Japanese - A Logical Grammar, 2005

For more information, please send e-mail to "Mash Satou." <[email protected]>.
A Logical Japanese Grammar

Welcome to my "A Logical Japanese Grammar" page. I would like to introduce wonderful and logical Japanese grammar. Japanese has a strange grammar that is quit different
from most European languages. However, you can easily understand and be familiar with it after you know the simple and logical grammar of Japanese. It has a few exceptions
and uniformed rules. I hope this article helps you learn Japanese more deeply.
I am sorry I am still constructing these pages and columns. There might be many blanks but I will update them frequently. I am happy you may check this page once a week.
Let's go to the table of contents.

Please feel free to link this page "http://homepage3.nifty.com/jgrammar/".
You can get a PDF version from this package.
Interesting topics about Japanese Grammar ( Feb.12/2005 )
Table of Contents
Pronunciation
Phonemes ( Dec.7/ 2002 )
Syllables ( Dec.7/ 2002 )
Accents ( Dec.7/ 2002 )
Loan Words from English
English Phonemes ( Dec.7/2002 )
Rules to Kana Syllables ( Dec.7/2002 )
Samples ( Dec.7/2002 )
Introduction
Parts of Speech ( Dec. 8 2002 )
Word Orders ( Dec. 8 2002 )
Correspondence of Pronouns, Cases, Articles, Interrogatives ( Dec.9/2002 )
Nouns, Adjectival Nouns, Verbal Nouns
Ordinary Nouns ( Dec.10/2002 )
Adjectival Nouns ( Dec.10/2002 )
Verbal Nouns ( Dec.11/2002 )
Numerals and Classifiers ( Dec.11/2002 )
Verbs, Adjectival Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs
The Verbal Conjugation ( Dec.14/2002 )
Polite ( Dec.18/2002 )
Negative ( Dec.18/2002 )
Tense ( Dec.18/2002 )
Mood ( Dec.18/2002 )
Existence ( Dec.28/2002 )
Copula ( Jan.14/2003 )
Adjectival Verbs ( Jan.18/2003 )
Voices ( Feb.1/2003, Apr.6/2003 )
Auxiliary Verbs ( May.23/2003 )
Moving and Giving Verbs ( May.27/2003 )
Supplemental Verbs ( Jun.30/2003 )
Particles (Jul.14/2003)
Case Particles (Jul. 27/2004)
Nominal Particles (Sep. 4/2004)
Topical Particles (Mar.28/2005)
Adverbial Particles
Ending Particles
Conjunctive Particles
Interjective Particles
Conjunctives, Interjections
Conjunctives
Interjections
Demonstrative
Adnominal, Adverbs
Adverbs to modify Verbs
Adnominal To modify Nouns
Special Topics
A Japanese Conjugation Builder ( Oct.19/2003, Apr.13/2003 )
Kanji Cards ( Dec.29/2003, Nov.02/2004 )
Uniformed Regular Verbal Conjugation of Japanese ( Oct.14/2001 )
Columns about Japanese Statistical Grammar ( Feb.12/2005 )
History of Updating
Mar.28/2005 : Topical particles
Nov.02/2004 : Update and Bug Fix of Kanji Cards
Sep.04/2004 : About nominal particles
Jul.27/2004 : About case particles
Apr.13/2004 : Bug Fix of Javascript in Japanese Conjugation Builder.
Feb.14/2004 : Change the terms form imperfect, perfect to present, past
Dec.29/2003 : Open Kanji cards page.
Dec.06/2003 : Add a link to Furigana pages.
Nov.03/2003 : Provide a PDF version of these pages.
Oct.19/2003 : Introduce a new conjugation builder.
Jul.14/2003 : About particles and to append Kana tables.
Jun.30/2003 : About supplemental verbs
May.27/2003 : About moving and giving verbs
May.23/2003 : About auxiliary verbs
Apr.26/2003 : Modify nouns, the conjugation, the copula, voices page
Apr.06/2003 : Complete the document of voices
Mar.28/2003 : Rearrange conjugation tables and pitch accents
Feb.01/2003 : Start to make the page about voices
Jan.18/2003 : About copulas and adjectival verbs
Jan.14/2003 : Add a summary to the verbs for existence
Dec.28/2002 : About existence
Dec.18/2002 : About tenses and so on
Dec.14/2002 : About verbal conjugation
Dec.11/2002 : About verbal nouns, classifiers
Dec.10/2002 : About nouns, adjectival nouns
Dec.09/2002 : About demonstrative pronouns
Dec.08/2002 : About word orders
Dec.07/2002 : This new site starts
Special Thanks to
Japanese Language ( http://japanese.about.com/ )
Language Express ( http://www.langexpress.com/Study-Japanese-Links.htm )
A Japanese guide to Japanese grammar ( http://www.geocities.jp/nihongoguide/ )
Japanese for the Western Brain ( http://www.mindspring.com/~kimall/Japanese/index.html )
Kotoba no sanpo-michi ( http://homepage1.nifty.com/forty-sixer/kotoba.htm )
Nihon-go-mono-gatari ( http://www.jliu.org/CAJLE/cajle_essay_index.htm )
Interesting Topics
Jim Breen's Japanese Page ( http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/japanese.html )
Collin's Japanese Language & Culture Page ( http://www.epochrypha.com/japanese/ )
Japanese in the Age of Technology ( http://www.honco.net/japanese/index.html )
Omniglot ( http://www.omniglot.com/index.htm )
Pronunciation
Japanese has a very simple syllabic system which is easy to learn. The most syllables consist of simple combinations as a consonant followed by a vowel. The total number of
the syllables are only around 150 including the syllables for loan words. The syllables for Japanese native words are counted to around 100.
Tables of Phonemes
Vowels
Japanese has the system of 5 stable vowels, which is the most popular among languages in the world, like Spanish.
Vowels "a" as in past

positions of a tongue front center back "i" as in pit
"u" as in put
flat lips/round lips F R F R F R "e" as in pet
high i u "o" as in pot
middle e o
low a
Strictly speaking, they are slightly different from the real sound of Japanese. The best way to confirm these sounds is to listen to the real sounds pronounced by a native
speaker of Japanese. In this article, I have no purpose to tell the correct sound deeply so I do not mention more details.
Consonants
Japanese has 22 consonants that are easy to pronounce.
Consonants "p" as in space "z" as in zoo

post- "b" as in base "n" as in net
labial alveolar palatal velar glottal "f" as in fade "r" as intermediate sound
alveolar
without upper teeth between l and r
voiceless plosives p t k "v" as in vase "ch" as in chase
voiced plosives b d g "m" as in make "dj" as in adjust
voiceless affricates ts ch "w" as in wake "sh" as in shake
"t" as in stay "j" as in jet
voiced affricates dz dj
"d" as in date "y" as in you
voiceless fricatives f s sh h "ts" as in boots "k" as in skate
voiced fricatives v z j "dz" as in cards "g" as in gate
nasals m n "s" as in sake "h" as in head
lateral approximants r
approximants w y
They are slightly different from the real sounds. If you know the exact sounds, please refer the other sources. I do not focus on the exact sounds as well as the sounds of
the vowels in this article.
Special Thanks to
http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html
http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/Pronunciation/consonant/consonan.htm
http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/linguistics/lectures/10lct15i.html
Tables of Syllables
I am using Japanese Hiragana and Katakana font to display the following tables. You can get them without any special fee from Microsoft web site, http://www.microsoft.com, if
you use Windows OS.
Japanese has two types of phonetic scripts which have the same pronunciation parallelly.
Hiragana
This script describes Japanese native words and loan words from ancient Chinese.
Katakana
This script describes loan words from foreign languages except ancient Chinese.
Standard Syllables (By Hiragana)
a i u e o Japanese has syllables that are plainly combined with a consonant and a vowel. The following list shows us the
standard phonemes
k,ky ka ki ku ke ko kya kyu kyo
V1: a, i, u, e, o
V2: a, u, o
s,sh sa shi su se so sha shu sho V3: a
C1: k, s, t, n, h, m, r, g, z, d, b, p
C2: ky, sh, ch, ny, hy, my, y, ry, gy, j, by, py
t,ch,ts ta chi tsu te to cha chu cho C3: w
S: n', c', h'
n,ny na ni nu ne no nya nyu nyo
The following list shows us the standard combinations
h,f,hy ha hi fu he ho hya hyu hyo
V1: 5 syllables
C1 V1: 12 x 5 = 60 syllables
m,my ma mi mu me mo mya myu myo C2 V2: 13 x 3 = 39 syllables
C3 V3: 1 x 1 = 1 syllables
y ya yu yo S: 3 syllables
Total: 108 syllables
r,ry ra ri ru re ro rya ryu ryo
However, the following syllables are exceptional.
w wa sound change: "shi" "si", "chi" "ti", "tsu" "tu", "fu" "hu", "ji" "zi", "dji" "di", "dzu" "du"
same sounds: "ji" = "dji", "zu" = "dzu", "ja" = "dja", "ju" = "dju", "jo" = "djo"
g,gy ga gi gu ge go gya gyu gyo
The following list shows us the real sound of the special syllables. The last letter "'" is usually omittable except
before vowel and semi-vowel letters ( a,i,u,e,o,y,w ) if it is not ambiguous.
z,j za ji zu ze zo ja ju jo
n': "m" before "p, b, m". "n" before the others
d,dj,dz da dji dzu de do dja dju djo c': "k" before "k". "s" before "s, sh". "t" before "t", ch. "p" before "p"
h': "a" after "a". "i" after "i". "u" after "u". "e" after "e". "o" after "o". It is usually called "the long vowel mark".
It is spelled formally as follows.
b,by ba bi bu be bo bya byu byo "ah'" = "â", "ih'" = "î", "uh'" = "û", "eh'" = "ê", "oh'" = "ô".
p,py pa pi pu pe po pya pyu pyo The following list shows us the sound and the Hiragana spelling of the 3 special particles
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 'wa: the sound "wa", the spelling "ha"
'e: the sound "e", the spelling "he"
Special Syllables Particles
'o: the sound "o", the spelling "wo"
n' c' h' 'wa 'e 'o
Standard Syllables ( Classic Sounds ) ( By Hiragana )
a i u e o ya yu yo These 22 syllables are spelled as the sequences in this table because of the historical reason. In authorized
documents, they might be spelled with this rule. Furthermore, knowing these spellings helps you understand verbal
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
conjugations of Japanese.
s,sy si sya syu syo
In order to distinguish the spellings for real phonetic sounds from the classic spellings, the following real sounds are
z,zy zi zya zyu zyo spelled with an apostrophe or 'h' followed by their consonant and so no. However, there is neither official nor
common rule to spell them.
t,ty ti tu tya tyu tyo
s'i, t'i, t'u, t'ya, t'yu, t'yo,
z'i, d'i, d'u, d'ya, d'yu, d'yo,
d,dy di du dya dyu dyo whi, whe, who
h hu These lessons do not use neither an apostrophe nor an 'h' for these distinction,
w wi we wo
Extended Syllables including The Standard ( Modern and Classic ) ( By Katakana )
a i u e o ya yu ye yo This table shows us all the syllables that Japanese can use for loan words. You may choose the
nearest sound that you want to pronounce from this table. The following list shows us some examples.
yes: yesu ( )
sit: sitto ( )
k,ky ka ki ku ke ko kya kyu kye kyo shake: sheiku ( )
jet: jetto ( )
g,gy ga gi gu ge go gya gyu gye gyo teacher: tih'chah', tîchâ ( )
too: tuh', tû ( )
deep: dih'pu, dîpu ( )
s,sh sa si su se so sha shi shu she sho
duty: dyuh'tih', dyûtî ( )
check: chekku ( )
z,j za zi zu ze zo ja ji ju je jo fight: faito ( )
feet: fih'to, fîto ( )
t,ty ta ti tu te to tya tyu tyo face: feisu ( )
folk: foh'ku, fôku ( )
future: fyuh'chah', fyûchâ ( )
d,dy da di du de do dya dyu dyo violin: vaiorin ( )
victory: vikutori ( )
ts,ch tsa tsi tsu tse tso cha chi chu che cho vendor: vendah', vendâ ( )
voice: voisu ( )
view: vyuh', vyû ( )
dz,dj dzu dja dji dju djo week: wih'ku, wîku ( )
west: wesuto ( )
n,ny na ni nu ne no nya nyu nye nyo water: woh'tah', wôtâ ( )
quiet: kwaietto ( )
queen: kwih'n, kwîn ( )
h,hy ha hi he ho hya hyu hye hyo
question: kwesuchon ( )
quarter: kwoh'tah', kwôtâ ( )
p,py pa pi pu pe po pya pyu pye pyo
Sunday: Sandei ( )
b,by ba bi bu be bo bya byu bye byo Monday: Mandei ( )
Tuesday: Tyuh'zudei, Tyûzudei ( )
Wednesday: Wenzudei ( )
f,fy fa fi fu fe fo fya fyu fyo Thursday: Sah'zudei, Sâzudei ( )
Friday: Furaidei ( )
v,vy va vi vu ve vo vya vyu vyo Saturday: Satadei ( )
m,my ma mi mu me mo mya myu mye myo
r,ry ra ri ru re ro rya ryu rye ryo
w wa wi we wo
kw kwa kwi kwe kwo
gw gwa gwi gwe gwo
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Special Syllables Particles
n' c' h' 'wa 'e 'o
Special Thanks to
http://syllabary.sourceforge.net/
http://www.age.ne.jp/x/nrs/iso3602/iso3602.html
http://www.halcat.com/roomazi/
http://www.hiragananet.com/
Accents
Japanese has pitch accents whose types are high and low. It is different from stress accents that English speakers use. I express these 2 pitch as follows.
`:high to low
:low to high
However, The pitch accent of Japanese has various different rules from each dialects and there is no uniformed rule except for occupations like an announcer. When I indicate
the pitch of word if it is necessary, The pitch of words is based on Tokyo dialect. In Tokyo dialect, the pitch mark that expresses "low to high" can be omitted because "low to
high" always appears between the first syllable and the second syllable of a word if the place between the syllables are not a position from high to low.
I introduce some examples.
2 syllables A Dictionary
háshi = ha shi: edge Japanese Kana English
háshì = ha shi`: bridge
hàshi = ha`shi: chopsticks háshi edge
3 syllables háshì bridge
sàwagi: noise hàshi chopsticks
sáwàgu = sa wa`gu: to make a noise sàwagi noise
sáwarù = sa waru`: to touch
sáwari = sa wari: touch sáwàgu to make a noise
sáwarù to touch
sáwari touch
Special Thanks to
http://www.aurora.dti.ne.jp/~zom/Kyo-to/index.html
Introduction
In order to understand one language fundamentally, you need to dig out the deep structure which is ruling all over the activities of the language. However, this is a very boring
and tiring process at the beginning. This chapter introduces the corresponding ideas which are important in English, such as pronouns, cases, articles, interrogatives. To tell the
truth, these ideas are not essential in Japanese. However, Knowing the correspondence of these idea is a good trigger that you start to learn Japanese with your motivation,
because you can compose simple sentences with these ideas.
Parts of Speech
The following table shows us the parts of speech of Japanese. You do not understand and memorize them just now. However, you may figure out the framework of Japanese
from this table. You may use this table for your reference later.
Parts of Speech
to express actions Verbs
independent
conjugation to express properties Adjectival Verbs
dependent Auxiliary Verbs
to express objects Nouns
modicand to express actions Verbal Nouns
to express properties Adjectival Nouns
to demonstrate Demonstrative
independent
no conjugation to modify verbs Adverbs
no modicand to modify nouns Adnominals
to connect sentences Conjunctives
no element in sentences Interjections
dependent Particles
Word Orders
In order to compose Japanese sentences correctly, you have to know the word orders well. The rule of the orders is very simple. You only have to know three orders.
Elements
V: verbal elements
N: nominal elements
M: modifier's elements
Operators
f: final operators
c: conjunctive operators
a: attributive operators
Word Orders
Vf: verbal elements followed by final operators
{V or N or M}cV: verbal elements followed by conjunctive operators
{V or N or M}aN: nominal elements followed by attributive operators
Elements Operators (*1) Some of nouns have the property of "Nc" without particles.
(*2) Some of adjectival nouns have the property of "N".
V N M f c a
(*3) Some of adverbs have the property of "V".
Verbs OK OK OK OK (*4) Some of particles have the property of "V".
Adjectival Verbs OK OK OK OK
Auxiliary Verbs OK OK OK OK
Nouns OK (*1)
Verbal Nouns OK OK
Adjectival Nouns OK (*2)
Demonstrative OK OK OK
Adverbs (*3) OK OK
Adnominal OK OK
Conjunctives OK OK
Interjections OK OK
Particles (*4) OK OK OK
Correspondence of Pronouns, Cases, Articles, Interrogative
Pronouns, Cases
Japanese dose not have the correspondence of personal pronouns and case inflections strictly, However, it can express the same idea by combining several words. In this
chapter, you do not have to get serious to understand the details. The following table shows us the same functions which personal pronouns have in English.
Inflections of Personal Pronouns E: English

single J: Japanae
case marker K: Japanese Kana
first second
E J K E J K J K
subjective I wátashi ga you ánàta ga ga
possessive my wátashi no your ánàta no no
direct objective wátashi 'o ánàta 'o 'o
me you
indirect objective wátashi ni ánàta ni ni
single
third
mascluine faminin neuter
E J K E J K E J K
subjective he kàre ga she kànojo ga it sóre ga
possessive his kàre no kànojo no its sóre no
direct objective kàre 'o her kànojo 'o sóre 'o
him it
indirect objective kàre ni kànojo ni sóre ni
plural
first second third
E J K E J K E J K
subjective we wátashì-tachi ga you ánàta-tachi ga they kàre-ra ga
possessive our wátashì-tachi no your ánàta-tachi no their kàre-ra no
direct objective wátashì-tachi 'o ánàta-tachi 'o kàre-ra 'o
us you them
indirect objective wátashì-tachi ni ánàta-tachi ni kàre-ra ni
Demonstrative Pronouns
English has a demonstrative system which separates "near to the speaker" and "near to the hearer". On the other hand, Japanese has a demonstrative system which separates
"near to the speaker", "near to the hearer", and "far from both the speaker and the hearer". Japanese demonstrative words must be followed by case markers so that you use
them in sentences. However, you may not have to use the plural forms unless you need to clear the number of objects.
Demonstrative Pronouns
near to the speaker near to the hearer far from both
E J K E J K E J K
subjective kóre ga sóre ga áre ga
possessive(*1) kóno sóno áno
single this that that
direct objective kóre 'o sóre 'o áre 'o
indirect objective kóre ni sóre ni áre ni
subjective kórè-ra ga sórè-ra ga árè-ra ga
plural possessive these kórè-ra no those sórè-ra no those árè-ra no
direct objective kórè-ra 'o sórè-ra 'o árè-ra 'o

indirect objective kórè-ra ni sórè-ra ni árè-ra ni
(*1) You use the special forms when they are used as the possessive case.
Articles
Japanese has no articles, however, you can use the following words when you have to express them explicitly. They belong to adnominals classified by Japanese parts of
speech.
Articles
E J K
infinite article a, an àru
definite article the sóno
Numbers, Genders
Japanese nouns do not distinguish the forms of the words for numbers and genders. They use perfectly the same form. Furthermore, Japanese verbs do not have any
conjugation for numbers and genders, although they have rich conjugations for tenses, aspects, voices and so on.
dèsuku ( ): It is only one form to express a desk, desks, the desk and the desks.
Interrogatives
In order to ask something, you have to use interrogative words, otherwise, you could not communicate with one another smoothly. English provides typical interrogative words
called 5W1H. The following tables show us the correspondence of them. Most of Japanese interrogative words belong to demonstrative classified by the parts of speech.
Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative Adverbs

person object choice
E J K E J K E J K E J K
subjective who dàre ga nàni ga dòre ga time when ìtsu
possessive(*1) whose dàre no nàni no dòno place where dòko de
what which
direct objective dàre 'o nàni 'o dòre 'o reason why nàze
whom
indirect objective dàre ni nàni ni dòre ni method how dòu
Question Mark
ka ( ): Japanese has an explicit simple question marker. you can construct a simple interrogative sentence by adding "ka" to the end of the sentence
Response Words
hài ( ): When you agree with a questioner, you use "hai".
íie ( ): When you disagree with a questioner, you use "iie".
Loan Words from English
Japanese can accept loan words from foreign languages easily due to their grammatical characteristic that Japanese nouns have no special inflections for numbers, gender and
so on. It simply uses foreign words fitted to Japanese syllables. Japanese took many loan words from Chinese before and it is taking many loan words from English now. The
percentages of these loan words are 50% from Chinese and 10% from English in a major Japanese dictionary, The rest 40% is almost a part of Japanese native words. This
chapter introduces rules to fit English words to Japanese syllables. You can increase your vocabularies promptly if you know these rules.
English Phonemes
Before introducing the rules, the following tables show us English phonemes not exactly but simply. Then these tables use "ë" and "ü" instead of exact IPA letters, because IPA
letters can not be expressed with Latin-1 characters dealt with easily by PCs.
Vowels
Vowels "æ" as in apple "a:" as in palm, cart "ai" as in like

positions of a tongue front center back "e" as in end "ë:" as in birth "au" as in loud
"ë" as in about, runner "i:" as in each "eë" as in heir
flat lips/round lips F R F R F R "i" as in ink "o:" as in ought "ei" as in eight
high i u "o" as in stop "u:" as in two "ië" as in ear
middle e ë ü "u" as in good "oi" as in toy
"ü" as in up "ou" as in coat
low æ a o
"uë" as in poor
Consonants
Consonants "p" as in pencil "z" as in zone

post- "b" as in book "n" as in nose
labial dental alveolar palatal velar glottal "f" as in foot "l" as in lift
alveolar
"v" as in voice "r" as in roof
voiceless plosives p t k "m" as in money "ch" as in choose
voiced plosives b d g "w" as in with "dj" as in bridge
voiceless affricates ts ch "th" as in truth "sh" as in sheep
"ð" as in then "j" as in vision
voiced affricates dz dj
"t" as in table "y" as in yes
voiceless fricatives f th s sh h "d" as in deep "k" as in cook
voiced fricatives v ð z j "ts" as in boots "g" as in get
nasals m n ng "dz" as in cards "ng" as in sing
"s" as in swim "h" as in handle
lateral approximants l
approximants w r y
Rules to Kana Syllables
The following table shows us a basic rule to translate English sounds to Japanese syllables. This rule covers more than 85% of all the translations, although idiomatic translations
still exist. New borrowed words have followed this rule at first, then a few of these words have become idiomatic sounds after they have been used for a long time.
Legends
æ The meanings of the each cells of the right table are a vowel
tæ an English sound
t a consonant
ta a Japanese sound a Kana
Consonants followed by Vowels

no vowel a æ e ë (*1) i (*2) o u ü yu
a æ e ë i o u ü yu
a a e a i o u a yu
b ba bæ be bë bi bo bu bü byu
b (*3)
bu ba ba be ba bi bo bu ba byu
ch cha chæ che chë chi cho chu chü
ch (*3)
chi cha cha che cha chi cho chu cha
d da dæ de dë di do du dü dyu
d (*3)
do da da de da di do du da dyu
dj dja djæ dje djë dji djo dju djü
dj (*3)
ji ja ja je ja ji jo ju ja
dz
dz (*3)
zu
ð ða ðæ ðe ðë ði ðo ðu ðü
ð
zu za za ze za z'i zo zu za
f fa fæ fe fë fi fo fu fü fyu
f
fu fa fa fe fa fi fo fu fa fyu
g ga gæ ge gë gi go gu gü gyu
g (*3)
gu gya gya ge ga gi go gu ga gyu
h ha hæ he hë hi ho hu hü hyu
h
ho ha ha he ha hi ho hu ha hyu
j ja jæ je jë ji jo ju jü
j (*3)
ji ja ja je ja ji jo ju ja
k ka kæ ke kë ki ko ku kü kyu
k (*3)
ku kya kya ke ka ki ko ku ka kyu
l la læ re rë li lo lu lü lyu
l
ru ra ra re ra ri ro ru ra ryu
m ma mæ me më mi mo mu mü myu
m (*4)
mu ma ma me ma mi mo mu ma myu
n na næ ne në ni no nu nü nyu
n
n na na ne na ni no nu na nyu
ng
ng (*5)
ngu
p pa pæ pe pë pi po pu pü pyu
p (*3)
pu pa pa pe pa pi po pu pa pyu
r ra ræ re rë ri ro ru rü ryu
r (*6)
a ra ra re ra ri ro ru ra ryu
s sa sæ se së si so su sü
s
su sa sa se sa si so su sa
sh sha shæ she shë shi sho shu shü
sh
shu sha sha she sha shi sho shu sha
t ta tæ te të ti to tu tü tyu
t (*3)
to ta ta te ta ti to tu ta tyu
th tha thæ the thë thi tho thu thü
th
su sa sa se sa s'i so su sa
ts
ts (*3)
tsu
v va væ ve vë vi vo vu vü vyu
v
vu va va ve va vi vo vu va vyu
wa wæ we wë wi wo wu wü
w
wa wa we wa wi wo u wa
ya yæ ye yë yi yo yu yü
y
ya ya ye ya i yo yu ya
z za zæ ze zë zi zo zu zü
z
zu za za ze za zi zo zu za
(*1) An ambiguous vowel "ë" refers to the original spelling, unless the following letter is "r". If "ër" locates at the end of a word, pronounce long vowel "ah'".
Refer to "a" as in account [ëkaunt] then pronounce "a".
Refer to "e" as in absent [æbsënt] then pronounce "e".
Refer to "i" as in ability [ëbilëti] then pronounce "i".
Refer to "o" as in object [ëbdject] then pronounce "o".
Refer to "u" as in until [ëntil] then pronounce "a".
(*2) A weak vowel "i" refers to the original spelling. If "i" locates at the end of a word, pronounce long vowel "ih".
Refer to "a" as in manager[mænidjër] then pronounce "ei".
Refer to "ay" as in yesterday[yestërdi] then pronounce "ei".
Refer to "e" as in enjoy[endjoi] then pronounce "e".
Refer to "i", "y" as in ability[ëbilëti] then pronounce "i".
(*3) If these consonants locate at the end of a word and follow a monophthong, change them into double consonants.
b bb, ch tch, d dd, g gg, j jj, k kk, p pp, t tt, ts tts, z zz
(*4) If "m" precedes "n", "m", "p", pronounce "m" and spell "n".
(*5) If "ng" precedes "k", "g", pronounce "ng" and spell "n".
(*6) If single "r" appears at the middle of a word, ignore it. If it locates at the end of a word, pronounce as a long vowel before "a", "ë" or pronounce "a" before "o:".
Vowels (Long and Diphthongs)

a e ë i o u yu
a: ë: i: o: u: yu:
:
ah' ah' ih' oh' uh' yuh'
eë ië uë yuë
ë
ea ia ua yua
ai ei oi
i
ai ei oi
au ou
u
au ou
Stressed vowels
English stressed vowels are generally treated as vowels whose position is at high to low pitch in Japanese.
appróach ápuròuchi ( )
gíant jàianto ( )
Sample Kana Spelling generated by the Rules
200 Words Sample
Nouns, Adjectival Nouns, Verbal Nouns

Japanese has common nouns, collective nouns, proper nouns, material noun and abstract nouns in the idea as well as English. However, they do not have to be distinguished as
a point of the grammar, because Japanese has no number inflection of nouns. Only as for proper nouns, the orthography of Japanese Romanization requests to uses a capital
letter at the first letter of them just as well as English orthography. Meanwhile, Japanese has two types of nouns, which are grammatically unique to ordinary nouns. They have
two behaviors of parts of speech. One has adjectival and nominal behaviors. It is called Adjectival Nouns. The other has verbal and nominal behaviors. It is called Verbal Nouns.
They are usually loan words from ancient Chinese and modern English. They substitute for verbs and adjectival Verbs, by accompanying special auxiliary verbs.
Ordinary Nouns
Ordinary nouns are Japanese typical nouns. They have no inflection of numbers. They can perform a subject or an object in a sentence. They can also perform a possessive
part.
Dèsuku, kyàbinetto are ordinary nouns in the following tables.
Particle "no" is a possessive marker to connect nouns.

English Japanese Japanese Kana
a desk
desks
dèsuku (*1)
the desk
the desks
my desk
wátashi no dèsuku
my desks
his desk's cabinet
kàre no dèsuku no kyàbinetto
a cabinet of his desk
(*1) If strict expressions are really necessary, you might say it as follows.
a desk, desks àru dèsuku ( )
the desk sóno dèsuku ( )
the desks sórè-ra no dèsuku ( )
Adjectival Nouns
Adjectival nouns are the nearest part of speech to English adjectives, except they need a particle to modify nouns. Indeed, if an adjectival noun is a loan word form English, the
original English word is also an adjective generally. The difference between adjectival nouns and ordinary nouns is that adjectival nouns are not modified by nouns with particle
"no". They do not modify nouns with particle "no", either. They use particle "na" to modify nouns. Of course a few of adjectival nouns have an exceptional behaviors that they can
modified nouns and be modified by nouns with "no".
Púràiveito, pàburikku are adjectival nouns in the following tables.
Particle "na" is an attributive marker to modify nouns.

a private document púràiveito na dòkyumento
a public document pàburikku na dòkyumento
my public document
wátashi no pàburikku na dòkyumento (*1)
the public document of mine
(*1) "Wátashi no pàburikku na dòkyumento" is divided into two parts. One is "wátashi no dòkyumento", the other is "pàburikku na dòkyumento". "Wátashi no" does not
modify "pàburikku" directly but "dòkyumento".
If you know Japanese native words corresponding to loan words from English, you should use Japanese native words, because loan words as adjectival nouns are
stranger than loan words as nouns.
Indeed, particle "na" is an adjectival inflection of a copula verb.
Verbal Nouns
Verbal nouns generally express actions and motions. and have the same characters as ordinary nouns. They modify nouns with particle "no", they are modified with particle "no".
Besides these characteristics, verbal nouns have the parts of characteristics which verbs have, although they do no have any conjugation as verbs have. They behave like verbs,
followed by verb "suru". This chapter introduces two behaviors of verbal nouns. although those may be regarded as advanced usages for beginners. Those are very unique
behaviors which nouns and verbs do not have.
Púrèi is a verbal noun in the following tables.
Verbal Nouns as Ordinary Nouns

play of tennis tènisu no púrèi
our play of tennis wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrèi
Verbal Nouns with an objective marker "'o"

before play of tennis tènisu no púrei-màe
before
before playing tennis tènisu 'o púrei-màe
during play of tennis tènisu no púrei-chuu
during
during playing tennis tènisu 'o púrei-chuu
after play of tennis tènisu no púrei-gò
after
after playing tennis tènisu 'o púrei-gò
Verbal Nouns with a subjective marker "ga"

before our play of tennis wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-màe
before
before our playing tennis wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-màe
during our play of tennis wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-chuu
during
during our playing tennis wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-chuu
after our play of tennis wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-gò
after
after our playing tennis wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-gò
You can never say "wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei" itself in the correct grammar. However, you can say
Wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrèi-suru. ( We play tennis. )

Wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-màe, ( Before our playing tennis, )
Wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-chuu, ( During our playing tennis, )
Wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrei-gò, ( After our playing tennis, )
On the other hand, you can never say "wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-suru" in the correct grammar. However, you can say
wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrèi ( our play of tennis )

wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-màe ( before our play of tennis )
wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-chuu ( during our play of tennis )
wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrei-gò ( after our play of tennis )
Numerals and Classifiers
Japanese have rich combinations of numerals and classifiers. This correct usage sometimes bothers even native speakers of Japanese. In my opinion this rich combinations are
sometimes harmful and fruitless, while the rich combinations of verbal conjugation are fruitful to express subtle ideas. Using classifiers properly is a measure of cultural
knowledge among Japanese, although it contains many meaningless expressions to inform an event correctly. so a beginner of Japanese does not have to do it correctly. This
chapter introduces the minimum information about numerals and classifiers. If I have a chance to arrange them, I may write an additional document about them in future.
Base Numbers
Base numbers consist of logical and plain combinations except a few sound changes. There is no special name for 11, 12, 20 as in English or in French. All combinations follow
the decimal counter perfectly. Of course, there are other ways to count numbers. However, these ways are not in general but idiomatic usages.
Base Numbers
English Japanese Kana Comment
0 zero rèi
1 one íchi (*2)
2 two nì
3 three sàn (*2)
4 four yòn (*1)
5 five gò
6 six ròku (*2)
7 seven nàna (*1)
8 eight hàchi (*2)
9 nine kyùu (*1)
10 ten jùu (*2)
100 one hundred hyákù (*2)
1,000 one thousand sèn (*2)
10,000 ten thousand íchi-màn
100,000,000 one hundred million íchì-oku
1,000,000,000,000 one trillion ìt-chou (*2)
(*1) When you count up numbers from one to ten sequentially, 4, 7, 9 are sometimes called "shi", "shìchi", "ku". but these sounds are similar with other numbers. you do
not use these sounds in individual usages to avoid misunderstandings.
(*2) These numbers change their sounds in special combinations.
300: sàn + hyaku sàn-byaku ( )
600: ròku + hyaku róp-pyaku ( )
800: hàchi + hyaku háp-pyaku ( )
3,000: sàn + sèn sàn-zen ( )

8,000: hàchi + sèn hás-sèn ( )
1,000,000,000,000: íchi + chòu ìt-chou ( )
8,000,000,000,000: hàchi + chòu hàt-chou ( )
10,000,000,000,000: jùu + chòu jìt-chou ( )
Counting Rule 1
Grouping units of four columns
2,222,222,222,222,222 = {2,222,}{222,2}{22,22}{2,222} is called
ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì-juu ní-chòu
ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì-juu ní-òku
ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì-juu ní-màn
ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì-juu nì.
Counting Rule 2
Skipping sound "íchi" before "jùu", "hyáku" and "sèn"
1,111,111,111,111,111 = {1,111,}{111,1}{11,11}{1,111} is called
sèn hyáku jùu ìt-chou
sèn hyáku jùu íchì-oku
sèn hyáku jùu íchi-màn
sèn hyáku jùu íchì.
Counting Rule 3
Skipping columns valued with 0
2,220 is called ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì-juu.
2,202 is called ní-sèn ní-hyaku nì.
2,022 is called ní-sèn nì-juu nì.
Classifiers
Classifiers are one of the most annoying features of Japanese. You have to remember thousands of combinations with counted things and counting classifiers idiomatically.
There is no other way but memorizing more than one hundred classifiers in order to compose Japanese expressions related to numbers exactly. This way is impossible even for
native speakers of Japanese to perform perfectly, to tell the truth. The chapter picks up 3 classifiers. I hope these 3 classifiers cover more than 90% expressions conveniently in
order to count objects.
people animate objects inanimate objects, things

Japanese Kana Japanese Kana Japanese Kana
1 íchì-nin (*1) ìp-piki ìk-ko
2 nì-nin (*1) nì-hiki nì-ko
3 sán-nìn sàn-biki sàn-ko
4 yó-nìn yòn-hiki yòn-ko
5 gó-nìn gò-hiki gò-ko
6 rókù-nin ròp-piki ròk-ko
7 nánà-nin nánà-hiki nánà-ko
8 háchì-nin hàp-piki hàk-ko
9 kyùu-nin kyùu-hiki kyùu-ko
10 jùu-nin jìp-piki jìk-ko
100 hyákù-nin hyàp-piki hyàk-ko
1,000 sèn-nin sèn-biki sèn-ko
10,000 íchi-man-nin íchi-man-biki íchi-man-ko
(*1) These words are generally used for combined usages as "júu-ichì-nin". In uncombined usages, You use "hítòri" for a person, "fútarì" for two people.
Ordinal Numbers
In order to express ordinal numbers, you have only to add suffix "-me" after classifiers.
sán-nìn no dóràivah' ( three drivers ) sán-nin-me no dóràivah' ( the third driver )

nì-hiki no màusu ( two mise ) ní-hiki-me no màuse ( the second mouse )
yòn-ko no órènji ( four oranges ) yón-ko-me no orènji ( the forth orange )

The Verbal Conjugation
Japanese has a rich conjugation system, comparing English. ( But it is not as rich as Romance languages. ) This chapter introduces whole conjugation tables of Japanese verbs.
To understand all is unnecessary for beginners of Japanese. However, to know the outline is very useful for them, since you can imagine what Japanese can express by these
table.
The Verbal System

verb adjectival polite verb polite copula
copula
weak verb strong verb verb (-masu) (desu)
indicative -ru -u -i da -masu desu
enumeration nari
conditional -reba -eba -kereba nara
present
imperative -ro -e -mase (*3)
Inflection subjunctive -you -ou -karou (*2) darou -mashou deshou
participle [use stem] -i -ku ni
indicative -ta -katta datta -mashita deshita
past
participle -te -kute de -mashite (*3) deshite (*3)
negative participle -zu -azu -masen (*4)
negative verb -na-i -ana-i

causative verb -sase-ru -ase-ru
Derivative
passive verb -rare-ru -are-ru
potential verb -(ra)re-ru (*1) -e-ru
Japanese has 6 types of conjugation excluding irregular types. They are weak verbs for verbs whose stems end with a vowel, strong verbs for verbs whose stems end with
a consonant, adjectival verbs, the copula, polite verbs which consist of verbs followed by a polite auxiliary verb and the polite copula which is the polite correspondence of
the copula.
Japanese has 3 layers in the verbal system. The upper layer classifies the inflections and the derivatives. The second layer classifies the past and the present. The lower
layer has 6 forms. Then it has one trace for the negative present by historical reasons.
Japanese verbs have 4 derivative verbs. They are negative verbs which is conjugated as an adjectival verb, causative verbs, passive verbs and potential verbs. All of the
last 3 derivative verbs are conjugated as weak verbs.
Japanese has 2 tenses which are the present and the past. The present includes not only the literal meaning but also the future, the habitual action, the nature rules and
the historical present. The past also includes various meanings as well as the literal meaning. It includes the perfect and the confirmation. These two tenses have an
influence on subordinate clauses.
Japanese has 6 forms in the lower layers. They are 3 predicative forms and 3 conjunctive forms. 3 predicative forms correspond to 3 moods, the indicative, the imperative
and the subjunctive. Especially, the present indicative and the past indicative are simply called the present and the past as the abbreviation. On the other hand,
the other 3 conjunctive forms are the enumeration, the conditional and the participle. In classic Japanese, it had almost complete set of 6 forms for the past and the
negative as well as the present. However, they are simplified and isolated to another words, so the total number of the inflections is 9, which are 6 for the present, 2 for the
past, 1 for the negative in modern Japanese. When you express all sets of forms for the past and the negative, you use inflectional particles, which come form the
inflections of the copulas, with another forms and another derivative verbs correspondingly.
(*1) The potential derivative verbs of weak verbs sometimes omit their sound from "-rareru" to "-reru" in colloquial conversation. It is called "ra-nuki (ra-omission)" in
Japanese.
(*2) The subjunctive inflection of adjectival verbs is usually replaced with "-i darou", which is the present inflection followed by the subjunctive of the copula. For polite
contexts, "-i deshou" is used.
(*3) These inflections are not used generally. They are mainly used in classic documents, formal documents or idiomatic expressions, when you come across them.
(*4) The negative form of the polite verb is not the participle but the indicative.
In some dialects and some speeches, the negative verb "-na-i" is abbreviated as follows.
the negative present indicative: "-na-i" "-n" or "-nu".
the negative present conditional: "-na-kereba" "-neba".
Inflectional particles are not included in parts of speech. They fill the lost forms of the verbal system, such as the past enumeration as so on.
the present enumeration: the present + " nari", which is the enumeration of the copula.
the present conditional: the present + " nari", which is the conditional of the copula.
the present subjunctive: the present + " darou", which is the subjunctive of the copula.
the past enumeration: the past + " nari", which is the enumeration of the copula.
the past conditional: the past + " nari", which is the conditional of the copula.
the past subjunctive: the past + " darou", which is the subjunctive of the copula.
the negative imperative: the present + " na", which is a special particle to express prohibition.
the negative subjunctive: the present + " mai", which is a special particle to express negative intent mainly.
the negative past participle: the negative verb + " de", which is the past participle of the copula.
Inflectional Particles
verb adjectival polite verb polite copula
particle copula
weak verb strong verb verb (-masu) (desu)
enumeration nari -ru nari -u nari -i nari nari -masu nari desu nari
present conditional nara -ru nara -u nara -i nara nara -masu nara desu nara
subjunctive darou -ru darou -u darou -i darou darou
-ta nari -katta nari datta nari -mashita nari deshita nari
enumeration nari (*1)
-tari -kattari dattari -mashitari deshitari
-ta nara -katta nara datta nara -mashita nara deshita nara
past conditional nara (*2)
-tara -kattara dattara -mashitara deshitara
-ta darou -katta darou datta darou
subjunctive darou (*3)
-tarou -kattarou dattarou
imperative na -ru na -u na
negative
subjunctive mai (*4) -(ru) mai -u mai -masu mai
negative past participle de -na-i de -ana-i de
(*1) The past enumeration usually drops "na" in "nari". So the popular forms are "-tari", "-kattari", "-dattari" and so on.
(*2) The past conditional usually drops "na" in "nara". So the popular forms are "-tara", "-kattara", "-dattara" and so on.
(*3) The past subjective does not usually drop "da" in "darou".
(*4) The negative subjective usually drops "ru" in "-ru mai", when it follows week verbs.
Inflectional polite particles add polite meanings to inflections. They come from the inflections of the polite copula.
the polite present: the present + " desu", which is the present of the polite copula.
the polite present subjunctive: the present + " deshou", which is the subjunctive of the polite copula.
the polite past: the past + " desu", which is the present of the polite copula.
the polite past subjunctive: the past + " deshou", which is the subjunctive of the polite copula.
Inflectional Polite Particles

verb adjectival
particle copula
weak verb strong verb verb
indicative desu -i desu
present
subjunctive deshou -ru deshou -u deshou -i deshou
indicative desu -ta desu (*1) -katta desu datta desu (*2)
past
subjunctive deshou -ta deshou -katta deshou datta deshou
(*1) This form "ta desu" is not formal in writing. It is mainly used in colloquial conversations instead of the formal form "-mashita".
(*2) This form "datta desu" is not formal in writing. It is mainly used in colloquial conversations instead of the formal form "deshita".
Sound Changes of Strong Verbs A Dictionary
Combination Stem + Inflection Real Forms Japanese Kana English

K -k + t- -it- kak + t- kait- kàita, kàite, kàitara, kàitari kàku to write
R -r + t- -tt- kar + t- katt- kátta, kátte, káttàra, káttàri káru to cut
S -s + t- -shit- kas + t- kashit- káshita, káshite, káshitàra, káshitàri kásu to lend
T -t + t- -tt- kat + t- katt- kàtta, kàtte, kàttara, kàttari kàtsu to win
W -w + t- -tt- kaw + t- katt- kátta, kátte, káttàra, káttàri káu to buy
B -b + t- -nd- ukab + t- ukand- úkanda, úkande, úkandàra, úkandàri úkabu to float
G -g + t- -id- kag + t- kaid- káida, káide, káidàra, káidàri kágu to smell
M -m + t- -nd- kam + t- kand- kànda, kànde, kàndara, kàndari kàmu to bite
N -n + t- -nd- shin + t- shind- shínda, shínde, shíndàra, shíndàri shínu to die
S -s + i -shi kas + i kashi káshi

T -t + i -chi kat + i kachi kàchi
T -t + u -tsu kat + u katsu kàtsu
W -w + i -i kaw + i kai kái
W -w + u -u kaw + u kau káu
W -w + e- -e- kaw + e- kae- káe, káèba, káeru
W -w + ou -ou kaw + ou kaou káòu
Strong verbs whose stems end with a consonant have some sound chagens mainly for their past and past participle, because Japanese, which is an open syllabic
language, needs special considerations when the last consonant of a verbal stem is followed by the inflections.
The first 11 patterns are caused by double consonants, the last 7 patterns are caused by palatalization or omission.
Irregular Verbs A Dictionary

Modern S Classic S Classic Z K Japanese Kana English
indicative -suru -zuru kùru súru to do
conditional -sureba -zureba kùreba dékìru to be able
present imperative -shiro -jiro kòi kùru to come
subjunctive -shiyou -jiyou kóyòu àisu to love
Inflection nèssu to heat
participle -shi -ji kì
indicative -shita -jita kìta kánjìru to feel
past shínjìru to believe
participle -shite -jite kìte
negative participle -sezu -zezu kòzu ákìru to get tired of
ákeru to open
negative verb -shina-i -jina-i kòna-i
ákaru-i bright
causative verb -sase-ru -sesase-ru -zesase-ru kósasè-ru
Derivative
passive verb -sare-ru -serare-ru -zerare-ru kórarè-ru
potential verb -deki-ru (*1) -serare-ru -zerare-ru kó(ra)rè-ru
the present enumeration: the present + " nari"
the past enumeration: the past + "ri" ( the past + " nari" is an alternation. )
the past conditional: the past + "ra" ( the past + " nara" is an alternation. )
the negative imperative: the present + " na"
the negative subjunctive: the present + " mai"
( Weak verbs drop "ru" preceding " mai". )
the negative past participle: the present of negative verbs + " de"
Japanese has 2 types of irregular conjugation ( Modern S, K ) for primitive verbs. and 3 types ( Modern S, Classic S, Classic Z ) for compound verbs.
Classic S appears in one Chinese character followed by "suru". However, This type is merged into a strong verb, for example, "ái-sùru" into "àis-u", "nés-suru" into
"néss-u". You do not have to speak Classic S, although you have to understand it when you hear it.
Classic Z appears in one Chinese character followed by "zuru" voiced from "suru". However, This type is merged into a weak verb, for example, "kán-zùru" into "kán-jìru",
"shín-zùru" into "shín-jìru". You do not have to speak Classic Z, although you have to understand it when you hear it.
Irregular Verb K contains only one word "kùru"
Modern S is frequently used by verbal nouns combined with "suru".
(*1) The potential derivative verb of "suru" is perfectly a different originated verb from "suru". The verb is "dekiru" conjugated as a weak verb.
References
Conjugation Table - 1
Weak Verbs Irregular Verbs
I E Modern S K
dictionary akiru akeru suru kuru
indicative -ru -ru -ru -ru
su ku
conditional -reba -reba -reba -reba
present imperative -ro -ro -ro -i
ko
subjunctive -you -you -you -you
Inflection
participle - - shi - -
indicative -ta -ta -ta ki -ta
past aki ake
participle -te -te -te -te
negative participle -zu -zu se -zu -zu
negative verb -na-i -na-i shi -na-i -na-i
causative verb -sase-ru -sase-ru -ase-ru ko -sase-ru
Derivative s
passive verb -rare-ru -rare-ru -are-ru -rare-ru
potential verb -(ra)re-ru -(ra)re-ru deki-ru -(ra)re-ru
Strong Verbs
K R S T W
dictionary kaku karu kasu katsu kau
indicative -u -u -u kats -u -u
conditional -eba -eba -eba -eba -eba
kas
present imperative kak -e kar -e -e kat -e ka -e
subjunctive -ou -ou -ou -ou -ou
Inflection
participle -i -i kash -i kach -i -i
indicative -ta -ta -ta -ta -ta
past kai kat kashi kat
participle -te -te -te -te -te
negative participle -azu -azu -azu -azu -azu
negative verb -ana-i -ana-i -ana-i kat -ana-i -ana-i
kaw
causative verb kak -ase-ru kar -ase-ru kas -ase-ru -ase-ru -ase-ru
Derivative
passive verb -are-ru -are-ru -are-ru -are-ru -are-ru
potential verb -e-ru -e-ru -e-ru -e-ru ka -e-ru
Strong Verbs
B G M N
dictionary ukabu kagu kamu shinu
indicative -u -u -u -u
conditional -eba -eba -eba -eba
present imperative ukab -e kag -e kam -e -e
subjunctive -ou -ou -ou -ou
Inflection shin -i
participle -i -i -i
indicative -da -da -da -da
past ukan kai kan
participle -de -de -de -de
negative participle -azu -azu -azu -azu
negative verb -ana-i -ana-i -ana-i -ana-i
causative verb -ase-ru -ase-ru -ase-ru -ase-ru
Derivative ukab kag kam
passive verb -are-ru -are-ru -are-ru -are-ru
potential verb -e-ru -e-ru -e-ru -e-ru
Adjectival Verbs Copula Polite Copula Polite Verb
dictionary akaru-i da desu -masu
indicative -i da -su -su
enumeration -i nari nari -su nari -su nari
present conditional -kereba nara -su nara -su nara
subjunctive akaru -karou darou de -shou -shou
Inflection -ma
participle -ku ni
indicative -katta datta -shita -shita
past
participle -kute de -shite -shite
negative indicative -sen
( only "-masu" ) the negative subjunctive: the present + " mai"
Please refer to "Recessive Stems" to know how to classify strong verbs and weak verbs.
Please click this Japanese document, if you are interested in a conjugation table written in Japanese.

This page introduces Japanese simple sentences. Japanese sentences can be composed only with verbs. They do not need any nouns which perform a subject, an object and
so on, although these nouns are very helpful to communicate information accurately. This page focuses on the primitive sentences.
The Polite
Japanese has a very important feature related to polite levels. Japanese uses the different polite levels, plain forms and polite forms. You should use the polite forms in daily
conversation. This page composes all the sentences with the polite forms. On the other hand, the plain forms are used in the following situation. They are introduced in the later
chapters.
Dependent clauses in complex sentences.

Conversation among a family, between a married or unmarried couple, among intimate friends at the same age.
Written documents
How to make polite forms

You make polite forms from present participle of verbs followed by polite auxiliary verb "-masu".
How To Make Polite Forms A Dictionary

present participle
dictionary polite verb polite form
stem inflection Japanese Kana English
E néru ne nè + -màsu né-màsu néru to sleep
Weak Verb
I mìru mi mì + -màsu mí-màsu mìru to see
K kíku kik +i kíki + -màsu kíki-màsu kíku to hear
R nàru nar +i nàri + -màsu nári-màsu nàru to become
S dàsu das +i dàshi + -màsu dáshi-màsu dàsu to put out
T màtsu mat +i màchi + -màsu máchi-màsu màtsu to wait
Strong Verb W íu iw +i íi + -màsu íi-màsu íu to say
B yóbu yob +i yóbi + -màsu yóbi-màsu yóbu to call
G nùgu nug +i nùgi + -màsu núgi-màsu nùgu to take off
M +i + -màsu nòmu to drink
nòmu nom nòmi númi-màsu
shínu to die
N shínu shin +i shíni + -màsu shíni-màsu
K kùru k +i kì + -màsu kí-màsu
Irregular Verb
S súru s +i shi + -màsu shí-màsu
How to use polite present forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Mària ga màh'ketto 'o rísàh'chi shi-masu.
(E): Maria researches the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Dàre ga màh'ketto 'o rísàh'chi shi masu ka? Mària ga shí-màsu.
(E): Who researches the marcket? Maria does.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Mària ga nàni 'o rísàh'chi shi-masu ka? Màh'ketto 'o rísàh'chi-shi-masu.
(E): What does Maria research? She researches the marcket.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Dèividdo ga Jènifah' 'o yóbi-màsu.
(E): David calls Jennifer.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Dàre ga Jènifah' 'o yóbi-màsu ka? Dèividdo ga yóbi-màsu.
(E): Who calls Jennifer? David does.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Dèividdo ga dàre 'o yóbi-màsu ka? Jènifah' 'o yóbi-màsu.
(E): Who does David call? He calls Jennifer.
The Negative
To create negative polite forms is very easy. It is only to change the end of "-masu".
Negative
affirmative inflection negative
shí-màsu shí-mas + en shí-masèn
How to use negative polite present forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi-shi-masen.
(E): Maria does not researches the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-masu ka? Hai, shi-masu. Iie, shi-masen.
(E): Does Maria researches the marcket? Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Jon ga koh'to 'o nugi-masen.
(E): John does not take off his coat.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Jon ga koh'to 'o nugi-masu ka? Hai, nugi-masu. Iie, nugi-masen.
(E): Does John take off his coat? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
The Tense
Japanese has two types of basic tenses, the present and the past. As general usages, these type are almost correspond to the present and the past. However, the present
contains the future and the past contains the perfect. Of course, Japanese has many expression to distinguish slight tenses by using auxiliary verbs and helping verbs. However,
these two types are most essential to compose Japanese sentences.
Tenses
present inflection past
affirmative shí-màsu shi-mas + i + ta shí-màshita
negative shí-masèn shi-masen + deshita shí-masèn deshita
How to use polite past forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashita.
(E): Maria researched the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Dare ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashita ka? Maria ga shi-mashita.
(E): Who researched the marcket? Maria did.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Maria ga nani 'o risah'chi shi-mashita ka? Mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashita.
(E): What did Maria research? She researched the marcket.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-masen deshita.
(E): Maria did not research the marcket.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashita ka? Hai, shi-mashita. Iie, shi-masen deshita.
(E): Did Maria research the marcket? Yes, she did. No, she didn't.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Suh'zan ga myuh'zikku 'o kiki-mashita.
(E): Susan listened to music.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Dare ga myuh'zikku 'o kiki-mashita ka? Suh'zan ga kiki-mashita.
(E): Who listened to music? Susan did.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Suh'zan ga nani 'o kiki-mashita ka? Myuh'zikku 'o kiki-mashita.
(E): What did Susan listen to? She listened to music.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Suh'zan ga myuh'zikku 'o kiki-masen deshita.
(E): Susan did not listen to music.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Suh'zan ga myuh'zikku 'o kiki-mashita ka? Hai, kiki-mashita. Iie, kiki-masen deshita.
(E): Did Susan listen to music? Yes, she did. No, she didn't.
The Mood
This section introduces three moods of Japanese. The first is the indicative mood which has been already introduced above. The second is the imperative mood. The last is the
subjunctive mood. However, the subjunctive mood is not same as English. It should be called "the intent mood" and "the probable mood". And it is divided into 2 parts, "the
intent" and "the probable".
How to make the imperative mood with politeness
affirmative: past participle + "kudasai"

negative: past participle + "kudasai"
How to make the intent mood with politeness
affirmative: present participle + "-mashou" which is the subjunctive form of the polite verb.
negative: present participle + "-masu mai" which is the present form of the polite verb followed by " mai".
How to make the probable mood with politeness
affirmative present: present form + " deshou" which is the subjunctive form of the polite copula.
affirmative past: past form + " deshou" which is the subjunctive form of the polite copula.
negative present: negative present + " deshou" which is the subjunctive form of the polite copula.
negative past: negative past + " deshou" which is the subjunctive form of the polite copula.
In order to construct the sentences of these moods, you need to know the five forms first. They are the past form and the past participle form of the affirmative, the present form,
the past form and the past participle of the negative.
How To Make Past Forms How To Make Negative Forms

past negative
dictionary dictionary
stem inflection stem derivative
E néru ne + ta néta E néru ne + na-i néna-i
Weak Verb Weak Verb
I mìru mi + ta mìta I mìru mi + na-i mìna-i
K kíku kik + ta kíita K kíku kik + a + na-i kíkana-i
R nàru nar + ta nàtta R nàru nar + a + na-i náràna-i
S dàsu das + ta dàshita S dàsu das + a + na-i dásàna-i
T màtsu mat + ta màtta T màtsu mat + a + na-i mátàna-i
Strong Verb W íu iw + ta ítta Strong Verb W íu iw + a + na-i íwana-i
B yóbu yob + ta yónda B yóbu yob + a + na-i yóbana-i
G nùgu nug + ta nùida G nùgu nug + a + na-i núgàna-i
M nòmu nom + ta nònda M nòmu nom + a + na-i nómàna-i
N shínu shin + ta shínda N shínu shin + a + na-i shínana-i
K kùru k + i + ta kìta K kùru k + o + na-i kòna-i
Irregular Verb S súru s + i + ta shíta Irregular Verb S súru s + i + na-i shína-i

past participle: change the ending of the past form past: change the ending
-ta -te -na-i -na-katta
-da -de past participle: change the ending
-na-i -na-i de
The following table shows you how to make the imperative, subjunctive moods.
Moods [ Kana Table ]

affirmative shite (past participle) + kudasai shíte kudasài
imperative
negative shina-i de (negative past participle) + kudasai shínà-i de kudasai
affirmative shi (present participle) + -mashou shí-mashòu
intent
negative shi (present participle) + -masu + mai shí-masu mài
present suru (present) + deshou súru deshòu
subjunctive affirmative
past shita (past) + deshou shítà deshou
probable
present shina-i (negative present) + deshou shínà-i deshou
negative
past shina-katta (negative past) + deshou shínà-katta deshou
How to use polite imperative forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria-san, mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shite kudasai.
(E): Ms. Maria, please research the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Maria-san, mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shina-i de kudasai.
(E): Ms. Maria, please don't research the marcket.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Jeimuzu-san, wain 'o nonde kudasai.
(E): Mr. James, please drink wine.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Jeimuzu-san, wain 'o nomana-i de kudasai.
(E): Mr. James, please don't drink wine.
How to use polite subjunctive ( intent ) forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria-san, mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashou.
(E): Ms. Maria, let's research the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Maria-san, nani 'o risah'chi shi-mashou ka? mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashou.
(E): Ms. Maria, what shall we research. Let's research the marcket.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Maria-san, mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-masu mai.
(E): Ms. Maria, let's not research the marcket.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Maria-san, mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-mashou ka? Hai, shi-mashou. Iie, shi-masu mai.
(E): Ms. Maria, shall we research the marcket? Yes, let's. No, let's not.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Dokutah' ni nari-mashou.
(E): I will become a doctor.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Nani ni nari-mashou ka? Dokutah' ni nari-mashou.
(E): What shall we become. We will become doctors.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Dokutah' ni nari-masu mai.
(E): I will not be a doctor.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Dokutah' ni nari-mashou ka? Hai, nari-mashou. Iie, nari-masu mai.
(E): Shall we become doctors? Yes, let's. No, let's not.
How to use polite subjunctive ( probable present ) forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi suru deshou.
(E): Maria will probably research the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Dare ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi suru deshou ka? Maria ga suru deshou.
(E): Who will research the marcket? Maria will probably.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Maria ga nani 'o risah'chi suru deshou ka? Mah'ketto 'o risah'chi suru deshou.
(E): What will Maria research? She will probably research the marcket.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shina-i deshou.
(E): Maria will not probably research the marcket.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi suru deshou ka? Hai, suru deshou. Iie, shina-i deshou.
(E): Will Maria research the marcket? Yes, she will probably. No, she won't probably.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Karen ga muh'vih' 'o miru deshou.
(E): Karen will probably see a movie.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Dare ga muh'vih' 'o miru deshou ka? Karen ga miru deshou.
(E): Who will see a movie? Karen will probably.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Karen ga nani 'o miru deshou ka? Muh'vih' 'o miru deshou.
(E): What will Karen see? She will probably see a movie.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Karen ga muh'vih' 'o mina-i deshou.
(E): Karen will not probably see a movie.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Karen ga muh'vih' 'o miru deshou ka? Hai, miru deshou. Iie mina-i deshou.
(E): Will Karen see a movie? Yes, she will probably. No, she won't probably.
How to use polite subjunctive ( probable past ) forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shita deshou.
(E): Maria would probably research the marcket.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Dare ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shita deshou ka? Maria ga shita deshou.
(E): Who would research the marcket? Maria would probably.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Maria ga nani 'o risah'chi shita deshou ka? Mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shita deshou.
(E): What would Maria research? She would probably research the marcket.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shina-katta deshou.
(E): Maria would not probably research the marcket.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shita deshou ka? Hai, shita deshou. Iie, shina-katta deshou.
(E): Would Maria research the marcket? Yes, she would probably. No, she wouldn't probably.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Robah'to ga basu 'o matta deshou.
(E): Robert would probably wait for the bus.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Dare ga basu 'o matta deshou ka? Robah'to ga matta deshou.
(E): Who would wait for the bus? Robert would probably.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Robah'to ga nani 'o matta deshou ka? Basu 'o matta deshou.
(E): What would Robert wait for? He would probably wait for the bus.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Robah'to ga basu 'o matana-katta deshou.
(E): Robert would not probably wait for the bus.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Robah'to ga basu 'o matta deshou ka? Hai, matta deshou. Iie, matana-katta deshou.
(E): Would Robert wait for the bus? Yes, he would probably. No, he wouldn't probably.
Future
Japanese does not have any special inflention to express future events. It uses the present form for a certain future event, the probable present form for an uncertain future
event. Indeed, the real meaning of the present form is the present, the future and the habitual form which contains future events as well as present events.
How to express future tenses

Case 1a ( a certain event )
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi shi-masu.
(E): Maria will research the marcket.
Case 1b ( an uncertain event )
(K):
(J): Maria ga mah'ketto 'o risah'chi suru deshou.
(E): Maria will probably research the marcket.
A Summary
The following table shows you a chart of the tenses.
A chart of the tenses of "suru" [ Kana Table ]

tenses moods English Japanese Polite Ref. Japanese Plain
certain do shí-màsu súru
indicative
uncertain do probably
súru deshòu súru daròu
A present subjunctive would do
F
F intent let's do shí-mashòu shíyòu
I imperative Do shíte kudasài shíro
R shí-màshita
M certain did shíta
indicative shítà desu(*1)
A past uncertain did probably
T shítà deshou shítà darou
I subjunctive would have done
V certain will do shí-màsu súru
E future indicative
uncertain will do probably súru deshòu súru daròu
shí-masèn
certain do not do shínà-i
indicative shínà-i desu(*1)
uncertain do not do probably
present shína-i deshòu shína-i daròu
N subjunctive would not do
E intent let's not do shí-masu mài súru mài
G imperative Don't do shínà-i de kudasai súrù na
A
T shí-masèn deshita
certain did not do shínà-katta
I indicative shínà-katta desu(*1)
past
V uncertain did not do probably
E shínà-katta deshou shínà-katta darou
subjunctive would not have done
shí-masèn
certain will not do shínà-i
future indicative shínà-i desu(*1)
uncertain will not do probably shína-i deshòu shína-i daròu
(*1) colloquial variants ( not used in formal conversations )

This page introduces Japanese verbs of existence. To understand verbs of existence is very important in order to understand the copulas and adjectival verbs.
Existence
Japanese has two types of verbs in order to express existence. One is "aru", which is classified into strong verbs, for motionless objects the other is "iru", which is classified into
weak verbs, for motional objects including human beings. The negation of "aru" is replaced with "na-i", which is classified into adjectival verbs. On the other hand, the negation of
"iru" is derived into "ina-i", which is the negative derivative verb. However, "na-i" and "ina-i" are mainly used as basic forms. Some polite negation forms are expressed by the
inflections of the polite verb "-masu".
The Polite Present
How to Make The Polite Present

present participle polite present
dictionary polite verb
stem inflection affirmative negative
motionless aru ar + i ari + masu ari-masu ari-masen
motional iru i i + masu i-masu i-masen
How to use the polite present forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-masu.
(E): A knife is in the kitchen.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-masen.
(E): A knife is not in the kitchen.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-masu ka? Hi, ari-masu. Iie, ari-masen.
(E): Is a knife in the kitchen? Yes, it is. No, it isn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Nani ga kitchin ni ari-masu ka? Naifu ga ari-masu.
(E): What is in the kitchen? A knife is.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Naifu ga doko ni ari-masu ka? Kitchin ni ari-masu.
(E): Where is a knife? It is in the kitchen.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masu.
(E): Lisa is in the living room.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masen.
(E): Lisa is not in the living room.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masu ka? Hi, i-masu. Iie, i-masen.
(E): Is Lisa in the living room? Yes, she is. No, she isn't.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Dare ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masu ka? Risa ga i-masu.
(E): Who is in the living room? Lisa is.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Risa ga doko ni i-masu ka? Rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masu.
(E): Where is Lisa? She is in the living room.
The Polite Past
How to Make The Polite Past

present participle polite past
dictionary polite verb (past)
motionless aru ar + i ari + mashita ari-mashita ari-masen deshita
motional iru i i + mashita i-mashita i-masen deshita
How to use the polite past forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-mashita.
(E): A knife was in the kitchen.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-masen deshita.
(E): A knife was not in the kitchen.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni ari-mashita ka? Hi, ari-mashita. Iie, ari-masen deshita.
(E): Was a knife in the kitchen? Yes, it was. No, it wasn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Nani ga kitchin ni ari-mashita ka? Naifu ga ari-mashita.
(E): What was in the kitchen? A knife was.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Naifu ga doko ni ari-mashita ka? Kitchin ni ari-mashita.
(E): Where was a knife? It was in the kitchen.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-mashita.
(E): Lisa was in the living room.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masen deshita.
(E): Lisa was not in the living room.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-mashita ka? Hi, i-mashita. Iie, i-masen deshita.
(E): Was Lisa in the living room? Yes, she was. No, she wasn't.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Dare ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-mashita ka? Risa ga i-mashita.
(E): Who was in the living room? Lisa was.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Risa ga doko ni i-mashita ka? Rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-mashita.
(E): Where was Lisa? She was in the living room.
The Polite Subjunctive Present
How to Make The Polite Subjunctive Present

present polite subjective present
dictionary
motionless aru ar + u aru aru deshou
affirmative
motional iru i + ru iru iru deshou
motionless na-i na + i na-i na-i deshou
negative
motional ina-i ina + i ina-i ina-i deshou
How to use the polite subjective present forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni aru deshou.
(E): A knife is probably in the kitchen.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni na-i deshou.
(E): A knife is not probably in the kitchen.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni iru deshou.
(E): Lisa is probably in the living room.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni ina-i deshou.
(E): Lisa is not probably in the living room.
This list does not introduce the interrogative sentences with the subjunctive forms, because they are not simple correspondence to the indicative sentences. They contain
courteous nuance.
The Polite Subjunctive Past
How to Make The Polite Subjunctive Past

past polite subjective past
dictionary
motionless aru ar + ta atta atta deshou
affirmative
motional iru i + ta ita ita deshou

motionless na-i na + katta na-katta na-katta deshou
negative
motional ina-i ina + katta ina-katta ina-katta deshou
How to use the polite subjective past forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni atta deshou.
(E): A knife was probably in the kitchen.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Naifu ga kitchin ni na-katta deshou.
(E): A knife was not probably in the kitchen.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni ita deshou.
(E): Lisa was probably in the living room.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Risa ga rivingu-ruh'mu ni ina-katta deshou.
(E): Lisa was not probably in the living room.
courteous nuance.
The Polite Imperative and Intent Mood
Motional objects have their own will. They can have imperative and intent moods.
How to Make The Polite Imperative Mood

present participle polite imperative mood
dictionary
affirmative motional iru i + te ite ite kudasai
negative motional ina-i ina + i de ina-i de ina-i de kudasai
How to use the polite imperative forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Risa-san, rivingu-ruh'mu ni ite kudasai.
(E): Lisa, please stay in the living room.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Risa-san, rivingu-ruh'mu ni ina-i de kudasai.
(E): Lisa, please do not stay in the living room.
How to Make The Polite Intent Mood

present participle polite intent mood
dictionary polite verb (subjunctive)
motional iru i i + mashou i-mashou i-masu-mai
How to use the polite intent forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Risa-san, rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-mashou.
(E): Lisa, let's stay in the living room.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Risa-san, rivingu-ruh'mu ni i-masu-mai.
(E): Lisa, let's not stay in the living room.
A Summary
The following table shows you a chart of the tenses.
A chart of the tenses of "aru" (a strong verb)[ Kana Table ]

A certain am/are/is ári-màsu àru
indicative
F present uncertain am/are/is probably
F àru deshou àru darou
subjunctive would be
I
R ári-màshita
certain was/were àtta
M indicative àtta desu(*)
A past uncertain was/were probably
T àtta deshou àtta darou
subjunctive would have been
I
V certain will be ári-màsu àru
future indicative
E uncertain will be probably àru deshou àru darou
ári-masèn
certain am/are/is not nà-i
indicative nà-i desu(*)
present
uncertain am/are/is not probably
N nà-i deshou nà-i darou
subjunctive would not be
E
G ári-masèn deshita
certain was/were not nà-katta
A indicative nà-katta desu(*)
T past
uncertain was/were not probably
I nà-katta deshou nà-katta darou
subjunctive would not have been
V
E ári-masèn
certain will not be nà-i
future indicative nà-i desu(*)
uncertain will not be probably nà-i deshou nà-i darou
(*) colloquial variants ( not used in formal conversations )
A chart of the tenses of "iru" ( a weak verb ) [Kana Table]

certain am/are/is í-màsu írù
indicative
A uncertain am/are/is probably
írù deshou írù darou
F present subjunctive would be
F
intent let's be í-mashòu íyòu
I
R imperative Be íte kudasài írò
M í-màshita
A certain was/were ítà
indicative ítà desu(*)
T past
uncertain was/were probably
I ítà deshou ítà darou
V subjunctive would have been
E certain will be í-màsu írù
future indicative
uncertain will be probably írù deshou írù darou
í-masèn
certain am/are/is not ínà-i
indicative ínà-i desu(*)
uncertain am/are/is not probably
present ínà-i deshou ínà-i darou
N subjunctive would not be
E intent let's not be í-masu mài íru mài
G imperative Don't be ínà-i de kudasai írù na
A
T í-masèn deshita
certain was/were not ínà-katta
I indicative ínà-katta desu(*)
past
V uncertain was/were not probably
E ínà-katta deshou ínà-katta darou
subjunctive would not have been
í-masèn
certain will not be ínà-i
future indicative ínà-i desu(*)
uncertain will not be probably ínà-i deshou ínà-i darou
(*) colloquial variants ( not used in formal conversations )

Copula
Japanese has copulas which play the most important part in this language as well as most other languages. Japanese copulas provide the similar ideas with the verbs of
existence, which are introduced in the previous chapter. The copulas express equality in most cases. Japanese prepares two types of copulas, one is the plain copula, the other
is the polite copula. Firstly, this chapter introduces whole the tenses of the polite copula, which provides the unique forms in order to express the affirmative , while it uses
"de"(*1), which is the past participle of the copula, followed by the negative of the verbs of existence in order to express the negative .
(*1) "De" is usually added to "-'wa" or replaced by "ja", which is a contraction of "de-'wa", to express the negative, however, I pick up only "de" here because "de" is
gramatically essential and it is easy to explain the relation between existence verbs, the copula, adjectival verbs.
A chart of the tenses of the polite copula [Kana Table]

A certain am/are/is dèsu dà
indicative
F present uncertain am/are/is probably
F deshòu daròu
subjunctive would be
I
R dèshita
certain was/were dàtta
M indicative dàtta desu(*1)
A past uncertain was/were probably
T dàtta deshou dàtta darou
subjunctive would have been
I
V certain will be dèsu dà
future indicative
E uncertain will be probably deshòu daròu
de ari-masèn
certain am/are/is not de nà-i
indicative de nà-i desu(*1)
present
N uncertain am/are/is not probably
de nà-i deshou de nà-i darou
E subjunctive would not be
G de ari-masèn deshita
A certain was/were not de nà-katta
indicative de nà-katta deshou(*1)
T past
I uncertain was/were not probably
de nà-katta deshou de nà-katta darou
V subjunctive would not have been
E de ari-masèn
certain will not be de nà-i
future indicative de nà-i desu(*1)
uncertain will not be probably de nà-i deshou de nà-i darou
Particle "'wa"
Before introducing sentences which are composited with copulas, this chapter introduce particle "'wa". Particle "'wa" has many features as you read it from many Japanese
grammar books. Especially, this particle is famous for the contrary of "ga" and "'wa". In this chapter, I define particle "'wa" as a subject marker to explain sentences easily,
although I redefine it in the later chapters. You can use "ga" as well as "'wa", however, particle "'wa" is generally used as a subject marker in sentences with the copulas. Particle
"ga" gives a strong nuance to sentences when it is used with the copulas.
The Polite Present

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' desu.
(E): William is a doctor.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' de ari-masen.
(E): William is not a doctor.
Case 1c (*1)
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' desu ka? Hai, sou desu. Iie, sou de ari-masen.
(E): Is William a doctor? Yes, he is. No, he isn't.
Case 1d (*2)
(K):
(J): Dare ga dokutah' desu ka? Wiriamu ga sou desu.
(E): Who is a doctor? William is.
Case 1e (*3)
(K):
(J): Kore 'wa nani desu ka? Sore 'wa pen desu.
(E): What is this? It is a pen.
(*1) "Sou" is a demonstrative noun. In most cases, Japanese can omit a pronoun when it is imaginable in a context. However, a demonstrative noun can not be omitted
before the copulas.
(*2) When the subject of sentences is a interrogative noun, "ga" must be used as a subject marker. because a interrogative noun is always the most important word in
sentences. they should be marked strongly.
(*3) You must not use "(X)Anata 'wa nani desu ka?" in Japanese, as well as "(X)What are you?" in English, because this direct expression to ask human attributes
gives the listener a rude nuance. You use other indirect expressions, for example, "Anata 'wa nani 'o shite i-masu ka?" in Japanese, as well as "What do you do?" in
English.
The Polite Past

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' deshita.
(E): William was a doctor.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' de ari-masen deshita.
(E): William was not a doctor.
Case 1c (*1)
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' deshita ka? Hai, sou deshita. Iie, sou de ari-masen deshita.
(E): Was William a doctor? Yes, he was. No, he wasn't.
Case 1d (*2)
(K):
(J): Dare ga dokutah' deshita ka? Wiriamu ga sou deshita.
(E): Who was a doctor? William was.
Case 1e (*3)
(K):
(J): Kore 'wa nani deshita ka? Sore 'wa pen deshita.
(E): What was this? It was a pen.
(*1),(*2),(*3) Please refer the above list.

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' deshou.
(E): William is probably a doctor.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' de na-i deshou.
(E): William is not probably a doctor.
courteous nuance.

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' datta deshou.
(E): William was probably a doctor.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Wiriamu 'wa dokutah' de na-katta deshou.
(E): William was not probably a doctor.
courteous nuance.
The copulas do not have these types of inflections, although the subject of a sentence is a motional object which has wills like human beings, animals and so on. When you
express these moods, you use ordinary verbs "naru" which means "to become", "suru" which means "to do", and so on.
Adjectival Verb
Adjectival verb is a unique part of speech in Japanese. There is no counterpart in English. Adjectival verb is regarded as "to be" + adjective in English. It has the tense forms in
the inflections. Firstly, this chapter introduces whole the tenses of the adjectival verbs which provide the unique forms for the affirmative, while they use "-ku" + the negative of the
verbs of existence for the negative. Next, the adjectival verbs provide adjectival usages and adverbial usages with their inflections. However, I skip explanation about them. I will
explain them in later chapters.
A chart of the tenses of the adjectival verbs [Kana Table]

A certain am/are/is bright ákarù-i desu ákarù-i
F present indicative uncertain am/are/is bright probably
F ákarù-i deshou ákarù-i darou
I subjunctive would be bright
R certain was/were bright ákarù-katta desu ákarù-katta
M indicative
A past uncertain was/were bright probably
ákarù-katta deshou ákarù-katta darou
T subjunctive would have been bright
I
V future indicative certain will be bright ákarù-i desu ákarù-i
E uncertain will be bright probably ákarù-i deshou ákarù-i darou
ákaru-ku ari-masèn
certain am/are/is not bright ákaru-ku nà-i
indicative ákaru-ku nà-i desu(*1)
present
N uncertain am/are/is not bright probably
ákaru-ku nà-i deshou ákaru-ku nà-i darou
E subjunctive would not be bright
G ákaru-ku ari-masèn deshita
A certain was/were not bright ákaru-ku nà-katta
indicative ákaru-ku nà-katta desu(*1)
T past
I uncertain was/were not bright probably
ákaru-ku nà-katta deshou ákaru-ku nà-katta darou
V subjunctive would not have been bright
E ákaru-ku ari-masèn
certain will not be bright ákaru-ku nà-i
future indicative ákaru-ku nà-i desu(*1)
uncertain will not be bright probably ákaru-ku nà-i deshou ákaru-ku nà-i darou
The Polite Present

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-i desu.
(E): The lamp is bright.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-ku arimasen.
(E): The lamp is not bright.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-i desu ka? Hai, akaru-i desu. Iie, akaru-ku arimasen.
(E): Is the lamp bright? Yes, it is. No, it isn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Nani ga akaru-i desu ka? Ranpu ga akaru-i desu.
(E): What is bright? The lamp is.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Ranpu 'wa dou desu ka? Akaru-i desu.
(E): How is the lump. It is bright.
The Polite Past

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-katta desu.
(E): The lamp was bright.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-ku arimasen deshita.
(E): The lamp was not bright.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-katta desu ka? Hai, akaru-katta desu. Iie, akaru-ku arimasen deshita.
(E): Was the lamp bright? Yes, it was. No, it wasn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Nani ga akaru-kata desu ka? Ranpu ga akaru-katta desu.
(E): What was bright? The lamp was.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Ranpu 'wa dou deshita ka? Akaru-katta desu.
(E): How was the lump. It was bright.

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-i deshou.
(E): The lamp is probably bright.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-ku na-i deshou.
(E): The lamp is not probably bright.
courteous nuance.

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-katta deshou.
(E): The lamp was probably bright.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Ranpu ga akaru-ku na-katta deshou.
(E): The lamp was not probably bright.
courteous nuance.
The adjectival verbs do not have these types of inflections, although the subject of a sentence is a motional object which has wills like human beings, animals and so on. When
you express these moods, you use ordinary verbs "naru" which means "to become", "suru" which means "to do", and so on.
A relation between existence verbs, the copula and adjectival verbs
A relation between existence verbs, the copula and adjectival verbs [Kana Table]
English the existence the copula adjectival verbs
certain was/were ari-mashita deshita -katta desu
past
uncertain was/were probably atta deshou datta deshou -katta deshou
polite affirmative certain am/are/is ari-masu desu -i desu
present
uncertain am/are/is probably aru deshou deshou -i deshou
certain was/were not ari-masen deshita de ari-masen deshita -ku ari-masen deshita
past
uncertain was/were not probably na-katta deshou de na-katta deshou -ku na-katta deshou
negative
certain am/are/is not ari-masen de ari-masen -ku ari-masen
present
uncertain am/are/is not probably na-i deshou de na-i deshou -ku na-i deshou
certain was/were atta datta -katta
past
uncertain was/were probably atta darou datta darou -katta darou
affirmative
certain am/are/is aru da -i
present
uncertain am/are/is probably aru darou darou -i darou
plain
certain was/were not na-katta de na-katta -ku na-katta
past
uncertain was/were not probably na-katta darou de na-katta darou -ku na-katta darou
negative
certain am/are/is not na-i de na-i -ku na-i
present
uncertain am/are/is not probably na-i darou de na-i darou -ku na-i darou

Voices
This chapter introduces Japanese voices. Japanese have three voices, the causative voice, the passive voice, the potential voice. Although the causative and the potential are
not members of voices according to a strict definition, Logical Japanese Grammar define them as members of voices, because these three voice are derived from ordinary verbs
regularly. Then these derivative verbs change the rules of particles for cases. the subjective marker "ga", the object marker "ni", "o", comparing with the original verbs, while
expressions for the polite and the tenses do not change the rules of particles for cases. The derivative verbs are unique to the verbs. The adjectival verbs and the copula do not
have these derivations. All the derivative verbs are classified into the weak verbs.
How To Make Causative Forms

causative verbs
dictionary meaning
stem derivative
E neru ne + s + aseru nesaseru to let somebody sleep
Weak Verb
I miru mi + s + aseru misaseru to let somebody see
K kiku kik + aseru kikaseru to let somebody hear
R naru nar + aseru naraseru to let somebody become
S dasu das + aseru dasaseru to let somebody put out
T matsu mat + aseru mataseru to let somebody wait
Strong Verb W iu iw + aseru iwaseru to let somebody say
B yobu yob + aseru yobaseru to let somebody call
G nugu nug + aseru nugaseru to let somebody undress
M nomu nom + aseru nomaseru to let somebody drink
N shinu shin + aseru shinaseru to let somebody die

K kuru k + os + aseru kosaseru to let somebody come
Irregular Verb
S suru s + aseru saseru to let somebody do
How To Make Passive Forms

passive verbs
dictionary meaning
stem derivative
E neru ne + r + areru nerareru to let somebody sleep unwillingly
Weak Verb
I miru mi + r + areru mirareru to be seen to let somebody see unwillingly
K kiku kik + areru kikareru to be heard to let somebody hear unwillingly
R naru nar + areru narareru to let somebody become unwillingly
S dasu das + areru dasareru to be put out to let somebody put out unwillingly
T matsu mat + areru matareru to let somebody wait unwillingly
Strong Verb W iu iw + areru iwareru to be said to let somebody say unwillingly
B yobu yob + areru yobareru to be called to let somebody call unwillingly
G nugu nug + areru nugareru to be undressed to let somebody undress unwillingly
M nomu nom + areru nomareru to be drunk to let somebody drink unwillingly
N shinu shin + areru shinareru to let somebody die unwillingly
K kuru k + or areru korareru to let somebody come unwillingly
Irregular Verb
S suru s + areru sareru to be done to let somebody do unwillingly
How To Make Potential Forms

potential verbs
dictionary meaning
stem derivative
E neru ne + (ra)r + eru ne(ra)reru to be able to sleep
Weak Verb
I miru mi + (ra)r + eru mi(ra)reru to be able to see
K kiku kik + eru kikeru to be able to hear
R naru nar + eru nareru to be able to become
S dasu das + eru daseru to be able to put out
T matsu mat + eru materu to be able to wait
Strong Verb W iu iw + eru ieru (*1) to be able to say
B yobu yob + eru yoberu to be able to call
G nugu nug + eru nugeru to be able to undress
M nomu nom + eru nomeru to be able to drink
N shinu shin + eru shineru to be able to die
K kuru k + o(ra)r + eru ko(ra)reru to be able to come
Irregular Verb S suru dekiru (*2) to be able to do
(*1) a sound change : w + e e
(*2) "dekiru" is a potential verb. This is not derived from "suru".
The Causative
The Causative [Kana Table]

verb voice subject indirect object direct object predicate meaning
active Amanda ga ki-mashita. Amanda came.
intransitive
causative Masyuh' ga Amanda 'o kosase-mashita. Matthew let Amanda come.
active Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-mashita. Amanda drank wine.
transitive
causative Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o nomase-mashita. Matthew let Amanda drink wine.
active Amanda ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kai-mashita. Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
transitive Amanda ni
causative Masyuh' ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kawase-mashita. Matthew let Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.
(*1)
(*1) The order of "Amanda ni" followed by "Jesika ni" is very important. If the order is exchanged, the meaning is changed.
The table above shows us typical diagram to change particles among voices. When the predicate in the active voice is an intransitive verb, The subject in the active voice moves
the direct object in the causative voice. When the predicate in the active voice is a transitive verb, The subject in the active voice moves the indirect object in the causative voice.
How to use causative forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda 'o kosase-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda come.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o nomase-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda drink wine.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni Jesika ni tiketto 'o kawase-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.
The Passive
The passive has two types of voices. One is the indirect passive voice, the other is the direct passive voice.
The Indirect Passive [Kana Table]


intransitive
passive Masyuh' ga Amanda ni korare-mashita. Mathew let Amanda come.
transitive
passive Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o momase-mashita. Mathew let Amanda drink wine.
transitive Amanda ni
passive Masyuh' ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kaware-mashita. Matthew let Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.
(*1)
(*1) The order of "Amanda ni" followed by "Jesika ni" is very important. If the order is exchanged, the meaning is changed.
The table above shows us typical diagram to change particles among voices. The subject in the active voice moves the indirect object in the causative voice.
As you may be aware of it, the indirect passive voice is a kind of causative voices in its meaning. It indicates regretful feelings or unwilling feelings by the subject to the indirect
object's action. You may rarely use indirect passive forms. However, these forms are very important for you to understand Japanese passive voice and potential voice because
they are derived from this indirect passive voice historically.
How to use indirect passive forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni korare-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda come unwillingly.
( Because he was very tired and he wanted to stay alone. )
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o nomare-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda drink wine regretfully.
( Because the wine is very expensive and he did not want to give it to anyone. )
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni Jesika ni tiketto 'o kikare-mashita.
(E): Matthew let Amanda buy Jessica a ticket unwillingly.
( Because this was the last ticket and Matthew could not get a ticket. )
The Direct Passive [Kana Table]

transitive
passive Wain ga Amanda ni nomare-mashita. A movie was drunk by Amanda.
transitive passive Jesika ga Amanda ni tiketto 'o kaware-mashita. Jessica was bought a ticket by Amanda.
passive Tiketto ga Amanda ni kaware-mashita. A ticket was bought by Amanda.
The direct passive is an ordinary passive used generally in English. When the predicative verb has two objects, you may choose two passive sentences. One has the subject
which comes from the indirect object, the other has the subject which comes from the direct object. When the predicative verb is an intransitive verb, there is no direct passive
form.
How to use direct passive forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Wain ga (Amanda ni) nomare-mashita.
(E): A movie was drunk (by Amanda).
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Jesika ga (Amanda ni) tiketto 'o kaware-mashita.
(E): Jessica was bought a ticket (by Amanda).
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Tiketto ga (Amanda ni) kaware-mashita.
(E): A ticket was bought (by Amanda).
The Potential
The potential has two types of voices. One is the direct potential voice. The relation of particles for cases do not change their position. The other is the indirect potential voice. In
this voice, the direct object change its case into the subject.
The Indirect Potential [Kana Table]

intransitive
potential Amanda ga ko(ra)re-mashita. Amanda was able to come.
active Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-mashita. Amanda drink wine.
transitive
potential Amanda ga wain 'o nome-mashita. Amanda was able to drink wine.
transitive
potential Amanda ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kae-mashita. Amanda was able to buy Jessica a ticket.
How to use indirect potential forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Amanda ga ko(ra)re-mashita.
(E): Amanda was able to come.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Amanda ga wain 'o nome-mashita.
(E): Amanda was able to drink wine.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Amanda ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kae-mashita.
(E): Amanda was able to buy Jessica a ticket.
The Direct Potential [Kana Table]

active Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-mashita. Amanda drink wine.
transitive
potential Wain ga Amanda ni nome-mashita. Wine was capable of drinking for Amanda.
transitive
potential Tiketto ga Amanda ni kae-mashita. A ticket was capable of buying for Amanda.
How to use direct potential forms

Case 1a
(K):
(J): (Amanda ni) wain ga nome-mashita.
(E): Wine was capable of drinking (for Amanda).
Case 2a
(K):
(J): (Amanda ni) tiketto ga kae-mashita.
(E): A ticket was capable of buying (for Amanda).

Auxiliary Verbs
Japanese has several auxiliary verbs to append special meanings to ordinary verbs. They have only dependent usage and always follow independent words or independent
phrases.
I list up the aulixiary verbs as the following table
the list of the auxiliary verbs

auxiliary verb conjugation type English comment
-masu the polite verb to do It appends polite nuances to verbs.
-tagaru strong verbs to want to It expresses desire to do something for the third person.
-ta-i adjectival verbs to want to It expresses desire to do something.
-sou adjectival nouns to look to It expresses that something appears to do.
da the copula to be a copula.
desu the polite copula to be a copula that expresses polite nuanses
rashi-i adjectival verbs to seem to It expresses that something seems to do.
you adjectival nouns to appear to It expresses that something looks to do.
sou adjectival nouns It is said that It expresses that it is said something.
Conjunctions of the Auxiliary Verbs [Kana Table] A Dictionary
verbs (ex. "suru") adjectival verb (ex. "ao-i") adjectival nouns Japanese Kana English
auxiliary verb
present participle stem (ex. "suki") áò-i blue
-masu shi-masu shírò-i white
-tagaru shi-tagaru súkì favorite
-ta-i shi-ta-i ài love
-sou shi-sou ao-sou suki-sou
Conjunctions of the Auxiliary Verbs [Kana Table]

verbs (ex. "suru") adjectival verb (ex. "ao-i") adjectival nouns nouns the copula
auxiliary verb
present past present past (ex. "suki") (ex. "ai") past
da suki da ai da
desu ao-i desu ao-katta desu suki desu ai desu
darou(*1) suru darou shita darou ao-i darou ao-katta darou suki darou ai darou datta darou
deshou(*2) suru deshou shita deshou ao-i deshou ao-katta deshou suki deshou ai deshou datta deshou
rashi-i suru rashi-i shita rashi-i ao-i rashi-i ao-katta rashi-i suki rashi-i ai rashi-i datta rashi-i
you suru you shita you ao-i you ao-katta you suki na you(*3) ai no you(*4) datta you
sou suru sou shita sou ao-i sou ao-katta sou suki da sou(*5) ai da sou(*5) datta sou
(*1) the subjunctive form of the copula "da"

(*2) the subjunctive form of the polite copula "desu"
(*3) The particle " na" is necessary to connect the preceding word.
(*4) The particle " no" is necessary to connect the preceding word.
(*5) The present form of copula " da" is necessary to connect the preceding word.
The auxiliaries "-masu", " da", "desu", "darou" and "deshou" have been already mentioned in the previous chapters frequently. So I explain the other auxiliary verbs.
The Desiderative
These auxiliary verbs append the meaning "to want" to main verbs. The ending forms of the auxiliary "-ta-i" are used for the first person. When you use "-ta-i" in sentences whose
subject is the second or the third person, you should use it with probable forms or the presumptive verbs or interrogative, since you can not decide other people's feeling or
thought. You can only guess them. On the other hand, the auxiliary "-tagaru" is used for the third person. However, you use this word to inferior people or animals mainly. So you
should avoid using "-tagaru". Instead, you should use "-ta-i" with probable forms or presumptive verbs, as in "-ta-i deshou".
how to use "-ta-i"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Watashi ga wain 'o nomi-ta-i desu.
(E): I want to drink wine.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Watashi ga wain 'o nomi-ta-katta desu.
(E): I wanted to drink wine.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-ta-i deshou.
(E): Amanda probably wants to drink wine.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-ta-katta deshou.
(E): Amanda probably wanted to drink wine.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Amanda ga wain 'o nomi-ta-i deshou ka? Hai, sou deshou. Iie, sou de nai deshou.
(E): Does Amanda probably want to drink wine? Yes, she does probably. No. she does not probably.
The Presumptive Verbs
Japanese has four auxiliary verbs to express presumptive sentences. In order to make translation easy. I apply meanings to the each auxiliaries as follows for your convenience,
although the real nuances of these auxiliaris are not same as English verbs.
-sou: to appear to, it appears that, it appears as if

you: to look to, it looks as if
rashi-i: to seem to, it seems that, it seems as if
sou: they say that, it is said that
The following table shows you the relation between these auxiliaries.
The Relation between Presumptive Auxiliaries [Kana Table]

no guarantee guarantee
my opinion shi-sou shi-sou shi-sou suru you
shi-sou suru you suru you suru you
suru sou suru rashi-i suru rashi-i suru rashi-i
their opinion suru sou suru sou suru sou suru rashi-i
how to use "-sou"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shi-sou desu.
(E): It appears that a lion jumps.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shi-sou deshita.
(E): It appeared that a lion jumps.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-sou desu.
(E): It appears that the lion looks is white.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-sou desita.
(E): It appeared that the lion was white.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to-sou desu.
(E): It appears that the lion is smart.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to-sou deshita.
(E): It appeared that the lion was smart.
how to use "you"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu suru you desu.
(E): It looks that a lion jumps.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu suru you deshita.
(E): It looked that a lion jumped.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shita you desu.
(E): It looks that a lion jumped.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shita you deshita.
(E): It looked that a lion had jumped.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-i you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion is white.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-i you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lion was white.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-katta you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion was white.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-katta you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lion had been white.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to na you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion is smart.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to na you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lioneThe lion appeared to be smart.
Case 3c
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to datta you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion was smart.
Case 3d
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to datta you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lion had been smart.
Case 4a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' no you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion is a monster.
Case 4b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' no you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lion was a monster.
Case 4c
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' datta you desu.
(E): It looks that the lion was a monster.
Case 4d
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' datta you deshita.
(E): It looked that the lion had been a monster.
how to use "rashi-i"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu suru rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that a lion jumps.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shita rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion jumped.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-i rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion is white.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-katta rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion was white.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion is smart.
Case 3c
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to datta rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion was smart.
Case 4a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion is a monster.
Case 4c
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' datta rashi-i desu.
(E): It seems that the lion was a monster.
how to use "sou"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu suru sou desu.
(E): It is said that a lion jumps.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Raion ga janpu shita sou desu.
(E): It is said that a lion jumped.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-i sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion is white.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa shiro-katta sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion was white.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to da sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion is smart.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa sumah'to datta sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion was smart.

Case 4a
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' da sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion is a monster.
Case 4b
(K):
(J): Sono raion 'wa monsutah' datta sou desu.
(E): It is said that the lion was a monster.

Moving and Giving Verbs
The basic verbs, to go, to come and to give are important in Japanese as well as English. However, their usages are slight different between Japanese and English. This chapter
explains the difference between them.
Moving Verbs ( "iku" and "kuru" )
In English, the moving verbs respect the position of both the speaker and the listener, on the other hand, they respect the position of the speaker only in Japanese. The verb "iku"
is conjugated as a strong verb and the verb "kuru" is conjugated as an irregular verb K.
the diagram of the moving verbs

English "come" "come" "go"
Japanese "kuru" "iku" (*1) "iku"
other people the speaker the listener other people
English "go" "come" "come"
Japanese "iku" "kuru" "iku" (*2)
English "come" "come"
Japanese "kuru" the speaker and the listener "iku" (*3)
other places interesting places
English "go" the speaker or the listener "come"
Japanese "iku" "kuru"
In most cases, Japanese "iku" corresponds to English "go" and Japanese "kuru" corresponds to English "come". However, there usages are opposite in the following cases.
(*1) When the speaker comes to the listener, you use "iku" in Japanese.
(*2) When other people come to the listener, you use "iku" in Japanese, however, you may use "kuru" as well.
(*3) When the speaker or the listener comes to interesting places, you use "iku" in Japanese.
how to use "iku" and "kuru"
Case 1a
(K):
(J): Watashi ga anata no penshon ni iki-masu.
(E): I come to your pension. (= I move to your pension.)
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Watashi ga anata no penshon ni iki-masu.
(E): I come to your pension. (= I return to your pension.)
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Watashi ga anata no penshon ni iki-mashita.
(E): I came to your pension. (= I moved to your pension.)
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Watashi ga anata no penshon ni ki-mashita.
(E): I came to your pension. (= I arrived at your pension.)
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Watashi ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni iki-masu.
(E): I go to Stephanie's pension. (= I move to Stephanie's pension.)
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Watashi ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni ki-masu.
(E): I come to Stephanie's pension. (= I return to Stephanie's pension.)
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Watashi ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni ki-mashita.
(E): I went to Stephanie's pension. (= I moved to Stephanie's pension.)
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Watashi ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni ki-mashita.
(E): I came to Stephanie's pension. (= I arrived at Stephanie's pension.)
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Anata ga watashi no penshon ni ki-masu.
(E): You come to my pension. (= You move to my pension.)
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Anata ga watashi no penshon ni ki-mashita.
(E): You came to my pension. (= You arrived at my pension.)
Case 4a
(K):
(J): Anata ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni iki-masu.
(E): You go to Stephanie's pension. (= You move to Stephanie's pension.)
Case 4b
(K):
(J): Anata ga Sutefanih' no penshon ni iki-mashita.

(E): You went to Stephanie's pension. (= You moved to Stephanie's pension.)
Case 5a
(K):
(J): Sutefanih' ga watashi no pension ni ki-masu.
(E): Stephanie comes to my pension. (= Stephanie moves to my pension.)
Case 5b
(K):
(J): Sutefanih' ga watashi no penshon ni ki-mashita.
(E): Stephanie came to my pension. (= Stephanie arrived at my pension.)
Case 6a
(K):
(J): Sutefanih' ga anata no penshon ni iki-masu.
(E): Stephanie comes to your pension. (= Stephanie moves to your pension.)
Case 6b
(K):
(J): Sutefanih' ga anata no penshon ni ki-masu.
(E): Stephanie comes to your pension. (= Stephanie moves to your pension.)
Case 6c
(K):
(J): Sutefanih' ga anata no penshon ni iki-mashita.
(E): Stephanie came to your pension. (= Stephanie moved to your pension.)
Giving Verbs ( "ageru", "yaru" and "kureru" )
Japanese has several verbs in order to express giving. It uses different verbs for each directions, from the speaker to the listener, from the listener to the speaker.
the diagram of the giving verbs

English "give" "give" "give"
Japanese "kureru" "ageru" "ageru"
other people the speaker's side (*1) the listener other people
English "give" "give" "give"
Japanese "ageru" "kureru" "kureru" (*2)
"Ageru" is conjugated as a weak verb, "kureru" is conjugated as weak verb, too. The meaning of both is "to give". Another giving verb, "yaru", who is a strong verb, has the same
usage with "ageru". However, the honorific level is different. you should use "ageru" for general usages. You should not use the verb "yaru" at least when respectable people are
the subject of this verb.
(*1) the speaker's side means the people who are near to the speaker. Generally, they are the member of the speaker's family and the intimate friends.
(*2) When other people give something to the listener, he/she is dealt with the speaker's side. "Ageru" is still valid in this case.
how to use "ageru" and "kureru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Watashi ga anata ni baggu 'o age-masu.
(E): I give you a bag.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Watashi ga fianse ni baggu 'o age-mashita.
(E): I gave my fiance a bag.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Watashi ga Ashurih' ni baggu 'o age-masen.
(E): I do not give Ashley a bag.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Fianse ga watashi ni baggu 'o kure-masu.
(E): My fiance gives me a bag.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Watashi no fianse ga anata ni baggu 'o age-mashita.
(E): My fiance gave you a bag.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Watashi no fianse ga Ashurih' ni baggu 'o age-masen.
(E): My fiance does not give Ashley a bag.
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Anata ga watashi baggu 'o kure-masu.
(E): You give me a bag.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Anata ga watashi no fianse ni baggu 'o kure-mashita.
(E): You gave my fiance a bag.
Case 3c
(K):
(J): Anata ga Ashurih' ni baggu 'o age-masen.
(E): You do not give Ashley a bag.
Case 4a
(K):
(J): Ashley ga watashi baggu 'o kure-masu.
(E): Ashley gives me a bag.
Case 4b
(K):
(J): Ashurih' ga watashi no fianse ni baggu 'o kure-mashita.
(E): Ashley gave my fiance a bag.
Case 4c
(K):
(J): Ashurih' ga anata ni baggu 'o age-masen.
(E): Ashley does not give you a bag.
Case 4d
(K):
(J): Ashurih' ga anata ni baggu 'o kure-masen.

(E): Ashley does not give you a bag.

Supplemental Verbs
Supplemental verbs are ordinary verbs themselves. They have dependent usages as well as independent usage. Their meanings are different between them. When they are
used as dependent verbs, they append aspects, wills and benefis to main verbs. They follow the present participle of verbs or verbal nouns.
the list of the supplemental verbs following the present participle of verbs
supplemental verb conjugation type verb as the independent verb as the supplemental
iru weak verbs to be to be doing, to have done
aru strong verbs to be to have been done
na-i adjectival verbs not to be not to have been done
aspects
shimau strong verbs to finish to end by doing
iku strong verbs to go to go on doing to future
kuru irregular verb K to come to go on doing till now
miru weak verbs to see to try doing
oku strong verbs to put to leave done
wills
yo-i / i-i adjectival verbs to be good may
hoshi-i adjectival verbs to want to want to do
yaru strong verbs to give to do for
ageru weak verbs to give to do for
benefits
kureru weak verbs to give to do for
morau strong verbs to receive to get to do
The aspects
how to use "iru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite i-masu.
(E): Joshua is painting the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite i-mashita.
(E): Joshua was painting the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite i-masu ka? Hai, shite i-masu. Iie, shite i-masen.
(E): Is Joshua painting the door? Yes, he is. No, he isn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o peinto-shite i-mashita ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite i-mashita.
(E): What was Joshua painting the door? He was painting the door.
how to use "aru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Doa ga peinto-shite ari-masu.
(E): The door has been painted.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Doa ga peinto-shite ari-mashita.
(E): The door had been painted.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Doa ga peinto-shite ari-masu ka? Hai, shite ari-masu. Iie, shite ari-masen.
(E): Has the door been painted? Yes, it has. No, it hasn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Nani ga peinto-shite ari-mashita ka? Doa ga peinto-shite ari-mashita.
(E): What had been painted? The door had.
how to use "na-i"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Doa ga peinto-shite na-i deu.(*1)
(E): The door has not been painted.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Doa ga peinto-shite na-katta desu.(*2)
(E): The door had not been painted.
(*1) Formally, "ari-masen( )" should be used instead of "na-i desu( )".
(*2) Formally, "ari-masen deshita( )" should be used instead of "na-katta desu( )".
how to use "shimau" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite shimai-masu.
(E): Joshua ends by painting the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite shimai-mashita.
(E): Joshua ended by painting the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite shimai-masu ka? Hai, shite shimai-masu. Iie, shite shimai-masen.
(E): Does Joshua end by painting the door? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o peinto-shite shimai-mashita ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite shimai-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua end by painting? He ended by painting the door.
(*1) "Shimau" is used when unwilling events happen.
how to use "iku" and "kuru" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga resutoran 'o maneiji-shite iki-masu.
(E): Joshua goes on managing his restaurant.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga resutoran 'o maneiji-shite ki-mashita.
(E): Joshua went on managing his restaurant.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga resutoran 'o maneiji-shite iki-masu ka? Hai, shite iki-masu. Iie, shite iki-masen.
(E): Does Joshua go on managing his restaurant? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o maneiji-shite ki-mashita ka. Restoran 'o maneiji-shite ki-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua go on managing. He went on managing a restaurant.
(*1) "Iku" is used for the term from now to future, while "kuru" is used for the term from past to now.
The wills
how to use "miru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite mi-masu.
(E): Joshua tries painting the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite mi-mashita.
(E): Joshua tried painting the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite mi-masu ka? Hai, shite mi-masu. Iie, shite mi-masen.
(E): Does Joshua try painting the door? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o peinto-shite mi-mashita ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite mi-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua try painting? He tried painting the door.
how to use "oku"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite oki-masu.
(E): Joshua leaves the door painted.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite oki-mashita.
(E): Joshua left the door painted.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite oki-masu ka? Hai, shite oki-masu. Iie, shite oki-masen.
(E): Does Joshua leave the door painted? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o peinto-shite oki-mashita ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite oki-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua leave painted? He left the door painted.
how to use "i-i" and "yo-i" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite i-i desu.
(E): Joshua may paint the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite yo-katta desu.
(E): Joshua may have painted the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga doa 'o peinto-shite i-i desu ka? Hai, shite i-i desu. Iie, shite yo-ku na-i desu.
(E): May Joshua paint the door? Yes, he may. No, he mustn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o peinto-shite yo-katta desu ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite yo-katta desu.
(E): What may Joshua have painted? He may have painted the door.
(*1) "I-i" is used for the present tense, while "yo-i" is used for the past tense.
how to use "hoshi-i"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Watashi 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite hoshi-i desu.
(E): I want Joshua to paint the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Watashi 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite hoshi-katta desu.
(E): I wanted Joshua to paint the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Anata 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite hoshi-i desu ka? Hai, shite hoshi-i desu. Iie, shite hoshi-ku ari-masen.
(E): Do you want Joshua to paint the door? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Anata 'wa Joshua ni nani 'o peinto-shite hoshi-katta desu ka? Doa 'o peinto-shite hoshi-katta desu.
(E): What did you want Joshua to paint? I wanted him to paint the door.
The benefits
how to use "ageru" and "yaru" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga anata ni doa 'o peinto-shite age-masu.
(E): Joshua paints the door for you.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga anata ni doa 'o peinto-shite age-mashita.
(E): Joshua painted the door for you.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga anata ni doa 'o peinto-shite age-masu ka. Hai, shite age-masu. Iie, shite age-masen.
(E): Does Joshua paint the door for you? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga anata ni doa 'o peinto-shite age-mashita ka. Doa 'o peinto-shite age-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua paint for you. He painted the door.
(*1) "Ageru" is used better than "yaru" because of courtesy.
how to use "kureru" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga watashi ni doa 'o peinto-shite kure-masu.
(E): Joshua paints the door for me.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga watashi ni doa 'o peinto-shite kure-mashita.
(E): Joshua painted the door for me.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga watashi ni doa 'o peinto-shite kure-masu ka. Hai, shite kure-masu. Iie, shite kure-masen.
(E): Does Joshua paint the door for me? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga watashi ni doa 'o peinto-shite kure-mashita ka. Doa 'o peinto-shite kure-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua paint for me. He painted the door.
(*1) The rule of the different usage between "ageru" and "kureru" is based on their independent usage.
how to use "morau" (*1)

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Watashi 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite morai-masu.
(E): I get Joshua to paint the door.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Watashi 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite morai-mashita.
(E): I got Joshua to paint the door.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Anata 'wa Joshua ni doa 'o peinto-shite morai-masu ka. Hai, shite morai-masu. Iie, shite morai-masen.
(E): Do you get Joshua to paint the door? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Anata 'wa Joshua ni nani 'o peinto-shite morai-mashita ka. Doa 'o peinto-shite morai-mashita.
(E): What did you get Joshua to paint. I got him to paint the door.
the list of the supplemental verbs following verbal nouns

supplemental verb conjugation type verb as the independent verb as the supplemental
suru irregular verb S to do to do
dekiru weak verbs to be able to do to be able to do
Supplemental verbs "suru" and "dekiru" frequently appeared in the previous chapters. These verbs provide the conjugations of verbs to verbal nouns which do not have their
natural conjugation.
how to use "suru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-shi-masu.
(E): Joshua dance the waltz.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-shi-mashita.
(E): Joshua danced the waltz.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-shi-masu ka? Hai, shi-masu. Iie, shi-masen.
(E): Does Joshua dance the waltz? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o dansu-shi-mashita ka? Warutsu 'o dansu-shi-mashita.
(E): What did Joshua dance? He danced the waltz.
how to use "dekiru"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-deki-masu.
(E): Joshua can dance the waltz.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-deki-mashita.
(E): Joshua was able to dance the waltz.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Joshua ga warutsu 'o dansu-deki-masu ka? Hai, deki-masu. Iie, deki-masen.
(E): Can Joshua dance the waltz? Yes, he can. No, he can't.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Joshua ga nani 'o dansu-deki-mashita ka? Warutsu 'o dansu-deki-mashita.
(E): What was Joshua able to dance? He was able to dance the waltz.
Particles
Particles are very important elements in Japanese, although they generally have a few syllables less than three and no inflections. They provide grammatical and emotional
meanings to words and sentences. If you change some of particles into another particles. the meaning of a sentence is quit different from the original sentence. However, after
you understand behaviors of particles, you can compose many Japanese sentences naturally and you comprehend most of sentences.
Types of Particles
There are 6 types of particles to compose sentences.
case particles:
They provide the definitions of cases to each nouns and phrases correspondent to nouns.
ga, 'o, ni, 'e, de, yori
nominal particles:
They provide the definitions of cases to each nouns and phrases correspondent to nouns. Also they provide the normalization.
no, na, to, ya, ka
na-no, 'e-no, de-no
topical particles:
They provide the function that controls all over the sentence. They affect the form of predicators.
'wa, mo, koso, sae, shika, demo, datte
koso-'wa, sae-mo
conjunctive particles:
They provide the behaviors like conjunctions to each verbs and phrases correspondent to verbs.
shi, keredomo, ga, to, node, noni
adverbial particles:
They provide the behaviors like adverbs to each nouns and phrases correspondent to nouns. The words followed by these postposition can take copulas after themselves.
So they behave like predicators.
made, bakari, dake, gurai, nado, nari, yara, kara, nagara, hodo
interjective particles:
They provide the behaviors like interjections.
naa, nee, sa
zo, yo, wa ( only connect the end of sentences )
Conjunction of Particles
Particles adverbial nominal case topical conjunctive interjective
Preceding Word Example gurai no 'e sae shi nee
Nouns, Demonstrative kore OK OK OK OK OK
Adjectival Nouns suki (*4) OK
present suru OK OK (*7) OK(*8) OK
Verbs
past shita OK OK OK OK
present na-i OK OK OK(*8) OK
Adjectival Verbs
past na-katta OK OK OK OK
present da (*5) OK(*8)(*9) OK
The Copula "da"
past datta OK OK OK OK
"-masu" present -masu OK OK
"desu" past -mashita OK OK
present shi (*1) (*6) OK OK
past shite (*2) OK OK
Verbs
negative present sezu (*6) OK OK
negative past participle shina-i de OK OK
present na-ku OK OK
Adjectival Verbs
past na-kute OK OK
present ni OK OK
The Copula "da"
past de OK OK
adverbial gurai OK OK OK OK OK
nominal no OK OK OK OK OK
case 'e OK(*3) OK(*3) OK
Particles
topical sae OK
conjunctive shi OK
interjective nee
(*1) "Nagara" connects the present participle like "shi" if it follows verbs.
(*2) "Kara" connects the past participle like "shite" if it follows verbs.
(*3) Case particle "ga" and "'o" are not followed by any particles except interjective ones.
(*4) "Na" and "ka" follow nominal nouns.
(*5) Case particle "to" follows the present of the copula.
(*6) "Ni" can follow the present participle of verbs like "shi", "sezu".
(*7) "Shika" only follows the present of verbs. It does not follow the other conjugation forms of verbs, adjectival verbs and the copula.
(*8) Conjunctive particle "to" can only follow the present forms of verbs, adjectival verbs and the copula.
(*9) "Noni" and "node" usually follow "na", because they are originated from "no" followed by "ni" or "de".
Compound particles "na-no", "de-no", "'e-no", "koso-'wa" and "sae-mo" have the same connections as their first particles when they follow the preceding words, and the
same connections as their last particles when they are followed by the next words.
Particles
Case Particles
Japanese has 6 case particles. 4 case particles among 6 are very important to construct sentences. They have so many various meanings that you have many choices to mater
them. In this chapter, I introduce the relation to when, where, who and what. This helps you to understand the relation between these 4 case particles for your first step.
Basic Meanings
Particle Meaning English Japanese
ni time when itsu (ni)
de place where doko de
ga subject who dare ga
'o object what nani 'o
Japanese Basic Sentence

(K):
(J): Itsu, doko de dare ga nani 'o shi-masu ka?
(E): (*) When who does what where?
Dictionaries
Japanese Kana English Japanese Kana English Japanese Kana English
ichi-gatsu(*1) January nichi-youbi Sunday ichi-ji(*4) one o'clock
ni-gatsu February getsu-youbi Monday ip-pun(*5) one minute
san-gatsu March ka-youbi Tuesday ni-fun(*6) two minutes
shi-gatsu(*2) April sui-youbi Wednesday san-fun three minutes
go-gatsu May moku-youbi Thursday yon-fun four minutes
roku-gatsu Jun kin'-youbi Friday go-fun five minutes
shichi-gatsu(*3) July do-youbi Saturday roku-fun fix minutes
hachi-gatsu August kinou yesterday nana-fun seven minutes
ku-gatsu September kyou today hachi-fun eight minutes
juu-gatsu October ashita tomorrow kyuu-fun nine minutes
juu-ichi-gatsu November jip-pun ten minutes
juu-ni-gatsu December ichi-byou(*7) one second
(*1) "Gatsu" is the classifier to represent months.

(*2) "Shi" is the formal reading originated from Chinese for 4. It is idiomatically chosen instead of "yon", which is the popular reading for 4. "Yon-gatsu" is still intelligible but
not preferable.
(*3) "Shichi" is the formal reading originated from Chinese for 7. It is ideimatically chosen instead of "nana", which is the popular reading for 7. "Nana-gatsu" is still
intelligible but not preferable.
(*4) "Ji" is the classifier to represent o'clock.
(*5) "Pun" is the special classifier to represent minutes, it is only used when following 1 and 10, such as "ip-pun" ( 1 minute ), "jip-pun" ( 10 minutes ), "juu-ip-pun" ( 11
minutes ), "ni-jip-pun" ( 20 minutes ) and so on.
(*6) "Fun" is the general classifier to represent minutes except the case (*5).
(*7) "Byou" is the classifier to represent seconds.
How to use the case particle "ga", "'o", "ni" and "de".
Case 1a
(K):
(J): Nichi-youbi ni sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-masu.
(E): Mike plays tennis in the school on Sunday.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Itsu, sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-masu ka? Nichi-youbi ni purei shi-masu.
(E): When does Mike play tennis in the school? He does on Monday.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Doko de, nichi-youbi ni Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-masu ka? Sukuh'ru de purei shi-masu.
(E): Where does Mike play tennis on Sunday? He does in the school.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Dare ga nichi-youbi ni sukuh'ru de tenisu 'o purei shi-masu ka? Maiku ga purei shi-masu.
(E): Who plays tennis in the school on Sunday? Mike does.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Nani 'o nichi-youbi ni sukuh'ru de Maiku ga purei shi-masu ka? Tenisu 'o purei shi-masu.
(E): What does Mike play in the school on Sunday? He plays tennis.
You can not use "ni" when you use "kinou", "kyou" and "ashita" to represent time directly. On the other hand, you can use "ni" when you use them as modifiers to other words.
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Kinou sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-mashita.
(E): Mike played tennis in the school yesterday.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Kinou no san-ji ni sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-mashita.
(E): Mike played tennis in the school at 3 o'clock yesterday.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Kyou sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-mashita.
(E): Mike played tennis in the school today.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Kyou sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-mashita.
(E): Mike played tennis in the school at 9 o'clock today.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Ashita sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-masu.
(E): Mike plays tennis in the school tomorrow.
Case 2f
(K):
(J): Ashita no ni-ji san-jip-pun ni sukuh'ru de Maiku ga tenisu 'o purei shi-masu.
(E): Mike plays tennis in the school at 2:30 tomorrow.
Derivative Meanings
Particle Basic Meaning Derivative Meaning English
ni time spotting objects including human, place for, to
de place means, reasons by, with
ga subject possible, preferable, desirable objects
o object objects passed by along, through
How to use "ni" as the derivative meanings

Case 3a: spotting objects as human being or animate objects
(K):
(J): Maiku ga Maria ni baggu 'o age-masu.
(E): Mike gives Maria a bag.
(E): Mike gives a bag to Maria.
Case 3b: spotting objects as human being or animate objects
(K):
(J): Maiku ga Maria ni baggu 'o kai-masu.
(E): Mike buys Maria a bag.
(E): Mike buys a bag for Maria.
Case 3c: spotting objects as places
(K):
(J): Watashi ga sukuh'ru ni iki-masu.
(E): I go to school.
How to use "de" as the derivative meanings

Case 4a: means
(K):
(J): Maria ga naifu de orenji 'o katto shi-mashita.
(E): Maria cut the orange with a knife.
Case 4a: reasons
(K):
(J): Yankih'zu ga houmu ran de kachi-mashita.
(E): Yankees won by home runs.
How to use "ga" as the derivative meanings

Case 5a: possible objects
(K):
(J): Bokkusu kara boh'ru ga dase-masu. Bokkusu kara boh'ru 'o dase-masu.
(E): It is possible to put the ball out of the box. I can put the ball out of the box.
Case 5b: preferable objects
(K):
(J): Hanbah'gah' ga suki desu.
(E): A hamburger is preferable. I like a hamburger.
Case 5c: desirable objects
(K):
(J): Saidah' ga nomi-ta-i desu. Saidah' 'o nomi-ta-i desu.
(E): Cider is desired to drink. I want to drink cider.
How to use "'o" as the derivative meanings

Case 6a: objects passed by
(K):
(J): Saido-woh'ku 'o iki-masu.
(E): I go along the sidewalk.
Basic Meanings
Particle Basic Meaning English
'e the target direction to

yori comparing, more than than
How to use "'e"

Case 7a:
(K):
(J): Maiku ga Maria 'e baggu 'o age-masu.
(E): Mike gives Maria a bag.
(E): Mike gives a bag to Maria.
Case 7b:
(K):
(J): Watashi ga sukuh'ru 'e iki-masu.
(E): I go to school.
How to use "yori"

Case 8a:
(K):
(J): Nyuh' Yoh'ku 'wa Bosuton yori biggu desu.
(E): New York is bigger then Boston.
Case 8b:
(K):
(J): Japan de shirubah' 'wa goh'rudo yori ekusupenshibu deshita.
(E): Silver was more expensive than gold in Japan.
Particles
Nominal Particles
Japanese has five nominal particles. They modify nouns (excluding adjectival nouns) directly, then construct noun clauses which can be used as subjects, objects and so on.
This feature is different from the other kinds of particles. Three particles, 'no', 'to' and 'ka' are essential among them. They decide logical relations between noun clauses. 'Na' and
'ya' provide similar functions to 'no' and ''to' respectively. In addition, there are three complex nominal particle, 'na-no', 'de-no' and 'e-no'. 'Na', 'de' and 'e' are not be followed by
any particle except 'no'. They inherit their meanings from their leading particles.
Basic Meanings
Particle Japanese English
no A no B B of A
to A to B A and B
ka A ka B A or B
How to use nominal particle "no"
Case 1a
(K):
(J): raion no kingu
(E): the king of lions
How to use nominal particle "to"
Case 2a
(K):
(J): raion to taigah'
(E): lions and tigers
How to use nominal particle "ka"
Case 3a
(K):
(J): raion ka taigah'
(E): lions or tigers
'Na' follows adjectival nouns, while 'no' follows nouns. 'Ya' has almost the same meaning with 'to'. The difference is that 'ya' adds the meaning as 'and so on' while 'to' does not.
How to use nominal particle "na"

Case 4a
(K):
(J): sutorongu na kingu
(E): strong lions
How to use nominal particle "ya"
Case 5a
(K):
(J): raion ya taigah'
(E): lions, tigers and so on
All of them can be used as noun phrase in sentences.

Case 1b
(K):
(J): Are 'ga raion no kingu desu.
(E): That is the king of lions
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Raion to taigah' 'o mi-mashita.
(E): I saw lions and tigers.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Raion ka taigah' 'o mi-ta-katta desu.
(E): I wanted to see lions or tigers.
How to use nominal particle "na"

Case 4b
(K):
(J): Sutorongu na kingu ni naru.
(E): He becomes a strong lion.
How to use nominal particle "ya"
Case 5b
(K):
(J): Raion ya taigah' 'o miyou.
(E): Let's see lions, tigers and so on.
"No", "to" and "ka" can be used as noun phrases when they are followed by other particles or copulas.

Case 1c
(K):
(J): Are 'ga raion no desu.
(E): That is lions' possesion.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Raion to taigah' to 'o mi-mashita.
(E): I saw both lions and tigers.
Case 3c
(K):
(J): Raion ka taigah' ka 'o mi-ta-katta desu.
(E): I wanted to see either lions or tigers.
Normalizers
Nominal paritcles "no", "to" and "ka" have a very interesting feature besides modifying nouns. It is a normlaizer. A normalizer means that it changes a sentence into a noun
clause, which can be used like a noun to construct complex sentences. Generally, "no" changes a sentence into a object represented by the sentence, "to" changes a sentence
into information described by the sentence, and "ka" changes a sentence into alternation. "No", "to" and "ka" are roughly correspondent to "what", "that" and "whether"
respectively. Subordinate clauses do not have polite suffixes in these cases.
How to use normalizer "no"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mita no 'o shiri-mashita.
(E): I do not know ( the thing / the information ) that he saw a lion.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o miru no ga ivento desu.
(E): It is a event that he sees a lion.
How to use normalizer "to"
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mita to shiri-masen.
(E): I do not know that he saw a lion.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mita to no supih'chi desu.
(E): It is a speech that he sees a lion.
How to use normalizer "ka"
Case 3a
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mita ka shiri-masen.
(E): I do not know whether he had seen a lion.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mita ka ga kuwesuchion desu.
(E): It is a question whether he sees a lion.
"Ka" is also used as a question marker, derived from a selection particle and a normalizer. It can follow polite suffixes in this case.
How to use question marker "ka"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Sore wa raion desu ka (, raion de arimasen ka)?
(E): Is it a lion (or not a lion )?
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Kare ga raion 'o mi-mashita ka (, mina-katta desu ka)?
(E): Did he see a lion (or not see a lion)?
Compound Nominal Particles
"De-no" and "'e-no" are compound nominal particles, which inherit the meaning of the leading particle and modify nouns.
How to use compound nominal paricle "de-no"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): hoteru de-no dinah'
(E): dinner in a hotel
Case 1b
(K):
(J): gitah' de-no pafoh'mansu
(E): a perfomance with guitar
Case 1c
(K):
(J): oiru de-no woh'
(E): a war by oil

How to use compound nominal paricle "'e-no"
Case 2a
(K):
(J): Bosuton 'e-no haiwei
(E): a highway to Boston
"Na-no" is the special combination when the copula "da" is used in subordicate clauses with normalizer "no".
How to use compound nominal paricle "na-no"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Sore ga raion na-no 'o shiri-masen.
(E): I do not know that it is a lion.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Sore ga raion na-no ga nachuraru desu.
(E): It is natural that it is a lion.
This page is still under construction.
Particles
Topical Particles
A sample sentense.
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Topic Time Location Subject Direction Object Verb

Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
Time Valendain-Dei ni-'wa sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
Location Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-'wa Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
Subject Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa 'wa Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
Direction Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-'wa kyandi 'o age-mashita.
Object Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'wa age-mashita.
How to use topical particle "'wa"

Case 1a
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni-'wa sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): As for Valentine Day, Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school then.
Case 1b
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-'wa Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): As for the school, Lisa gave candies to Ron there on Valentine Day.
Case 1c
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa 'wa Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): As for Lisa, she gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 1d
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-'wa kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): As for Ron, Lisa gave him candies at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 1e
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e Kyandi 'wa age-mashita.
(E): As for candies, Lisa gave it to him at the school on Valentine Day.
Basic Meanings
Particle Japanese English
mo A mo A also
koso A koso very A
sae A sae even A
shika A shika no other but A
demo A demo even A
datte A datte even A
How to use topical particle "mo"

Case 2a
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni-mo sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day also.
Case 2b
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-mo Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school also, on Valentine Day.
Case 2c
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa mo Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa also gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 2d
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-mo kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron also, at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 2e
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi mo age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies also, to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
How to use topical particle "koso"

Case 3a
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni-koso sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Valentine Day is the very day when Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school.
Case 3b
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-koso Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): The school is the very place where Lisa gave candies to Ron on Valentine Day.
Case 3c
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa koso Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa is the very person who gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 3d
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-koso kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Ron is the very peroson whom Lisa gave candies at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 3e
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi mo age-mashita.
(E): Candies are the very things which Lisa gave to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
How to use topical particle "sae"

Case 4a
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni-mo sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school even on Valentine Day.
Case 4b
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-sae Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies to Ron even at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 4c
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa sae Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Even Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 4d
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-sae kyandi 'o age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave candies even to Ron, at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 4e
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi sae age-mashita.
(E): Lisa gave even candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
How to use topical particle "shika"

Case 5a
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni-shika sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-masen deshita.
(E): Lisa did not give candies to Ron at the school even on any other day but Valentine Day.
Case 5b
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de-shika Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-masen deshita.
(E): Lisa did not give candies to Ron even at any other place but the school on Valentine Day.
Case 5c
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa shika Ron 'e kyandi 'o age-masen deshita.
(E): No other person but Lisa gave candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 5d
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e-shika kyandi 'o age-masen dehita.
(E): Lisa dit not give candies to any other person but Ron at the school on Valentine Day.
Case 5e
(K):
(J): Valendain-Dei ni sukuh'ru de Risa ga Ron 'e kyandi shika age-masen dehita.
(E): Lisa did not give any other thing but candies to Ron at the school on Valentine Day.

Japanese - A Logical Grammar, 2005

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A Logical Japanese Grammar

Let's go to the table of contents.

Vowels "a" as in past

Japanese has 22 consonants that are easy to pronounce.

Consonants "p" as in space "z" as in zoo

Standard Syllables (By Hiragana)

Standard Syllables ( Classic Sounds ) ( By Hiragana )

Extended Syllables including The Standard ( Modern and Classic ) ( By Katakana )

m,my ma mi mu me mo mya myu mye myo

r,ry ra ri ru re ro rya ryu rye ryo

kw kwa kwi kwe kwo

gw gwa gwi gwe gwo

I introduce some examples.

Correspondence of Pronouns, Cases, Articles, Interrogative

Inflections of Personal Pronouns E: English

direct objective kórè-ra 'o sórè-ra 'o árè-ra 'o

Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative Adverbs

Vowels "æ" as in apple "a:" as in palm, cart "ai" as in like

Consonants "p" as in pencil "z" as in zone

Rules to Kana Syllables

Consonants followed by Vowels

Vowels (Long and Diphthongs)

Sample Kana Spelling generated by the Rules

200 Words Sample

Nouns, Adjectival Nouns, Verbal Nouns

Particle "no" is a possessive marker to connect nouns.

Púràiveito, pàburikku are adjectival nouns in the following tables.

Particle "na" is an attributive marker to modify nouns.

Púrèi is a verbal noun in the following tables.

Verbal Nouns as Ordinary Nouns

Verbal Nouns with an objective marker "'o"

Verbal Nouns with a subjective marker "ga"

Wátashì-tachi ga tènisu 'o púrèi-suru. ( We play tennis. )

wátashì-tachi no tènisu no púrèi ( our play of tennis )

Numerals and Classifiers

3,000: sàn + sèn sàn-zen ( )

people animate objects inanimate objects, things

sán-nìn no dóràivah' ( three drivers ) sán-nin-me no dóràivah' ( the third driver )

Verbs, Adjectival Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs

The Verbal System

negative verb -na-i -ana-i

Inflectional Polite Particles

Sound Changes of Strong Verbs A Dictionary

Combination Stem + Inflection Real Forms Japanese Kana English

S -s + i -shi kas + i kashi káshi

Irregular Verbs A Dictionary

Verbs, Adjectival Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs

Dependent clauses in complex sentences.

How to make polite forms

How To Make Polite Forms A Dictionary

How to use polite present forms

How to use negative polite present forms

How to use polite past forms

How to make the imperative mood with politeness

affirmative: past participle + "kudasai"

How to make the intent mood with politeness

How to make the probable mood with politeness

How To Make Past Forms How To Make Negative Forms

Irregular Verb S súru s + i + ta shíta Irregular Verb S súru s + i + na-i shína-i

(1),(2),(*3) Please refer the above list.