.The research suggests that children of divorce may
and Reproductive Health, 2002). Unfortunately, there are experience a variety of problems ranging from psychological
forces that sometimes cause this union intended to last to be disturbances to diminished social relationships. The type,
broken. When this happens, it comes to the realization that severity and persistence of these problems, generally
generally, divorce is a painful, unpleasant and regrettable speaking, are mediated or moderated by several factors
occurrence.This article recognizes that there are factors that including Gender, Family characteristics, Ethno-cultural
can cause divorce: Infidelity, Poor communication, background, Situational characteristics, Time since marital
Work-holism, Incompatibility, Feminist ideas, Alcoholism, disruption began, and Conflict.These factors are the
and Poor financial status or poverty. And when divorce is discussion of this article.
actualized, children of divorce find themselves in a situation A. GENDER
The findings on gender differences in children response to
Karake Musaja Vincent, Ph. D Research Scholar, Wycliffe University divorce have been contradictory. Some research points to

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 Divorce and Factors Affecting Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment

more adjustment problems for boys in divorcing families than (DAVID POPENOE, Life without Father (New York, NY:
girls (Guidubaldi& Perry, 1985; Hetherington et al, 1979, Free Press, 1996), 62). In a meta-analysis of 37 studies which
1089; Kurdek, 1987); other research finds more negative examined the long-term consequence of parental divorce for
effects for girls (Faber et al.., 1983) and differences in the adult well-being, Amato and Keith (1991) found no support
effects of the divorce on boys and girls. for the contention that parental divorce has more detrimental
Immediately following divorce, Kaye (1989) found that consequences for males than females. Finally, in a
boys and girls showed poor performances on achievement longitudinal study, Zill et al. (1993) found no evidence to
tests compared to children from intact families. However, by support the hypothesis that young adult males were more
the fifth year following divorce, boys’ grades and likely than girls to be vulnerable to the effects of marital
achievement tests were adversely affected, while girls’ were disruption.
not. Similarly, Hetherington et al (1979) found that, A possible reason for the contradictory findings related to
immediately following the divorce, boys and girls gender could be that boys and girls maybe affected by divorce
experienced some disrupted-in-play situation; however, the in different ways. For instance, Kalter (1987) suggests that
effects appeared to be more sustained in boys. Wallenstein disruptions in the father-son relationship are linked to a
(1985) in a ten-year follow-up of children who were pre- multitude of development interference in boys. For girls, on
schoolers at the time of divorce, eighteen months following the other hand, the emotional loss of father is seen as
the divorce, many of the girls appeared recovered, but boys rejection. Similarly, Healey et al. (1990) argue that boys and
were significantly more troubled at school, in the playground, girls show sex-role-typical pattern of distress when they are
and at home. Five years after the divorce, these sex high for boys, and low self-esteem and fewer behavior
differences had again disappeared. Guidubaldi and Perry problems for girls. Amato (1987) suggests that the negative
(1985) found that boys in divorced households exhibited effects on social adjustment maybe stronger for boys than
more adverse effects than girls, in terms of inappropriate girls, but in other areas there are no major differences. Other
behavior, work effects, and happiness. Girls with divorced research suggests that girls may be more affected
parents, on the other hand, scored higher in locus of control psychologically (e.g., depression) (Peterson &Zill, 1986).
than their counterparts (Guidubaldi& Perry, 1985; Also, it is possible that behavior problems commonly seen in
Hetherington et al, 1979, 1089; Kurdek, 1987). boys are more readily observed behavior than the type of
Other studies have found more detrimental effects for girls problems that girls have, namely, self-esteem.
than boys. Slater, et al. (1983) found that adolescent girls Many studies point to relevance of age at the time of
from disrupted homes had lower self-esteem and more separation for children’s divorce adjustment. Although early
behavior problems than adolescent boys in similar home life findings suggested that separation from a parent at an early
situations. Furthermore, while female adolescent from age had more negative effects for children than for older
disrupted homes reported higher levels of family conflicts youth, this factor has proven to be more complex than was
than females from intact families, the opposite was true for initially believed. In a ten-year follow-up of pre-school
male. Wallenstein and Kelly (1975) found that, one year children from divorced families, Wallestein found the initial
following divorce, 63 percent of the girls were in worse response to divorce to be worse for younger children, but in
psychological condition compared to 27 percent of the boys. later years they appeared better adjusted than their older
Frost and Pakiz, (1990) found that girls from recently counterparts (Wallestein, 1984). She concluded that those
disrupted household reported truancy in higher proportion who are very young at marital breakup may be less burdened
than their male counterpart, and, than children from intact in the years to come than those who are older. Similarly,
families. They were also significantly more dissatisfied with Amato (1987) found that the majority of children who were
their social network than girls from intact families (JOSEPH very young at the time of divorce reported that they were not
VEROFF” Family Ties and the Discontinuity of Divorce in strongly affected by the break up (TRACIE O. AFIFI,
Black and White Newlywed Couples,” Journal of Marriage JONATHAN BOMAN, On Legal and Constitutional Affairs,
and Family 62(2000):349-361). to Have and Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and
Finally, some studies have found no difference on various Relationships (Canberra, Australia: Parliament of Australia
effects of divorce between girls and boys (Kinard&Reinherz, 1998), 35).
1984; Mechanic &Hansell, 1989; Rosen, 1979). Frost and The current thinking appears to be that children at every
Pakiz (1990) found no gender difference for self-reported age are affected by divorce, but in differing ways. For
antisocial behavior among adolescent from divorced families, example, Krantz (1988) suggests that early separations may
although they found gender difference in other areas (such as be associated with deficits in social and emotional
truancy and social networks). functioning, but not in intellectual functioning. From an
There have been fewer studies examining differences examination of numerous studies, Demo and Acock (1988)
among adult children of divorce. In a study by Faber et al. argue that young children encounter problems with personal
(1983), Clinical directors of college mental health counseling adjustment and peer relations, while adolescents encounter
centers said that female adolescents had more difficulty than problems with sexual relations and anti-social behavior.
males in adapting to divorce. However, in a review of the Similarly, Zill et al. (1993) found that youth who experienced
literature, Amato (1987) found minimal sex differences, a family disruption prior to 6 years of age showed poorer
although women from divorced families appear to attain relationships with their fathers than those who experienced
lower levels of education than those from intact families disruption later in childhood. Landerkin and Clarke (1990)

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 World Journal of Research and Review (WJRR)
ISSN: 2455-3956, Volume-12, Issue-1, January 2021 Pages 01-08

describe how children’s level of development affects their socio-economic status. They argue that socio-economic status
reactions to divorce, although they acknowledge that there has a generalized association with both intellectual and
may be an overlap. non-intellectual measures, while single-parent status is
The primary reaction among infants may be regression in associated with only non-intellectual variables (JUDITH S.
developmental attainments (e.g., sleeping, eating, language, WALLERESTEIN AND JOAN BERLIN KELLY, Surviving
independence). For pre-scholars, difficulties may appear in the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope with Divorce
social relationships and separation anxiety. School age (1980; New York, NY: Basic book,1996).
children may react with sadness, somatic complaints (e.g.,
C. ETHNO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND
headaches, stomach-aches) and intense anger towards
parents. Adolescents may encounter problems establishing an Very little research has examined ethno-cultural
adult identity (LISA STROHSCHEIN,” Parental Divorce differences among children of divorce. Although there appear
and Child Mental Health Trajectories,” Journal of Marriage to be vast perceptual differences towards kinship, marriage,
and Family 67(2005):1296), demonstrate anger towards self and divorce cross-culturally, the majority of studies continue
or others, and experience somatic complaints. Finally, Kalter to concentrate on Caucasian, and for the most part
and Rembar (1981) found marital dissolution which occurred middle-class, respondents. The results are then interpreted as
very early in a child’s life (2 ½ years of age or less) was an indication of the effects of divorce on all children
associated with separation-related difficulties; separation (JUDITH S. WALLERESTEIN AND JOAN BERLIN
during the oedipal phase (2 ½ -6) caused the greatest effects KELLY, Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents
overall on the children; and, for those 6 years of age or older, Cope with Divorce (1980; New York, NY: Basic Book,1996).
the results were inconsistent. However, some research has addressed how various
B. FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS ethno-cultural groups may respond differently to divorce. For
instance, in their 1995 study Durndell, Cameron, Knox and
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Haag (1995) noted radical differences in attitudes towards
divorce between native citizens of Rumania Chinese
Often one of the first impacts that divorce has on a child is
American, Korean American, and Anglo-Americans.
a dramatic decline in the standard of living in the custodial
Some studies have found Hispanic groups to be more
household (Bean, Berg & VanHook, 1995; Duncan, 1994;
affected by family conflict than non-Hispanic whites, while
Ross, 1995). Krantz (1988) suggests that children belonging
Asians were more affected by a recent divorce (Bean, 1995;
to lower socio-economic groups after divorce experience
Mechanic &Hansell, 1989; Wong, 1995). As part of a
greater hardships. Do these hardships, however, translate into
national survey which examined the relation between adult
adjustment problems?
depression and childhood separation from a parent (due to
Some researchers argue that this decline in socio-economic
death, divorce, out of wedlock, etc.), Amato (1991) found
status is directly linked to a variety of problems experienced
that, although white and African American adults who
by the child, such as psychological maladjustment and
experienced parental absence scored higher on depression
behavioral difficulties in school. For instance, Nelson (1990)
than those raised in intact families, these differences, did not
found that family income, rather than marital status, was
appear for Hispanics. He hypothesized that Hispanics may
associated with mothers’ life strains and children’s
not experience the same negative effects of parental absence
self-esteem. In addition, Kalter, Kloner, Schreier and Okla
because they receive necessary support from their extended
(1989) found a negative relation between socio-economic
families1.
status and children’s adjustment in post-divorce households.
Amato (1991) also found that a great deal of a parental
However, they suggest that economic deprivation, along with
absence was mediated be lowered educational attainment and
a number of other factors (e.g., inter-parental hostilities,
current marital status for whites and Africans American
burden of single parenting) take their toll on custodial
females, although not for African American males.
mothers, which results in poorer adjustment among children
Furthermore, in a meta-analysis of 37 studies of adults,
(FREDERICK O. LORENZ” Explaining the Higher
Amato and Keith (1991) found that white adults were
Incidence of Adjustment Problems Among Children of
affected more negatively by parental divorce than African
Divorce Compared with those in two- Parent Families,”
Americans. Lawson and Thompson (1994, 1996) note that
Journal of Marriage and the Family 61(1999):1030).
African Americans males are more likely to turn to family
With a sample of children entering kindergarten,
and friends, as well as church and other social activities as
Guidubaldiand Perry (1984) attempted to examine the
coping mechanisms following divorce. Each of these studies
relation between single-parent status and children’s
hypothesized that this was the case because divorce may only
development, controlling for socio-economic status. They
marginally lower the quality of life for African Americans,
found an association between socio-economic status of
due to the disadvantages they already have.
parents and intellectual, and academic and personal-social
Following a review of the research, Amato (1991)
development of children. However, even when
concludes that there is too little information to reach any
socio-economic status was controlled, children from divorced
conclusions regarding race/ethnicity for children. For adults,
families entered school with significantly less social and
he concludes that African Americans appear to be affected
academic competence than those from intact families. This
less by parental divorce than whites.’
indicates that single parent status may predict poor academic
and social competence in addition to, and independent of,

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 Divorce and Factors Affecting Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment

The issue of childrearing can encompass a number of conflict, time, with both parents, and residence. Weiss (1979)
aspects, including the effects of employment by the custodial notes that single parents tend to face the following problems
parent on the child, childrearing skills and adjustment to the which make effective parenting difficult: they often lack
divorce by the custodial parent (MICHAEL WORKMAN adequate support systems; they may feel over burdened by the
AND JOHN BEER,” Aggression, Alcohol Dependency, and demands and responsibilities of making all of the daily
Self –consciousness among High School Students of Divorce household decisions alone; they frequently face task
and Non Divorced Parents,” Psychological Reports overload; and they may experience emotional overload
71(1992)279-286). because of the need to cope with both their own emotional
The issue of whether employment by the custodial parent reactions and those of the children (RANDY M. PAGE,”
negative effects on children has not been examined in depth. Adolescent Loneliness: A priority for School Health
Although it is having been suggested that there may be Education Quarterly 15(1988):20-30.)
negative effects on the child due to the sole-custody parent Therefore, it may be particularly difficult for them to
(usually the mother) working, a study conducted by Kinard discipline consistently and be responsive to their children’s
and Reinherz (1984) did not substantiate this claim. Rather, needs. The better the custodial parent adapts to the adversity
they found that any negative consequences for children of of the divorce, the more effective he/she can be at providing
divorce stem from having unemployed rather than employed care, guidance and support for the children and the more
mothers. However, other researchers have argued that a positively adjusted they will be (Kalter et al, 1989). For
change in the employment status of the custodial parent may instance, Nelson (1990) found children’s self-esteem to be
affect the child. For instance, Medrick, Baker, Reznick and directly related to their mother’s life strains. Further, Medrick
Hocevar (1990) found that instability in the maternal (1990) found that lower adolescent academic proficiency was
employment was associated with negative effects on children related to mother’s adjustment following the divorce. They
(CAROLYN A. SMITH,” Factors Associated with Early suggest that the mother’s adaptation to her own personal
Sexual activity among Urban adolescent,” Social work situation may have a positive influence on the long-term
42(1997):334-346). adaptation on children. Kelly and Wallenstein (1977) suggest
In review of literature, Grych and Fincham (1992) found that parents should identify the aspects of their behavior
that parenting styles and discipline practices are linked to the which produce stress on the child and change them to help
development of behavior problems in children. This is often reduce the negative effects of divorce. Whatever the initial
the case because, after divorce, parenting is disrupted and reaction post-divorce, it is important to note that the
discipline frequently becomes inconsistent, both within and psychological functioning of parents after separation and
between parents. Health and MacKinnon (1988) argue that divorce improves significantly over time in both men and
childrearing factors are important predictors of children’s women (Kelly, 1990).
social competence in single-parent households. They found D. SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
that parental acceptance of children was positively related to PARENTAL ABSENCE/REMARRIAGE
children’s social competence, while psychological control Until recently, a common assumption in the divorce
was negatively related. Further, although they found that literature was that both parents living in the same household
social competence related to firm control for males, but as the child would be a better environment for children’s
moderate control for females, the results indicated that development than a single-parent family. According to his
mothers tended to use more lax control for sons than view, the absence of one parent from the household is
daughters (FRANK F. FURSTENBERG, JR.AND JULIEN problematic for children’s socialization. Although there is
O. TEITLER,” Reconsidering the Effect of Marital some support for this view, it does not appear to be the only
Disruption: What happens to Children of Divorce in Early factor involved in the children’s wellbeing following
Adulthood?” Journal of Family Issues 15(1994)179).They divorce(CAROLYN A. SMITH,” Factors Associated with
suggest that this may provide an explanation for findings Early Sexual activity among urban adolescent,” Social work
which show boys to be worse off than girls in divorces. 42(1997):334-34).
Health and MacKinnon (1988) found that mother’s It has been found that, following divorce, many children
unwillingness to exercise firm control over their sons to be a experience a decrease in the quantity and quality of contact
more important determinant of the child’s social competence with the noncustodial parent (Amato, 1987; Schlesinger,
than father absence. However, Buchanan et al. 1992 found 1982). Stolba and Amato (1993), however, argue that
that children living with their fathers had poorer adjustment adolescents’ well-being is not solely associated with the loss
as a result of poorer monitoring. of the noncustodial parent. Instead, they conclude that
The psychological adjustment of the custodial parent after alternative family forms can be suitable for raising
divorce is emerging as a central factor in determining adolescents, if they provide support, control and supervision.
children’s post-divorce adjustment (Cohen, 1995; Kelly, However, they suggest that extended single-parent
1993), although the role of maternal adjustment after divorce households may be less beneficial for younger children.
has been more often examined than the impact of paternal There are conflicting views as to whether or not remarriage
adjustment on children and no studies have looked at the of the custodial parent is beneficial for the children.
relative contribution of maternal versus paternal adjustment Researchers who emphasizes the importance of the of
on children. Nor have there been any studies examining the economics or parent absence argue that the marriage of the
effect and interaction between both parents’ adjustment, custodial parent should be beneficial for the children because

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 World Journal of Research and Review (WJRR)
ISSN: 2455-3956, Volume-12, Issue-1, January 2021 Pages 01-08

it normally increases the family income and provides more F. CONFLICT

parental supervision and support for the children. On the The impact of parental conflict on children’s post-divorce
other hand, it has been argued that the entrance of a new, and adjustment has received considerable attention in the
possibly unwelcome, adult into the family can be a source of literature. Most theorists agree that parental conflict, at very
stress and rivalry for the children (Hetherington &Camara, least, provides some negative influences for children’s
1988). Simons (1980) suggests that children may become adjustment to divorce. For instance, it has been found that
resentful of the time they lose with the custodial parent as a conflict can affect children’s self-esteem, ability to adjust and
result of the new partner (A. ROSE,” Risk and Resiliency cope; social competence and behavior (TRACIE O. AFIFI,
Factors among Adolescents Who experience Marital JONATHAN BOMAN, On Legal and Constitutional Affairs,
Transitions,” Journal of Marriage and Family to Have and Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and
64(2002):1028-1029). Relationships (Canberra, Australia: Parliament of Australia
Furthermore, dating and remarriage may destroy 1998), 35.)
children’s belief that their parents will remarry. Finally, Johnson et al. (1985) conducted an in-depth examination
remarriage is often confusing for children because they must of the nature of parental disputes with 39 families who were
learn to adapt and accept yet another new family structure. It disputing custody or access arrangements. It should be noted
is interesting to note, however, that children living with step that this sample is biased in that their rate of verbal and
fathers are much more likely to say that their step father is a physical aggression is considerably higher than that of a
family member (TRACIE O. AFIFI, JONATHAN BOMAN, normal divorcing sample (TRACIE O. AFIFI, JONATHAN
On Legal and Constitutional Affairs, to Have and Hold: BOMAN, On Legal and Constitutional Affairs, to Have and
Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships Hold: Strategies to Strengthen Marriage and Relationships
(Canberra, Australia: Parliament of Australia 1998), 35). (Canberra, Australia: Parliament of Australia 1998), 35.).
Although the financial advantages that step-children enjoy However, it provides us with an indication of the
over those in single-parent families are evident, research to devastating effects conflict can have on children. According
date has failed to show a beneficial effect of remarriage on to these parents, children witness a great deal of verbally and
children’s achievement or behavior. In a national longitudinal physically abusive incidents, but much less of the verbal
study of children (aged 12-16), Peterson and Zill (1986) reasoning attached to such incidents. It was found that the
found more behavior problems among girls living with a parents involve children in conflicts as by standers, passive
remarried mother, as a compared to boys. In a follow-up study weapons, communication channels, or as active participants
with these children at ages 18-22, Zill(1993) concluded that to collect evidence, spy or communicate threats and insults.
remarriage did not have a protective effect on children. Only 5 percent of the parents reported that they protected
Hetherington and her colleagues (Hetherington, 1993; their children consistently from arguments or the behavior
Hetherington and Camara, 1985) found remarriage to be following an argument (i.e., depression). Children’s reactions
associated with more negative effects. For instance, to these conflicts differed depending on age (TRACIE O.
remarriage of the custodial mother had more adverse effects AFIFI, JONATHAN BONMAN, 1998).
on girls than boys, while the divorce itself had more adverse, Younger children had predominantly submissive distress
long-term effects on boys. Over time, though, children adjust responses and were more likely to try to control the fight than
to remarriage and then there is an improvement. older children. Two-third of all the children tried to avoid the
E. TIME SINCE MARITAL DISRUPTION dispute and one quarter showed aggressive distress responses.
Again, it should be noted that these children appear more
A number of researchers have argued that, although there
distressed and more likely to become angry than children
are often negative effects on children immediately following
from non-disputing families, but both groups attempt to
the divorce, children adjust to divorce over time, for instance,
control, ignore and avoid the dispute. It seems children’s
Amato (1987) found that the length of the time since marital
emotional and behavioral problems can be predicted by the
disruption was related to children’s well-being. That is, when
amount of disagreement between parents, and the duration of
interviewed years after the divorce, most children said that
the dispute over the child.
they had accepted the situation and had adjusted reasonably
There are some studies that go a step further,
well to the divorce. Further, Walsh and Stolberg (1989) found
demonstrating that conflict, rather than divorce per se, is the
that the amount of time that had passed since the separation
major determinant of children’s adjustment. For instance,
was significantly correlated with child adjustment (i.e.,
bishop and Ingersoll (1989) found that marital conflict had a
beliefs about divorce, parent-reported behavioral adjustment,
greater impact on adolescents’ self-concept than family
child-report emotional labeling) 2 . They found that inter
structure. Similarly, it has been found that family conflict had
spousal hostility was associated with increased child-reported
more direct effects on long term changes in well-being (i.e.,
anger for recent separations, but with lower anger for distant
depression, anxiety, physical symptoms, self-esteem) than
separations. In addition, they found that for recent
divorce, current separation from parents, or parental death.
separations, high levels of “bad” events were associated with
Furthermore, they found that adolescents in intact families
fewer misconceptions about divorce; no relation at
with high levels of conflict had poorer well-being than those
mid-length; but, more misconceptions for distant separations.
experiencing divorce with low levels of conflicts (TRACIE
O. AFIFI, 1998). A recent survey of 9,816 secondary schools
students in the Netherlands indicates that the level of

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 Divorce and Factors Affecting Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment

wellbeing of children living in single mothers families is found that with adolescents who were living part of the time
higher than that of students living in two parent families with with each parent, the effects of discord between parents is
much parental conflict, the wellbeing of children living in stronger and they tended to feel caught in the middle.
single mother families with no parental conflict and with a Children who were involved in their parent’s disagreements
great deal of contact with the departed father is lower than and who felt they had to manage their parent’s relationship to
that of children living with two parent families without make things run smoothly were the most likely to feel
parental conflict and finally, the degree of parental conflict depressed and exhibit deviant behavior (Buchanan, 1991).
after divorce is more important for the wellbeing of the Therefore, conflict per se is not necessarily the best predictor
children than the degree of contact with the departed father. of adjustment and should perhaps not be used by itself as a
Using data from the United States National longitudinal sole determinant making decisions about custody and access.
surveys of youth, Jekielek (1996) found that both parental Another major difficulty with using conflict as a determinant
conflict and marital disruption were associated with in custody and access decisions is that conflict almost
decreases in the children’s wellbeing but children who remain invariably diminishes over time (Kelly, 1990; Maccoby,
in the high conflict environments do worse than children who Depner&Mnookin, 1990) and couples can move in and out of
experienced high conflict but whose parents had divorced at conflict both before and after separation and divorce (Neale
least two years previously. The results suggest that parental & Smart, 1997).
divorce following high conflict may actually improve the In an examination of a number of common hypotheses
wellbeing of children relative to a high conflict status. Using relating to the effects of divorce on children, Kalter, Kloner,
a 12-year longitudinal study, Amato, Loomis & Booth (1995) Schreier and Okla(1989) found no buffered from the stresses
also found that the consequences of parental divorce depend divorce can engender and will prosper developmentally.
on the degree of parental conflict prior to divorce. In high
conflict families, children had higher levels of wellbeing as V. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
young adults if their parents divorced than if they stayed Introduction
together than if they divorced. In marriages that did not end in This section presents the methods that the researcher used
divorce, parental conflict was negatively associated with the in carrying out the research; it points out the research design,
wellbeing of the children (TRACIE O. AFIFI, JONATHAN study population, sample size, sampling techniques and data
BONMAN, 1998). collection techniques. The section further presents the
On the other hand, some researcher has argued that while sources of data, administration of questionnaires, validity and
conflict is an important factor the relationship between reliability, ethical considerations, data analysis and
conflict and children’s post-divorce adjustment is neither interpretation.
universal, simple nor straightforward. For instance, Cockett
and Tripp (1994) found that, although marital conflict was A. RESEARCH DESIGN
associated with poor outcomes for children (in terms of Research design is a detailed outline of how an
health, behavior, school, friendship and self-esteem), family investigation took place. It typically included how data was
reorganization appeared to be the main adverse factor. collected, what instruments were employed, how the
Further, Buehler and Trotter (1990) found co-operation. instruments were used and the means for analyzing data
Although Hess and Camara (1979) found parental harmony to collected. It specified such things as how to collect and
be a better predictor of child behavior than family status, they analyze the data (Kara, 2012). A descriptive and analytical
also found that the parent-child relationship appeared to be research design was used with a purpose of describing and
most powerful influence on the child’s social and school analyzing the views collected from respondents.
adjustment, stronger than parental harmony. Kelly (1993) B. POPULATION
argues that the effects of conflict are indirect they are either
A research population is generally a large collection of
mediated through other behaviors of the parents or dependent
individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific
on their conflicts directly with and through the children. In
query (Creswell, 2012). It is for the benefit of the population
both married and divorced families, children were less
that researches are done. However, due to the large sizes of
aggressive and had less behavioral problems when parents
populations, researchers often cannot test every individual in
had higher co-operation scores as opposed to when used
the population because it is too expensive and
negative, attacking dispute resolution styles (Camara and
time-consuming. This is the reason why researchers rely on
Resnick, 1989). Furthermore, some researchers (Cohen,
sampling techniques where the sample representing the
1995; Health & MacKinnon, 1988; Hoffman, 1995) have
population is used.
found parental co-operation to be highly correlated with the
child-father relationship and predictive of child’s social
TABLE OF SAMPLE SIZE OF THE STUDY
competence, indicating the importance of co-operative family
interactions following divorce.
Kelly (1993) states that children can escape the negative CATEGORY OF PEOPLE FROM SAMPLE
consequences of parental conflict when they are not caught in SIX PARISHES OF ADEPR
it by their parents, when their parents avoid direct, aggressive KACYIRU 16
expressions of their conflict in front of them or when they use GATORE 13
compromise styles of conflict resolution. Buchanan(1991) NYARUBANDE 19

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 World Journal of Research and Review (WJRR)
ISSN: 2455-3956, Volume-12, Issue-1, January 2021 Pages 01-08

MUKARANGU 15 Data collection instruments were administered by the

KAGOMBA 12 researcher who approached respondents at their time of
BYUMBA 10 convenience. The researcher introduced himself to
TOTAL 85 respondents and told them the exact purpose of the research
before requesting them to express their views on issues raised
in the questionnaire.

C. Sampling frame I. TABULATION

A set of information used to identity a sample population
for statistical treatment. A sampling frame includes a In order to ensure validity and reliability, the researcher
numerical identifier for each individual, plus other carried out a pilot test by 10 questionnaire forms were given
identifying information about characteristics of individuals, to respondents to express their views on the questions raised.
to aid in analysis and allow for division into further frames for The respondents were part of the population but may not
in-epthanalysis (Kara, 2012). The sample must be necessarily have been part of the sample size. This was done
representative of the population from which it was drawn and to verify clarity of the questionnaire. The researcher ensured
it must have good size to warrant statistical analysis. The that the set questions were related to the study objectives.
main function of sample is to allow the researchers to conduct
the study to individuals from the population so that the results J. ETHICAL ISSUES ON THE RESEARCH
of their study can be used to derive conclusions that applied to
the entire population.
Data analysis is the process of developing answers to
D. INSTRUMENTS questions through the examination and interpretation of data.
The basic steps in the analytical process consist of identifying
This included the methods that the researcher used to issues, determining the availability of suitable data, deciding
collect data from various sources and they included on which methods are appropriate for answering the
questionnaires, interviews and documentary review. The questions of interest, applying the methods and evaluating,
researcher ensured that the research instruments used are summarizing and communicating the results.
reliable, consistent and free from any bias. Questionnaires The collected data was presented using tables and figures
and interview guide contained clear and accurate questions. while interpretation and analysis was done based on
percentages and frequencies of respondents’ views.
E. QUESTIONNAIRES Percentages and frequencies were ascertained using statistical
The researcher formulated questions that related to methods. Coding of respondent’s views was done. The
members of the 6 parishes of ADEPR Church. The questions respondents were assured of the confidentiality of the
were both closed and open-ended so as to provide information they gave and that it would be used for research
respondents with opportunity to freely give their views. purposes only. The respondents were free to answer or to
Questionnaires had questions covering all study objectives. decline to answer any questions without feeling of
compulsion or coercion.
F. INTERVIEWS
VI. CONCLUSION:
An interview is a conversation between two or more people Divorce whose devastating effects are bad can be avoided
where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or if the couple follow Counselling advice. While researchers
statements from the interviewee (Creswell, 2012). The agree that child and family characteristics have effect on the
researcher used interview guide to respondents according to level of pain and suffering in the process of adjustment of the
their preference and time availability. Interviews were held children in the post-divorce environment, there is
with church members and pastors from six selected parishes disagreement as to what extent the characteristics will make
of ADEPR Church. the adjustment easier or more difficult. There is consensus by
researchers that divorce will almost always lead to low
standard of living of the custodial family which will in turn
G. DOCUMENTATION lead to greater hardships in the family which will translate
into greater adjustment problems by the children of divorce.
This included the methods that the researcher used to Conflict in the custodial family influence the children
collect data from various sources and they included negatively where children are involved in conflict as
questionnaires, interviews and documentary review. The bystanders, passive observers or communication channels.
researcher ensured that the research instruments used are Children in such homes are more distressed and are more
reliable, consistent and free from any bias. Questionnaires likely to become angrier than children from non-disputing
and interview guide contained clear and accurate questions. families. Fathers being poor in monitoring will make children
living with fathers in custodial homes poor in adjustment.
Likewise, mothers said not to have firm control on boys but
H. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
are lax, who are well prepared to lead children in post-divorce
period, will produce boys who are worse than girls. On the

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 Divorce and Factors Affecting Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment

contrary, the parents who are prepared to lead children in the [34] Hetherington &Camara, 1988)
[35] Jekielek, 1996.
adversity of post-divorce era, are more effective in giving [36] JUDITH S. WALLERESTEIN AND JOAN BERLIN KELLY,
guidance and the children will adjust better. Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope with Divorce
(1980; New York, NY: Basic Book, 1996.
[37] Kalter, 1987.
[38] Kalter and Rembar, 1981.
VII. RECOMMENDATION: [39] Kalter, Kloner, Schreier and Okla (1989)
[40] Kara, 2012.
It is recommended that parent or parents in the new family [41] Kathleen E. Kiernan, “The Impact of Family Descriptions in Childhood
whether single or re-married attend Counselling where they on Transitions Made in Young Adult Life”, Population Studies
will be made aware how different factors impact the 46(1992).
[42] Kaye, (1989).
post-divorce process of children’s adjustment. With concern [43] Kelly and Wallenstein (1977).
about the children’s welfare and some effort tremendous [44] Kelly, 1990; Maccoby, Depner&Mnookin, 1990)
progress can be made in the way the children adjust to the [45] Kinrad and Reinherz, 1984.
[46] Krantz, 1998.
new situations. [47] Landerkin and Clarke, (1990).
[48] Lawson and Thompson (1994, 1996).
[49] LISA STROHSCHEIN,” Parental Divorce and Child Mental Health
Trajectories,” Journal of Marriage and Family 67(2005).
REFERENCES [50] Medrick, Baker, Reznick and Hocevar (1990).
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Journal of consulting and Clinical Psychology 55(1987). [52] Mechanic &Hanset, 1989.
[2] A.M. Ambert, Divorce: Facts, causes, and consequences 3rd [53] MICHAEL WORKMAN AND JOHN BEER,” Aggression, Alcohol
ed.(Ottawa, Canada: Vanier Institute of the Family), 2009. Dependency, and Self –consciousness among High School Students of
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[14] Cockett and Tripp (1994)
[15] Cohen, 1995; Health & MacKinnon, 1988; Hoffman, 1995)
[16] Cohen, 1995; Kelly, 1993.
[17] Creswell, 2012. AUTHOR’S PROFILE
[18] DAVID POPENOE, Life without Father (NewYork, NY: Free
Press,1996) Education Background
[19] D.L. Shearer, Association of early childbearing and low cognitive 1. Wycliffe University and ATS Ph.D Studies
ability, Perspective on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 2002. 2. Wycliffe University and ATS Masters in
[20] Duncan 1994; Ross 1995. Theology
[21] Demo and Acock, 1988. 3. Ndejje University
[22] Durndell, Cameron, Knox and Haag (1995) 4. Kyambogo University
[23] E.Kiernan,” Teenage Marriage and Marital Breakdown: A 5. St.Henry’s Secondary School Kitovu
longitudinal Study, “Population Studies: 40(1986). 6. Makobore High School
[24] Eccles, “Role of the Father, Adolescent Relationship in Shaping 7. Rwamurunga Primary School
Adolescents‟ Attitudes Toward Divorce,” Journal of Marriage and the
Family 66 (2004). Positions Held
[25] Faber, 1983. Rector at Fatek (Kigali Faculty of Evangelical Theology)
[26] Frank F.Furstenberg Jr.and Julien, O.Teitler,”Reconsidering the Effect Vice Rector at Fatek (Kigali Faculty of Evangelical Theology)
of Marital Disruption: What happens to Children of Divorce in Early Lecturer at Kigali Faculty of Evangelical Theology
Adulthood?” Journal of Family Issues 15(1994). Principal at Intensive School, Uganda
[27] FREDERICK O. LORENZ” Explaining the Higher Incidence of Teacher at Old Kampala Secondary School, Uganda
Adjustment Problems Among Children of Divorce Compared with
those in two- Parent Families,” Journal of Marriage and the Family
61(1999):1030).
[28] Frost and Pakiz, 1990.
[29] Guidubaldi& Perry, 1984/85
[30] Guidubaldi& Perry 1985; Hetherington, 1979; Kurdek, 1987.
[31] Healey, (1990).
[32] Health and MacKinnon (1988)
[33] Hess and Camara, 1979.

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