TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 SCOPE

2.0 MATERIALS

2.1 Structural Steel

2.2 Bolts, Nuts and Washers
2.3 Galvanizing
2.4 Other Materials

3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS

3.1 Climatic Loads

3.2 Longitudinal and Torsional Loads
3.3 Construction and Maintenance Loads

4.0 APPLICATION OF WIND LOAD ON TOWERS

5.0 OVERLOAD CAPACITY FACTORS

6.0 TYPES OF TOWERS

7.0 BROKEN WIRE CONDITIONS

7.1 Single Circuit Towers

7.2 Double Circuit Towers

8.0 COMPUTATION OF LOADS

8.1 Types of Loads

8.2 Sag and Tension
8.3 Tabulation of Loads and Loading Trees
8.4 Transverse Loads
8.5 Vertical Loads
8.6 Longitudinal Loads
8.7 Other Loads

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

9.0 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

9.1 Axial Stresses in Tension

9.2 Axial Stresses in Compression
9.3 Stresses in Bolts

10.0 EFFECTIVE SLENDERNESS RATIOS AND LIMITING CONDITIONS

10.1 Leg Members

10.2 Other Compression Members
10.3 Redundant Members
10.4 Joint Restraint
10.5 Limiting Values of Slenderness Ratios

11.0 MINIMUM THICKNESSES

11.1 Structural Members

11.2 Gusset Plates

12.0 CONNECTIONS, END & EDGE DISTANCES

12.1 Bolting
12.2 Framing
12.3 End & Edge Distances
12.4 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spacing

13.0 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

13.1 Single Circuit Strung Condition

13.2 Stub Angle Sizing
13.3 Considerations for Linemen Weight

APPENDIX 1

14.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

1.0 SCOPE

1.1 This standard stipulates various design considerations to be adopted in the

design of self supporting, latticed steel, square based towers for use in the
overhead transmission line system of Saudi Electricity Company (SEC), Saudi
Arabia.

1.2 This standard includes classification of loads, loading conditions, combination of

loads, overload factors and permissible stresses.

1.3 This standard does not cover design considerations for guyed steel towers and
special towers for river crossings and other long span crossings.

2.0 MATERIALS

2.1 Structural Steel

The tower members including cross-arms shall be of structural steel made by

either open hearth, basic oxygen or electric furnace process and shall conform to
the provisions of latest revisions of the following standards or equivalent:

ASTM A36M 250 MPa, minimum yield stress

ASTM A572M (Grade 345) 345 MPa, minimum yield stress

2.2 Bolts, Nuts and Washers

Bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to ASTM A394, ASTM A563M and
ASTM F436M respectively or equivalent.

2.3 Galvanizing

Structural steel members, including stub angles, shall be hot-dip galvanized after
fabrication in accordance with the requirements of 01-TMSS-01 to a galvanizing
thickness as specified in 20-TMSS-01.

Bolts and other fasteners shall be galvanized in accordance with the

requirements of 01-TMSS-01 and 20-TMSS-01.

2.4 Other materials used in the construction of towers shall conform to 20-TMSS-
01.

3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS

Transmission lines are subjected to various types of loads during their lifetime. These
loads are broadly classified into three distinct categories:

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

- Climatic Loads: Loads imposed on towers and line components by the action of
wind and coincident temperature.

- Longitudinal and Torsional Loads: Loads imposed on towers due to breakage of

line components, sabotage, or cascade failure.

- Construction and Maintenance Loads: Loads imposed on towers during

construction and maintenance activities. Checking of strength of tower members
for these loads ensures safety of workmen during construction and maintenance
activities.

Towers shall be designed to withstand factored loads, including their simultaneous

application, arising out of above loading conditions, per details given below for each
category:

3.1 Climatic Loads

These are random loads imposed on towers, insulator strings, hardware,

conductors and ground wires due to the action of wind and do not act
continuously.

Loads due to climatic effects shall be considered for the following wind and
coincident temperature conditions and applied on towers and line components
(conductors, ground wires, insulators, spherical markers, warning lights, spacer
dampers, hardware etc.).

-Standard Wind: A wind pressure of 430 N/m2 at minus 1°C (-1°C)

-High Wind: A wind pressure of 1064 N/m2 at an every day temperarure

Notes:

i. The word “wire” shall mean conductor, ground wire, and OPGW
when used as “intact wire”, wire tension, wire loading, etc.

ii. The word “ground wire” shall mean OHGW and OPGW.

iii. Every day temperature for various SEC Operating Areas shall be as
in Table 05-1 below:

Table 05-1: Every Day Temperature

Every Day
SEC Operating Area
Temperature, oC
Central 25
Eastern 27
Western 30
Southern 25 & 30

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

3.1.1 Standard Wind Loading

Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

a. All wires intact

b. Wind acting normal to the longitudinal face of tower

c. A wind pressure of 430 N/m2 acting on the projected area of

tower members of front face multiplied by the shape factor as
given in Clause 4.0

d. A wind pressure of 430 N/m2 acting on the projected area of

ground wires and conductors, on effective projected area of
insulator strings, spherical markers, warning lights, spacer
dampers, hardware, etc.

e. Wire (conductor, ground wire, OPGW) tensions corresponding to

430 N/m2 wind at minus 1°C (-1°C) temperature, final condition

3.1.2 High Wind Loading (Transverse)

Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

a. All wires intact

b. Wind acting normal to the longitudinal face of tower

c. A wind pressure of 1064 N/m2 acting on the projected areas of

tower members of front face multiplied by the shape factor as
given in Clause 4.0 for heights up to 10m above ground level. For
tower heights above 10m, the wind pressures shall be increased
per the procedure given in Clause 4.0 multiplied by the shape
factor.

Basic wind pressures and wind pressures inclusive of shape

factors for heights above 10m are given in Table 05-2 for
guidance.

d. A wind pressure of 1064 N/m2 acting on full projected area of

ground wires and conductors, on effective projected area of
insulator strings, spherical markers, warning lights, spacer
dampers, hardware, etc.

e. Wire tensions corresponding to 1064 N/m2 wind at an every day

temperature, final condition

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3.1.3 High Wind Loading (Longitudinal)

Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

a. All wires intact

b. Wind acting normal to the transverse face of tower

c. Same as in Clause 3.1.2c except that the front face is transverse

face.

d. Wind load on conductors and ground wires due to longitudinal

wind shall be taken as nil.

Wind load on insulator strings, spherical markers, warning lights,

spacer dampers, hardware, etc., same as that for High Wind
Loading (Transverse) case Clause 3.1.2d, but in longitudinal
direction.

e. Same as in clause 3.1.2.e

3.1.4 High Wind Loading (Oblique, 45°wind)

Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

a. All wires intact

b. Wind acting at 45 degree to the longitudinal face of tower

c. A wind pressure of 1064 N/m2 x 0.71 acting on projected areas of

tower members on transverse and longitudinal faces
simultaneously multiplied by the shape factor as given in Clause
4.0 for heights up to 10m above ground level

For tower heights above 10m, the wind pressures shall be

increased as per the procedure given in Clause 4.0 and 71 percent
of full wind pressure multiplied by the shape factor applied on
transverse as well as on longitudinal faces simultaneously

d. A wind pressure of 532 N/m2 (1064 x Cos2 45º) acting on full

projected area of ground wires and conductors, on effective
projected area of insulator strings, spherical markers, warning
lights, spacer dampers, hardware, etc.

e. Same as in Clause 3.1.2.e

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Notes:

i. For the purpose of calculating wind load on bundled

conductors, wind pressure shall be considered acting on
full projected area of each conductor in the bundle

ii. For the purpose of computing the wind load on insulator

strings, the effective projected area of the insulator string
shall be assumed as 50 percent of the projected area of the
cylinder with diameter equal to that of the insulator skirt.
For multi-strings, wind shall be considered acting on each
limb of multi-string.

iii. No reduction in wind span shall be considered for oblique

wind and for line deviation on angle towers.

3.2 Longitudinal and Torsional Loads

Designing a tower for longitudinal and torsional loads ensures adequate strength
of tower in longitudinal direction and provides margin for containment of failure
due to cascading effect. Longitudinal loads may be imposed on towers due to
failure of line components, conductors, ground wire or reduction/removal of one
side tension.

3.2.1 Broken Wire Loading

The number of conductors and/or ground wire to be considered broken

shall be as defined in clause 7.0 “Broken Wire Conditions” for
Tangent/Suspension, Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End towers.

Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

a. Conductor(s) and/or ground wire(s) broken as given in Clause 7.0

b. Wind acting normal to the longitudinal face of tower

c. A wind pressure of 430 N/m2 applied to the sum of the projected

areas of tower members of front face multiplied by shape factor
as given in Clause 4.0

d. A wind pressure of 430 N/m2 acting on full projected areas of

ground wires and conductors, on effective projected area of
insulator strings, spherical warning markers, warning lights,
spacers, hardware, etc.

e. Wire tensions corresponding to 430 N/m2 wind at minus 1°C (-

1°C), initial condition

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3.2.2 Anti Cascading Loadings

Cascade failures may be caused by failure of items such as insulators,

hardware, joints, failure of major components such as towers,
foundations, conductors or from climatic overloads or from casual
events such as misdirected aircraft, sabotage etc. The security measures
adopted for containing cascade failures in the line are to provide anchor
towers at specific intervals of every 10 to 12 km, which shall be
designed for anti-cascade loads. These towers serve the purpose of
sectionalizing the line for containing the cascade failure.

Loads and application of loads specified in Clause 3.3.1 for Angle

(Tension), Anchor and Dead-End towers under “Stringing Loads” shall
meet the requirement for anti-cascading checks.

3.3 Construction and Maintenance Loads

3.3.1 Stringing Loads

Stringing loads are imposed on towers during stringing and pulling

operations. These loads shall be assumed to act at wires
(conductors/ground wires) attachment points in longitudinal direction,
normal to the transverse face of tower.

a. Under this condition of loading, the following shall be assumed:

i. Pulling load due to stringing equal to tension of

conductors/ground wires at minus 1°C (-1°C), no wind,
initial condition

ii. Transverse loads on account of wind on tower and line

component shall be taken as nil.

iii. Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on

wire tensions at minus 1°C (-1°C), no wind, initial
condition.

b. Application of stringing loads on Tangent/Suspension, Angle

(Tension), Anchor and Dead-End towers shall be as follows:

i. Tangent/Suspension Towers

- Stringing load at any one phase conductor

attachment point with remaining phase conductors
and ground wires intact

- Stringing load at any one ground wire attachment

point with other ground wire, if provided, intact

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- Stringing of any one phase conductor and/or

ground wire when temporarily dead-ended
(anchored) at a distance such that the angle
between the traveler on the tower and anchor on
the ground is 15º to the horizontal.

ii. Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End Towers

Stringing loads at all phase conductor and ground wire

attachment points simultaneously. All stringing loads shall be
considered acting in one direction only and all wires considered
intact.

3.3.2 Heavy Vertical Loads

This loading condition represents the pick up load during stringing. The
upper tie members and lower main chord members of cross-arms are
subjected to heavy stresses due to heavy vertical loads during
construction activities and are required to be adequately sized for the
safety of workmen.

Under this loading condition, loads shall be considered acting at any

one conductor or ground wire attachment point at a time, the following
shall be assumed:

a. A vertical load equal to twice the vertical load resulting from

intact maximum design weight span plus weight of insulator
strings and 1500 Newtons to account for the weight of linemen
and tools

b. Transverse loads on account of wind on tower and line

components shall be taken as nil.

c. Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on wire

tensions at minus 1°C (-1°C), no wind, initial condition.

d. Pulling loads due to stringing shall be equal to tension of

conductors/ground wires at minus 1°C (-1°C), no wind, initial
condition.

4.0 APPLICATION OF WIND LOAD ON TOWERS

The wind pressure, qf, in N/m² is given by:

qf = Kz q10 SF (Eq. 05-1)

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

Where:

Kz = Exposure coefficient, which increases with height above ground level

2/7
⎡H⎤
= ⎢⎣10 ⎥⎦

H = Height above ground level, in meters

q10 = Basic wind pressure at 10 meters above ground, in N/m2

= 0.613 × V102

V10 = Wind velocity at 10 meters above ground. For high wind

loading V10 = 150 km/hr = 41.67 m/sec

q10 = 0.613 x (41.672)2 = 1064 N/m2

SF = Shape Factor (Pressure Coefficient)

= 2.0 Applied to the sum of the projected areas of members on

the front face of tower having cylindrical surfaces

= 3.2 Applied to the sum of the projected areas of members on

the front face of tower having flat surfaces

Wind pressures for high wind conditions for heights above 10 meters are given below in
Table 05-2 for guidance:

Table 05-2: Wind Pressures for Heights above 10 meters

Height Above Exposure Basic Wind Wind Pressure on Wind Pressure on

Ground Coefficient Pressure Cylindrical Surface Flat Surface
(m) (Kz) (N/m2) (N/m2) (N/m2)
10 1.000 1064 2128 3405
20 1.219 1297 2594 4150
30 1.369 1457 2914 4660
40 1.486 1581 3162 5060
50 1.584 1685 3370 5395
60 1.669 1776 3552 5685
70 1.744 1856 3712 5940
80 1.811 1927 3854 6170

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5.0 OVERLOAD CAPACITY FACTORS

The overload capacity factors to be applied to various loads under different loading
conditions shall be as given in Table 05-3.

Table 05-3: Overload Capacity Factors

Standard High Broken Heavy

Stringing
Types of Loads Wind Wind Wire Vertical
Loading
Loading Loading Loading Loading

Wind Load 2.50

Transverse
1.10 1.50 1.25 1.25
Loads Wire Tension
1.65
Load at angle

Vertical Loads 1.50 1.10 1.50 1.25 1.25

In general 1.10
Longitudinal
1.10 1.50 1.25 1.25
Loads
At dead-ends 1.65

Oblique Loads - 1.10 - - 1.25

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6.0 TYPES OF TOWERS

The selection of the most suitable types of towers for transmission lines depends on the
actual terrain of the line. The types of towers generally suitable for most of the SEC
transmission lines are given in Table 05-4.

Table 05-4: Types of Towers

Type of Tower Deviation Angle

Tangent Tower with 0º to 3º for 69kV to 230kV Transmission Lines

Suspension Strings 0º to 2º for 380 kV Transmission Lines
Small Angle Tower with
2º to 10º for 69kV to 230kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings

Light Angle Tower with 10º to 30º for 69kV to 230kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings 2º to 10º for 380kV Transmission Lines
Medium Angle Tower with 30º to 45º for 69kV to 230kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings 10º to 35º for 380kV Transmission Lines
Large Angle Tower with 45º to 60º for 69kV to 230kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings 35º to 60º for 380kV Transmission Lines
Heavy Angle Tower with
60º to 90º for 69kV to 380kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings

Anchor Tower with Tension 0º to 3º for 69kV to 380kV Transmission Lines (for
Strings sectionalizing the line to avoid cascade failures)

Dead-End/Terminal Tower 0º to 20º angle of entry/take-off for 69kV to 380kV

with Tension Strings Transmission Lines

Transposition Tower with

0º to 2º for 69kV to380 kV Transmission Lines
Tension Strings

Notes: i. The angles of line deviation specified are for the design span (design
ruling span). The span may, however, be increased up to an optimum
limit by reducing the angle of line deviation, provided the required
ground and phase clearances are met.

ii. Dead-End towers shall be designed for the maximum as well as

minimum angle of entry/take-off angle as specified in the above table.

iii. Tangent towers may be designed for zero angle of deviation and may be
used up to the maximum deviation angle specified in the above table by
reducing the design wind span corresponding to equivalent transverse
loads due to line deviation angle.

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7.0 BROKEN WIRE CONDITIONS

The following broken wire conditions shall be assumed for the design of towers:

7.1 Single Circuit Towers

The combination of broken wire cases, whichever is more stringent than others
for a particular member.

7.2 Double Circuit Towers

7.2.1. Tangent/Suspension Towers – Any one phase or ground wire broken,

whichever is more stringent for a particular member.

7.2.2 Angle (Tension) Towers – Any two phases broken on the same side
and same span or any one phase and one ground wire broken on the
same side and same span, whichever combination is more stringent for
a particular member.

7.2.3 Anchor and Dead-End Towers – All phases and ground wires intact on
one side and broken on the other side of towers.

Notes: i. Phase shall mean all the sub-conductors in the case of bundled
conductors.

ii. Broken conductor shall mean all sub-conductors of bundle

broken.

8.0 COMPUTATION OF LOADS

8.1 Types of Loads

Three types of loads act on transmission towers, namely transverse, vertical and
longitudinal. Towers shall be designed to withstand simultaneous action of these
loads multiplied by overload factors as in Clause 5.0, depending on design
condition.

8.2 Sag and Tension

Sag and tension values for conductors and ground wires shall be determined for
various loading conditions keeping in view the tension limiting conditions
specified in TES-P-122.03 for computing tower loads.

8.3 Tabulation of Loads and Loading Trees

Transverse, vertical and longitudinal loads for various loading conditions

specified in this standard shall be determined in accordance with the procedures

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

given in Clauses 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6 and tabulated or loading trees prepared before
proceeding with stress calculations and design.

Sample loading calculations for a tangent tower are given in Appendix-1.

8.4 Transverse Loads

8.4.1 Wind on Conductors and Ground Wires

Loads due to wind on wires (conductors/ground wires) Fwc, in

Newtons, applied at wire attachment points in the direction of
transverse axis of tower, shall be determined by the following
expression:

Fwc = Pd L D N (Eq. 05-2)

Where:

Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m²

L = Wind span, being sum of half the spans on both sides of

attachment point, in meters. Values of wind spans as
specified in the Scope of Work and Technical
Specifications (SOW/TS) or the relevant engineering
standard (as the case may be) shall be adopted.

D = Diameter of conductor/ground wire, in meters

N = Number of sub-conductors in a bundle

Note : Wind span for broken conductor is generally in the range

of sixty percent (60%) of intact wind span.

8.4.2 Wind on Insulator Strings

Wind load on insulator strings, Fwi, in Newtons, applied at attachment

points shall be determined from the following expression:

Fwi = Pd Ai (Eq. 05-3)

Where:

Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m2

Ai = Effective projected area of insulator strings in sq. m.

Effective projected area of the insulator strings shall be
assumed as fifty percent (50%) of the projected area of the

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

cylinder with a diameter equal to that of the insulator

skirt.

Note: In case of multi-strings including V-strings, wind pressure

on all strings of multi-string shall be considered without
any masking effect.
8.4.3 Line Deviation

Load due to line deviation, Fd, in Newtons, applied at attachment

points in the direction of transverse axis of tower, shall be determined
by the following expression:

Fd = 2 N T Sin θ/2 for intact spans (Eq. 05-4)

Fd = N T Sin θ/2 for broken spans (Eq. 05-5)

Where:

N = Number of sub-conductors in a bundle

T = Tension of conductor/ground wire under a given loading

condition, in Newtons

θ = Angle of line deviation, in degrees

8.4.4 Wind on Tower

A latticed tower consists of panels of varying heights. These panels are

formed between the intersection of legs and bracings. It is conventional
to determine wind load on each panel and transfer the same to wire
attachment points as point loads. In addition to lumping the wind loads
on wire attachment points, it is sometimes desirable (in case of taller
towers) to lump wind loads at extension tops and at one or two points
in the tower body also. The practice of lumping tower wind loads at
wire attachment points reflects a practical approach and facilitates
application of tower wind loads during full scale testing of tower.

Tower wind may also be distributed throughout the height of tower, as

is the case when tower is designed on computer and wind loads are not
input as point loads at wire attachment points. This may reflect true
field conditions provided that all the tower members are included in
tower model during analysis. Further this may require redistribution of
wind loads at wire attachment points and at some panel points to
facilitate application of wind loads during full scale tower testing.

Wind load, Fwt, in Newtons, for wind normal to the latticed face of the
tower, on a panel height “H” assumed to be acting at center of gravity
is given by the expression:

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

Fwt = Pd Ae (Eq. 05-6)

Where:

Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m2

Ae = Net projected surface area of legs, bracings, cross-arms

and secondary members of latticed face of the panel, in
sq.m. Projections of bracing members of the adjacent
faces and of the plan and hip bracings may be neglected
while determining net projected area of members.

Note: For transverse wind, longitudinal face of tower is latticed

face and for longitudinal wind, transverse face of tower is
the latticed face. For diagonal (oblique, 45°) wind, wind
pressure for both transverse and longitudinal faces is 0.71
times the design wind pressure. Total transverse load at
each conductor/ground wire attachment points is the sum
of Fwc, Fwi and Fd. Transverse loads due to tower wind of
each panel, Fwt is distributed as explained above.

8.5 Vertical Loads

8.5.1 Weight of Conductors, Ground Wires and Hardware

Loads due to weight of wires, Vc, in Newtons, shall be determined as

below and applied at wire attachment points:

Vc = W1 Wt N + W2 (Eq. 05-7)

Where:

W1 = Unit weight of conductors and ground wires, in N/m

W2 = Weight of spherical warning markers, warning lights,

spacers and hardware, etc., in Newtons

Wt = Weight span, being the horizontal distance between the

lowest points of conductors/ground wires on the two spans
adjacent to the tower under consideration, in meters

The lowest point is defined as the point at which the tangent to the sag
curve or to the extended sag curve is horizontal. Values of weight spans
as specified in SOW/TS or relevant engineering standard (as the case
may be) shall be adopted.

N = Number of sub-conductors in a bundle

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In a transmission line, three types of weight spans may be encountered.

They are:

- Minimum weight span

- Maximum downward weight span and
- Maximum upward weight span

Tangent/Suspension towers shall be designed for both minimum and

maximum downward weight spans. Minimum weight span may
govern design of foundation under uplift and also some tower
members. Minimum weight span also governs the swing of suspension
insulator strings.

Tangent/Suspension tower shall never be used at locations, which are

subjected to uplift.

Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End towers may be required to be

designed for upward weight span in addition to downward weight span.
Upward forces on a tower result due to higher elevation of wire
attachment points on adjacent towers.

8.5.2 Weight of Hardware and Insulator Strings

Load due to weight of hardware and insulator strings, VL,in Newtons,

shall be applied at wire attachment points. Weight of insulator string
shall be taken as the sum of weight of all the insulators and hardware in
a string/multi-string.

8.5.3 Weight of Linemen and Tools

Weight of Linemen and tools, VL , in Newtons, shall be applied at

ground wire and conductor attachment points for the specified loading
conditions.

8.5.4 Self-Weight of Tower

Self-weight of tower is the weight of all the structural members, plates,

nuts, bolts, washers, step bolts, ladders and all other accessories of
tower. The weight of insulator washing facilities such as wash
platforms, interconnecting walkways and handrails are to be included
where the insulators are at a height of forty (40) meters and above.

Self-weight of tower shall either be calculated on the basis of unit

weight of each member of tower and increased by about 10 to 12
percent to account for the weight of nuts, bolts, washers, cleats, plates
etc. and distributed at panel points or shall be generated and distributed
automatically when tower will be designed on computer. The computer

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generated weight shall also be increased by a suitable percentage to

account for weight of above items plus weight of redundant members.

Total vertical load at each wire attachment point is the algebraic sum of
Vc, Vi, and VL.

8.6 Longitudinal Loads

Longitudinal loads are caused by any of the following loading conditions:

8.6.1 Longitudinal and Oblique Winds Under High Wind condition

Longitudinal loads due to high wind in longitudinal and oblique

directions shall be calculated for insulator strings and towers as per
procedure in Clauses 8.4.2 and 8.4.4 and in accordance with
assumptions in Clauses 3.1.3.c and 3.1.4.c.

These loads shall be applied in longitudinal direction, normal to the

transverse face of tower for longitudinal wind and in transverse and
longitudinal directions for diagonal/oblique wind.

8.6.2 Broken Wire Condition

Unbalanced pulls shall be based on wire tensions determined according

to loading criteria specified in Clause 3.2.1.e and applied at wire
attachment points, normal to the transverse face of tower.

Number of conductors and ground wires to be considered broken shall

be as in Clause 7.0.

a. Tangent/Suspension Towers

Longitudinal loads for broken conductors get reduced due to

swing of suspension strings. The longitudinal load shall be
calculated using tension in the broken conductor as sixty percent
(60%) of the tension in the intact conductor.

Longitudinal loads for broken ground wires shall be without any

reduction in tension.

b. Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End Towers

Longitudinal loads for broken conductors/ground wires shall be

the component of tension in longitudinal direction corresponding
to minimum design angle of deviation for angle (tension) towers.

Longitudinal loads for broken conductors/ground wires shall be

taken as nil for Anchor and Dead-End towers.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

8.6.3 Stringing Condition

Stringing loads shall be assumed equal to tension of conductors/ground

wires at minus 1°C (-1°C), no wind, initial condition and applied in the
longitudinal direction:

- at any one conductor or ground wire attachment point at a time in

case of Tangent/Suspension towers.

- at all conductor and ground wire attachment points

simultaneously in case of Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End
towers.

- Stringing of any one phase conductor and/or ground wire when

temporarily dead-ended (anchored) at a distance such that the
angle between the traveler on the tower and anchor on the ground
is 15º to the horizontal.

8.6.4 Intact Span Condition for Anchor and Dead-End Towers

Longitudinal loads due to one sided tensions for Anchor and Dead-End
towers shall be equal to full tension of conductors and ground wires
under worst loading condition. These loads shall be applied
simultaneously at all wire attachment points in one direction only.

8.7 Other Loads

Towers shall be designed to include the effects of transverse loads due to wind
on spherical markers and phase conductor warning lights etc. and their vertical
weights. These loads including the overload capacity factors shall be included in
the phase conductors and overhead ground wires loads and shall be considered
mandatory in the design of towers regardless of the actual project requirements.

9.0 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

9.1 Axial Stresses in Tension

9.1.1 The design tensile stress on the net cross-sectional area An of

concentrically loaded tension member, shall not exceed minimum
guaranteed yield stress Fy of the material. In case the angle section is
connected by one leg only, the design tensile stress on the net sectional
area shall not exceed 0.9 Fy.

9.1.2 The net cross-sectional area, An, is the gross cross-sectional area Ag
(the sum of the products of the thickness and the gross width of each
element as measured normal to the axis of the member) minus the loss
due to holes or other openings at the section being investigated. If there

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

is a chain of holes in a diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of an

element shall be determined by deducting from the gross width the sum
of diameters of all the holes in the chain and adding for each gage
space in the chain the quantity s²/4g, where s = longitudinal spacing
(pitch) and g = transverse spacing (gage) of any two consecutive holes.

The critical net cross-sectional area, An, is obtained from the chain
which gives the least net width.

9.1.3 Plain angle sections bolted in both legs at both ends shall be considered
to be concentrically loaded. Leg members of latticed steel towers fall in
this category.

9.1.4 Plain angle sections used as bracing members in latticed towers are
connected by one leg only. The allowable tensile stress for such
members shall be limited to 0.9 Fy. If the legs are unequal and the short
leg is connected, the unconnected leg shall be considered to be of the
same size as the connected leg.

9.1.5 While developing structural drawings, care shall be taken such that the
centroid of the bolt pattern lies between the heel of the angle and the
center line of the connected leg. If this condition is not met, the
connection shall be checked for block shear in accordance with
equation (3.10-1) of ASCE Standard 10-97 “Design of Latticed Steel
Transmission Structures”.

9.2 Axial Stresses in Compression

9.2.1 The following provisions are applicable only to 90° angle sections.

9.2.2 The design compressive stresses in various members shall not exceed
the values given by the formulas in Clause 9.2.3.

9.2.3 The allowable unit stress, Fa, in MPa on the gross cross-sectional area
or on the reduced area where specified, of axially loaded compression
members shall be:

⎡ 1 ⎛ KL / r ⎞ 2 ⎤
Fa = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ Fy when KL/r ≤ Cc (Eq. 05-8)
⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ C c ⎠ ⎥⎦

π 2E
Fa = when KL/r > Cc (Eq. 05-9)
(KL / r )2

2E
Cc = π (Eq. 05-10)
Fy

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

Where:

Fy = Minimum yield stress of steel, MPa

E = Modulus of elasticity of steel

= 2 x 105 MPa

K = Effective length factor

KL/r = Largest effective slenderness ratio of any unbraced

segment of a compression member

L = Unbraced length of the compression member, cm

r = Appropriate radius of gyration, cm

9.2.4 The formulas given in Clause 9.2.3 are applicable provided that the
largest value of w/t (width-thickness ratio) does not exceed the limiting
value given by

210
(w/t)Lim = (Eq. 05-11)
Fy

Where:

w = Distance from edge of fillet of angle section to the

extreme fiber, mm.
t = Thickness of leg, mm

9.2.5 Where the width-thickness ratio exceeds the limit given in Clause
9.2.4, equations (05-8) and (05-10) given in Clause 9.2.3 are used by
substituting for Fy the value Fcr given by

⎡ 0.677( w / t ) ⎤ 378
Fcr = ⎢1.677 − ⎥ Fy when (w/t)Lim ≤ w/t ≤
⎣ (w/t) Lim ⎦ Fy
(Eq. 05-12)
and

65550 378
Fcr = when w/t > (Eq. 05-13)
( w/t ) 2 Fy

9.2.6 The maximum permissible value of w/t for any type of steel shall not
exceed 25.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

9.3 Stresses in Bolts

9.3.1 Shear Stress: The shear strengths of bolts conforming to ASTM A394,
Type 0, are given in Table 05-5 and these shall not be exceeded. For
bolts in double shear the specified single shear values shall be
multiplied by 2.

Table 05-5: Shear Strengths of ASTM A394 Type 0 Bolts

Nominal Bolt Single Shear Strength Single Shear Strength

Size Through Threads Through Body
(mm) (kN) (kN)
16 50 60
20 80 95
22 100 120
24 120 140

Notes:

i. The above Table for ASTM A394, Type 0, bolts is based

on shear strength of 380 MPa (55,200 psi unit shear
strength) across the area at root of threads and 316 MPa
(45,880 psi unit shear strength) across the nominal area.

ii. For bolts conforming to other recognized International

Standards and sizes, the chemical composition shall
conform to or be better than ASTM A394, Type 0 and the
allowable shear stress Fv on the effective area shall be
0.62Fu where Fu is the specified minimum tensile strength
of the bolt material. The effective area is the gross cross-
sectional area of the bolt if threads are excluded from the
shear plane or the root area if the threads are in the shear
plane.

iii. It is recommended that shear strength values through

threads shall be used for design purposes to take care of
any possibility of threaded portion of bolt extending into
plane of shear during erection.

9.3.2 Bearing Stress

The maximum bearing stress, calculated as the force on a bolt divided

by the product of the bolt diameter and the thickness of the connected
part is limited between 1.2 to 1.5 times the specified minimum tensile
stress Fu of the connected part (member) or the bolt. A bearing stress
value of 1.25 times the minimum tensile stress Fu shall be adopted in
this standard to permit reduction in the end and edge distances.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

For bolts conforming to ASTM A394, Type 0, the bearing stress on

bolt diameter for structural steels specified in this standard shall be as
follows:

ASTM A36M 500 MPa

ASTM A572M (Grade 345) 560 MPa

10.0 EFFECTIVE SLENDERNESS RATIOS AND LIMITING CONDITIONS

The effective slenderness ratio, KL/r, of compression and redundant members shall be
determined as follows:

10.1 Leg Members

For leg members bolted in both faces at connections,

KL L L
= 0≤ ≤ 150 (Eq. 05-14)
r r r

10.2 Other Compression Members

For members with a concentric load at both ends of the unsupported panel,

KL L L
= 0≤ ≤ 120 (Eq. 05-15)
r r r

For members with a concentric load at one end and normal framing eccentricity
at the other end of the unsupported panel,

KL L L
= 30 + 0.75 0≤ ≤ 120 (Eq. 05-16)
r r r

For members with normal framing eccentricities at both ends of the unsupported
panel,

KL L L
= 60 + 0.5 0≤ ≤ 120 (Eq. 05-17)
r r r

For members unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the unsupported panel,

KL L L
= 120 ≤ ≤ 200 (Eq. 05-18)
r r r

For members partially restrained against rotation at one end of the unsupported
panel,

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

KL L L
= 28.6 + 0.762 120 ≤ ≤ 225 (Eq. 05-19)
r r r

For members partially restrained against rotation at both ends of the unsupported
panel,

KL L L
= 46.2 + 0.615 120 ≤ ≤ 250 (Eq. 05-20)
r r r

10.3 Redundant Members

KL L L
= 0≤ ≤ 120 (Eq. 05-21)
r r r

If members are unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the unsupported

panel,

KL L L
= 120 ≤ ≤ 250 (Eq. 05-22)
r r r

If members are partially restrained against rotation at one end of the unsupported
panel,

KL L L
= 28.6 + 0.762 120 ≤ ≤ 290 (Eq. 05-23)
r r r

If members are partially restrained against rotation at both ends of the

unsupported panel,

KL L L
= 46.2 + 0.615 120 ≤ ≤ 330 (Eq. 05-24)
r r r

10.4 Joint Restraint

A single bolt connection at either the end of a member or a point of intermediate

support shall not be considered as furnishing restraint against rotation. A
multiple bolt connection, detailed to minimize eccentricity, shall be considered
to offer partial restraint if the connection is to a member capable of resisting
rotation of the joint. A multiple bolt connection to an angle or angle chord
member, detailed to minimize eccentricity, shall not be considered to offer
partial restraint if the connection is made only on a gusset plate without also
being framed to the restraining member.

To justify using the values of KL/r in equations 05-19, 05-20, 05-23 and 05-24,
the following evaluation is suggested:

- The restrained member must be connected to the restraining member

with at least two bolts.
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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

- The restraining member must have a stiffness factor I/L in the stress
plane (I = Moment of inertia and L = Length) that equals or exceeds the
sum of the stiffness factors in the stress plane of the restrained members
that are connected to it; and

- Angle members connected solely to a gusset plate should not be

considered to have end restraint against rotation. An angle member with
an end connection to both a gusset plate and the restraining angle
member should have adequate bolts in the restraining angle member to
provide end restraint against rotation.

Angle members connected by one leg shall have the holes located as close to the
outstanding leg as practical. Except for some of the smaller angles, normal
framing eccentricity implies that the centroid of the bolt pattern is located
between the heel of the angle and the centerline of the connected leg.

In calculating the slenderness ratios of the members, the length L shall be the
distance between the intersection of the center of gravity lines at each end of the
member.

10.5 Limiting Values of Slenderness Ratios

10.5.1 The limiting values of effective slenderness ratio, KL/r, for

compression members shall be as follows:

Leg members, ground wire peak members, and

main members of cross-arms in compression 150

Other members carrying computed stresses 200

Redundant members/secondary members

carrying nominal stresses 250

10.5.2 Slenderness ratio, L/r, of a member carrying

axial tension only shall not exceed 375

Other tension members 500

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

11.0 MINIMUM THICKNESSES

11.1 The minimum thickness of structural members shall be as given in Table 05-6:

Table 05-6: Minimum Thickness of Members

Type of Members Minimum Thickness, mm

Leg members, ground wire peak members and
6
main members of cross-arms in compression
Other stress carrying members 5

Redundant members* 4

Stub Angle 8
Note: *The redundant members shall be designed for 2.5% of the load in the
supported member.

11.2 Gusset plates

These shall be designed to resist the shear, direct and flexural stresses acting on
the weakest or critical sections. Minimum thickness of gusset plate shall be 2mm
more than the lattice connected to it only in case when the lattice is directly
connected on gusset plate outside the leg member. In no case the thickness of
gusset plate shall be less than 5mm.

12.0 CONNECTIONS, END & EDGE DISTANCES

Bolted connections for transmission towers are normally designed as bearing type
connections. It is assumed that bolts connecting one member to another carry the load in
the connection equally.

The end and edge distances specified in this standard are based on bearing stress value
of 1.25 times the minimum specified tensile stress of weaker of the material of bolt or
connected part and these do not include any allowance for fabrication and rolling
tolerances.

12.1 Bolting

12.1.1 Minimum Diameter of Bolts

The diameter of bolts shall not be less than 16mm.

12.1.2 Preferred Sizes of Bolts

Bolts used for erection of transmission line towers shall preferably be

of diameter 16mm and 20mm. Preferably one size of connection bolts
and nuts shall be used for Tangent/Suspension type towers. However,
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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

for Angle (Tension), Anchor and Dead-End type towers, two sizes of
connection bolts may be used. All bolts shall be provided with hot-dip
galvanized steel locknuts.

The length of bolts shall be such that the threaded portion does not lie
in the plane of contact of members. The projected portion of the bolt
beyond the locknut shall be between 3 to 8mm but not less than three
(3) effective threads.

12.1.3 Gross and Net Area of Bolts

For the purpose of calculating the shear stress the gross area of bolt is
taken as the nominal area of bolt only when it is ensured that the
threaded portion of bolt will not extend into the plane of contact of
connected members. In this standard the shear area of bolts has been
taken as the area at the root of threads (see Clause 9.3.1 and Table 05-
5). The bolt area for bearing shall be taken, as d x t where d is the
nominal diameter of the bolt, and t is the thickness of the thinner of the
parts joined.

The net area of a bolt in tension shall be taken as the area at the root of
the thread.

12.1.4 Holes for Bolting

The diameter of the hole drilled/punched shall be 1.5mm more than the
nominal diameter of the bolt.

12.2 Framing

The angle between any two members common to a joint of a trussed frame shall
preferably be greater than 20° and never less than 15° due to uncertainty of stress
distribution between two closely spaced members.

12.3 End & Edge Distances

The end distance is the distance from the center of a hole to the end of the
member, whether this end is perpendicular or inclined to the line of force.

The edge distance is the distance from the center of a hole to the rolled or
sheared edge. It is a perpendicular distance between the nearest gage line of
holes to the rolled or sheared edge running parallel to the gage line.

12.3.1 Stressed members

The required end distance is a function of the load being transferred in

the bolt, the tensile strength and thickness of the connected part.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

For stressed members the end and edge distances are given in Table 05-
7. These are minimum and shall not be underrun by fabrication &
rolling tolerances.

Table 05-7: End and Edge Distances for Stressed Members

Bolt diameter (mm)

Description
16 20 22 24
Thickness limitation for punched
16 20 22 24
holes for ASTM A36M Steel (mm)
End distance (sheared or
mechanically guided flame cut 24 30 33 36
end)
Edge distance (Rolled Edge) 21 26 28 32
Edge distance (sheared or
mechanically guided flame cut 23 28 30 34
edge)

The values of end and edge distances given in Table 05-7 are
applicable for all types of steels specified in this standard except that
punching thickness limitations are applicable to ASTM A36M steel.
For high strength steels (ASTM A572M, Grade 345) the thickness of
material for punched holes shall be the thickness specified in Table 05-
7 minus 1.5mm for maintaining the same end and edge distances.

Where the thickness of the angle section is more than the limiting value
of thickness given in Table 05-7 and holes are punched, the end and
edge distances will be governed by the following equations.

End distance (mm) = t + d/2 when t ≥ d (Eq.05-25)

Edge distance (mm) = 0.85[t + d/2] when t ≥ d (Eq. 05-26)

(Rolled edge)

Edge distance (mm) = 0.85[t + d/2] + 2.0 when t ≥ d (Eq. 05-27)

(sheared or mechanically guided flame cut)

Where:

d = Nominal diameter of bolt, mm

t = Thickness of connected leg, mm

The above provisions shall not apply if holes are drilled. Values of end
and edge distances shown in the Table 05-7 shall also be applicable for
member thicknesses in excess of those shown in Table 05-7, for drilled
holes.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

12.3.2 Redundant Members.

The end and edge distances of redundant members shall not be less
than the values given in Table 05-8.

Table 05-8: End and Edge Distances for Redundant Members

Bolt diameter (mm)

Description
16 20 22 24
End distance (sheared or
20 24 27 30
mechanically guided flame cut end)
Edge distance (Rolled Edge) 17 21 23 26
Edge distance (sheared or
19 23 25 28
mechanically guided flame cut edge)

12.4 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spacing

The center-to-center bolt hole spacing is fixed to meet the following

requirements:

12.4.1 Strength requirement, given by:

1.2Ρ
Smin = + 0.6d (Eq.
FU t
05-28)

Where:

Smin = Minimum center-to-center spacing between two holes in

the line
of transmitted force, mm

P = Load transmitted through the bolt, Newtons

FU = Minimum tensile strength of steel, MPa.

t = Thickness of connected part (leg), mm.

d = Diameter of bolt, mm.

12.4.2 Installation requirement, given by:

Sinst = Width across flats of nut + 10mm.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

The minimum bolt spacing for various bolt diameters, considering

above requirements and bolt bearing stresses specified in this standard
are given in Table 05-9.

Table 05-9: Minimum Center-to-Center Bolt hole Spacing

Bolt diameter (mm)

Description
16 20 22 24

Minimum Spacing (mm) 35 45 50 55

13.0 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

13.1 Single Circuit Strung Condition

For double circuit towers the design shall be suitable both for single circuit and
double circuit strung conditions.

13.2 Stub Angle Sizing

The unbraced portion of the stub between the last bracing connection and top of
concrete is subjected to combined axial and bending stresses. The stub angle
shall be suitable to withstand combined stresses.

The stub angle and the shear connectors shall be designed in accordance with the
ASCE Standard 10-97 “Design of Latticed Steel Transmission Structures” for
the maximum groundline reactions with overload capacity factors. Bonding
between the stub angle and concrete shall be ignored.

The thickness of the stub angle shall be 2mm more than the thickness of the leg
member to which it is connected.

13.3 Considerations for Linemen Weight

Horizontal or near horizontal tower members shall be capable of supporting a

vertical load of 1100 Newtons (vertical weight of linemen and tools). This load
shall be applied independently of all other loads without permanent distortion of
the members.

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APPENDIX - 1
(Sheet 1 of 2)

Project Title: Code No. Tower Type Drawing No. Page No.
__________ ________ _________ __________ _______

Design Span (m) Wind Span (m) Max. Weight Span (m) Min/Uplift Weight Span (m)
Normal: Normal: Normal:
Line Angle (Deg): Broken: Broken: Broken:
LOADING CONDITION (Tick as Applicable)
Standard High Wind Broken Wire Stringing Heavy
High Wind High Wind
Wind Oblique Vertical
Transverse Longitudinal

TRANSVERSE LOADS OLF Newtons

OHGW/OPGW
Wind Load on OHG Wire..................................................................... x....... =
Wind Load on SM, VD, HS*................................................................ x....... =
Angle Pull............................................................................................ x....... =
TOTAL =
Conductor
Wind Load on Conductor..................................................................... x ...... =
Wind Load on Insulators...................................................................... x ...... =
Wind Load on SP, VD, WL*............................................................... x ...... =
Angle Pull........................................................................................... x....... =
TOTAL =
VERTICAL LOADS MAXIMUM
OHGW/OPGW
Weight of OHG Wire............................................................................ x...... =
Weight of SM, VD, HS*....................................................................... x...... =
Weight of Lineman and tools................................................................. x...... =
TOTAL =
Conductor
Weight of conductor............................................................................. x...... =
Weight of SP, VD, WL*.................................................................... x...... =
Weight of Insulators.............................................................................. x...... =
Weight of Lineman & tools................................................................. x...... =
TOTAL =
* SM = Spherical Markers VD = Vibration Dampers
HS = Hardware Sets SP = Spacer Dampers
WL = Warning Lights

NOTE: Loads due to wind on tower shall be calculated and applied in transverse and longitudinal directions as the
case may be.
Continued on sheet 2

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

APPENDIX - 1
(Sheet 2 of 2)

Project Title: Code No. Tower Type Drawing No. Page No.
___________ _________ __________ __________ _______

Design Span (m) Wind Span (m) Max. Weight Span (m) Min./Uplift Weight Span (m)
Normal: Normal: Normal:
Line Angle (Deg): Broken: Broken: Broken:
LOADING CONDITION (Tick as Applicable)
Standard High Wind High Wind High Wind Broken Wire Stringing Heavy
Wind Transverse Longitudinal Oblique Vertical

VERTICAL LOADS MINIMUM OLF Newtons

OHWG/OPGW
Weight of OHG Wire........................................................................... x...... =
Weight of SM & VD*.......................................................................... x...... =
Weight of Lineman and tools................................................................ x........ =
TOTAL =
Conductor
Weight of conductor............................................................................. x...... =
Weight of SP, VD, WL*....................................................................... x...... =
Weight of Insulators.............................................................................. x...... =
Weight of Lineman & tools.................................................................... x........ =
TOTAL =
* SM = Spherical Markers
VD = Vibration Dampers
HS = Hardware Sets
SP = Spacer Dampers
WL = Warning Lights

LONGITUDINAL LOADS (WIRE PULL, WIND ON INSULATORS**) Newtons

OHGW/OPGW .................................................................................. =
Conductor .................................................................................. =
(**Applicable for longitudinal and diagonal winds only)

NOTE: Loads due to wind on tower shall be calculated and applied in transverse and longitudinal directions as the case
may be.

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TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.05PI, Rev. 0

14.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ASCE Manual No. 74 “Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line Structural

Loading”, American Society for Civil Engineers, First Edition (1991).

2. ASCE Standard 10-97 “Design of Latticed Steel Transmission Structures”,

American Society for Civil Engineers, Second Edition (2002).

3. IEC 60826: "Design Criteria of Overhead Transmission Lines", Third edition

2003.

4. Holland H. Farr, "Transmission Line Design Manual", United States Department

of the Interior.

5. Rural Electrification Administration (U.S. Department of Agriculture), "Design

Manual for High Voltage Transmission Lines".

TEP122.05PIR0/MAA Date of Approval: May 7, 2007 PAGE NO. 34 OF 34