Capaccio

Meet Mars, the Red Planet. It is the fourth planet from the Sun,

Mars
and has long been in the thoughts and imaginations of people on
Earth. Does life exist on Mars? Why would it be hard for humans to
live there when parts of the planet resemble Earth? Mars explores
these questions and is full of many other fascinating facts about the
Red Planet. Learn about new discoveries, innovative technologies,
and incredible explorations that have given us many answers to
our questions about outer space. So come along on this incredible
journey through Space!

Titles in This Series

Mars
Asteroids, Meteors, and Comets
The Dwarf Planet Pluto
Earth and the Moon
Jupiter
Mars
Mercury
Neptune
Saturn
The Stars
The Sun
Uranus
Venus

George Capaccio
mars

George Capaccio

1
Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
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Text copyright © 2010 by Marshall Cavendish Corporation
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any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the copyright
holders.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Capaccio, George.
Mars / by George Capaccio.
p. cm. — (Space!)
Summary: “Describes Mars, including its history, its composition, and its role in the
Solar System”—Provided by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7614-4557-9
1. Mars (Planet)—Juvenile literature. I. Title.
QB641.C352 2010
523.43—dc22
2008037280

Editor: Karen Ang

Publisher: Michelle Bisson
Art Director: Anahid Hamparian
Series design by Daniel Roode
Production by nSight, Inc.

Front cover: A computer illustration of Mars

Title page: A computer illustration of a rover exploring the surface of Mars.
Photo research by Candlepants, Inc.
Front cover: Antonio M. Rosario / Getty Images
The photographs in this book are used by permission and through the courtesy of:
NASA: J PL-Caltech, 1, 54; J PL/University of Arizona, 20; NSSCD, 21, 56. Super Stock: Pixtal,
4, 5, 11; Digital Visions Ltd., 6, 14, 15. Photo Researchers Inc.: John Chumack, 12; NASA/
J PL/Arizona State University, 21; David A. Hardy, 24, 25; Royal Astronomical Society, 28.
A P Images: NASA/J PL, 17; European Space Agency, 19; NASA/J PL/Malin Space Science
Systems, 23, 57; 38; NASA, 42, 47; NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 44, 45, 50, 52; Doug
Mills, 46. Getty Images: D’Arco Editori, 22; Space Frontiers, 59. The Bridgeman Art
Library: Nationalgalerie, SMPK, Berlin, Germany, 26; Private Collection, 29. The Image
Works: Mary Evans Picture Library, 30, 33; NASA/SSPL, 40. A. Tayfun Oner: 36.
Printed in Malaysia
123456
Chapter 1 The Formation of Our Solar System 5

Chapter 2 Structure and Physical Features of Mars 15

Chapter 3 Mars through the Ages 25

Chapter 4 New Questions, New Discoveries 45

Quick Facts about Mars 59

Glossary 60

Find Out More 61

bibliography 62

Index 63
 1
The Formation
of our Solar
System
all of the planets are about the same age. They formed roughly
4.5 billion years ago as part of our Solar System. So how did
the Solar System get started? Most scientists would agree that
a huge cloud of dust grains and gas molecules that spread for
millions of miles in space was the seedbed from which the Solar
System grew. As the dust cloud grew smaller, the force of gravity
caused particles in the center of the cloud to interact more vio-
lently as they moved closer to each other. Temperatures in the
center of the cloud became so hot that hydrogen atoms began to
fuse, or stick together. These reactions produced heat and light.
The center of the cloud had become a star—the Sun.

The stars and planets formed from giant clouds of gas and dust in
outer space.
5
 mars

As the Solar System began to form, the dust cloud spun faster
and faster. Circulating dust grains and gas molecules began
to merge into larger objects. Random collisions between these
objects kept increasing the objects’ size until, after millions of
years, whole planets began to take shape.
There are eight major planets in our Solar System. These
include the four terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars—and the four gas giants, which are Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto used to be considered a planet, but
because of its small size it is now classified as a dwarf planet.
Besides the planets, there are dozens of moons and numerous
asteroids, comets, and meteoroids moving through our Solar
System.

The Sun is the center

of our universe, around
which all planets orbit.
Its light and heat
determine many of the
physical characteristics
of the planets.

6
 The
The Formation of
Formation o our
four Solar
Solar System
System

asteroids, Comets,
and Meteoroids
Asteroids are ancient rocks leftover from the formation
of the Solar System. Most asteroids orbit the Sun in a
region between Mars and Jupiter. Some of the larg-
est known asteroids are more than 300 miles (482
kilometers) across. The smallest known asteroids are
less than 1 mile (1.6 km) across. Scientists think the two
moons of Mars may be asteroids that were pulled into
the planet’s gravitational field.
Comets are icy bodies that form in the outer edges
of the Solar System. A comet has a small solid center
made of ice, frozen gases, rock, and dust. The center is
typically less than a few miles across. When a comet
approaches the Sun, some of its surface ice melts, cre-
ating a long, streaming tail of gas and dust.
Most meteoroids probably come from within our
Solar System. They are made of iron or stone or a mix-
ture of both materials. Meteoroids that enter Earth’s
atmosphere become meteors, which are often called
“shooting stars.” If meteors reach the surface of Earth
without burning up, they are called meteorites. Most
are very small, but a few large ones weighing more
than 50 tons (45 tonnes) have landed on Earth in the
past. Sixteen meteorites found in Antarctica are known
to have come from Mars.

7
 mars

THE GAS GIANTS

Four of the eight major planets in our Solar Systems are gas
giants. They get this name because they are the four largest
planets and are mostly made up of gases. Jupiter is the largest
planet in our Solar System with a diameter more than eleven
times the diameter of Earth. This king of planets is one big ball of
hot gas. Some scientists think that Jupiter has a very small solid
core, or center, while others believe that the heat and pressure
on the planet forms a liquid core. Either way, scientists are pretty
sure that gases, such as hydrogen, helium, and ammonia, swiftly
swirl around the core, forming the planet’s atmosphere.
Saturn is the second-largest planet in our Solar System. Like
Jupiter, it consists of extremely hot gases such as hydrogen,
helium, and methane. Saturn’s atmospheric pressure, like
Jupiter’s, is so strong it would easily crush any space vehicle
that passed through the planet’s cloud cover. It also compresses
the planet’s various gases into liquids. As a result, Saturn has
no hard, solid surface.
Uranus is the third-largest planet. Its blue-green color is the
result of methane gas reacting with sunlight. Like Jupiter and
Saturn, Uranus is not the sort of place that humans can safely
visit. The atmosphere is thick and poisonous. Even though it is
known as a gas giant, Uranus is also called an ice giant. This is

8
 Pluto
Pluto

Neptune
Neptune
Sun
Sun
Saturn
Saturn

Jupiter
Jupiter Uranus
Uranus
The

Mars
Mars

Venus
Venus
Earth
Earth
Mercury
Mercury

Of the eight main planets in our Solar System, the four closest to the Sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Th Formation of our Solar System

Mars—are the terrestrial, or land, planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are considered gas giants.

9
Pluto, which was once considered a main planet alongside the others, is now known as a dwarf planet.
 mars

because it is so far way from the Sun that all water and gases—
such as ammonia and methane—are frozen solid.
Like Uranus, Neptune is both a gas giant and an ice giant. This
fourth-largest planet gets its bluish color from the methane gas
in its atmosphere. Unlike Uranus, however, scientists believe that
Neptune generates its own heat from within. They think that the
planet may have a molten and rocky core that is surrounded
by a mixture of frozen water, hydrogen, helium, water, methane,
and liquid ammonia.

THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS

The four terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—
are closest to the Sun. Metals and rocks make up most of these
planets. (“Terrestrial” refers to something made of rock or
something that is land-dwelling.) Mercury is the smallest major
planet and is the closest to the Sun. You might think that Mer-
cury’s climate is always blistering hot. In reality, the difference
between the planet’s daytime and nighttime temperatures can
be greater than 1000 degrees Fahrenheit (538 degrees Celsius).
This is because Mercury’s atmosphere is so thin it retains, or
keeps, very little of the Sun’s heat during the evenings.
Mercury is hot, but Venus, the second planet from the Sun,
is actually hotter. In fact, it is the hottest planet in the Solar
System. The heat is so extreme it would melt zinc, which is a

10
 The Formation of our Solar System

metal used in United States pennies and is very hard to melt.

On Venus, thick clouds trap the sunlight, and temperatures can
reach 900 degrees Fahrenheit (482 degrees C). Venus is our
closest neighbor and after the Moon, the brightest object in the
night sky. But Venus’s clouds prevent direct observation of the
planet’s surface. However, scientists have used radar to detect
deep craters and canyons in its rocky surface.
Earth is the fifth-largest planet
in the Solar System and the only
one where life is known to exist.
Unlike every other planet, Earth has
an almost ideal set of conditions
for living things to grow and
thrive. The distance from the Sun
combined with the tilt of Earth’s
axis gives us changing seasons
and a moderate range of climates.
We have oceans, lakes, rivers, and
streams, and many different types
of environments. The rocky land Though Mars and Earth
surface of the planet gives us places
share some common features,
they still have very different
to live. Our atmosphere provides a characteristics, such as
breathable mixture of gases and temperature ranges and
chemical makeup.
offers protection from the Sun’s
strong rays. The atmosphere also

11
 mars

retains enough of the Sun’s heat to keep the nights from getting
unbearably cold in most parts of the world.
Of all the planets in the Solar System, Mars is most like our
own planet. One Martian day, called a sol, is a little more than
twenty-four hours long. Even the tilt of its axis is similar to
Earth’s. As a result, Mars enjoys distinct seasonal changes. There
is even water on Mars in the form of ice, frost, fog, and clouds.
Like Earth, Mars has polar ice caps, clearly visible in photos
taken by orbiting spacecraft.

SEEING MARS
About every two years, the orbits of
Mars and Earth bring the planets into
opposition. When that happens, Earth
is midway between Mars and the Sun,
and together these three bodies line
up like beads on a string. However,
about every sixteen years, Mars comes
close to the Sun. At these times, when
This photograph was taken Mars and Earth are on the same side
in 2007 while viewing of the Sun, Mars is one of the brightest
Mars through a very strong objects in the night sky. Only the Sun,
telescope. At the time, Mars
was in opposition with Earth’s Moon, and the planet Venus
Earth and the Sun, making are brighter.
it one of the brightest
objects in the sky.
12
 How Do Earth and MaRS Compare?

MaRS EaRTH
DIAMETER About 4,218 miles (6,792 km) About 7,926 miles (12,753 km)
DISTANCE FROM SUN About 142 million miles (228 million km) About 93 million miles
but the distance varies since (150 million km).
Mars has an elliptical orbit
ONE DAY 24 hours, 37 minutes 24 hours
(a Martian sol)
ONE YEAR 686.98 Earth days (about 365 days
670 Mars days)
AVERAGE PLANET- About -67 degrees Fahrenheit 47.3 degrees Fahrenheit
WIDE TEMPERATURE (-55 degrees C) (8.5 degrees Celsius)
over land
NUMBER OF MOONS Two (Phobos and Deimos) One
GRAVITY About 38 percent of Earth’s gravity
ATMOSPHERE About 95.3 percent carbon dioxide About 76 percent nitrogen,
and 0.15 percent oxygen and small 21 percent oxygen, and small
amounts of other gases. Atmosphere amounts of Argon, carbon
is much thinner than Earth’s. dioxide, and neon.
MAGNETIC FIELD Mars’s weak magnetic field allows Strong enough to protect Earth
strong exposure to solar winds and from the solar wind and some
radiation from the Sun and outside forms of radiation.
the Solar System.
WATER No liquid water has been found on the Earth has plenty of water.
surface, but Mars has ice, frost, fog, and
clouds. There may be underground
water sources.
LIFE No life has been found on Mars. If it Earth has abundant and
exists, it is probably in the form of varied life-forms.
microbes, or tiny microorganisms.
 2
Structure
and Physical
Features of
Mars
astronomers once believed that Mars was the home of an
advanced civilization. Through telescopes they found what they
thought was evidence of irrigation canals, which are used to
direct water. These scientists then concluded that people from
Mars, or Martians, had turned their deserts into lush orchards
and farmlands. Some observers even feared that one day a
dangerous dry spell on Mars would force Martians to colonize
Earth in order to preserve their way of life. Not all scientists

Early observations of Mars led astronomers to believe that alien life

existed on the planet. Even today, scientists continue to consider the
possibility of life there.
15
15
 mars

agreed with those who claimed that intelligent beings lived on

Mars. They argued that the so-called canals were actually opti-
cal illusions. These scientists said that people who saw canals
on the Martian surface were connecting light and dark areas
into straight lines. Their eyes were playing tricks on them.

NO PLACE FOR HUMANS

The question of whether there is or ever was life on Mars remains
unanswered to this day. Mars may be Earth-like in many ways
but it is not the sort of place you would want to visit unless you
had adequate protection. Even then, you might not survive the
planet’s harsh environment. Thanks to a series of unmanned
space missions to Mars, we now know that the planet is not
suitable for humans. The atmosphere consists mostly of carbon
dioxide, and humans need oxygen to survive. Low atmospheric
pressure causes liquids to boil quickly. The atmospheric pres-
sure on Mars is so low that without a pressurized space suit,
an astronaut on Mars would not be able to keep his or her blood
from boiling away. As if that were not bad enough, the Mar-
tian atmosphere offers no protection from the Sun’s ultraviolet
radiation. On Earth the naturally occurring ozone layer shields
us from this energy. But because Mars lacks a dense atmosphere,
ultraviolet light floods the planet’s surface, making surface life
impossible.

16
 Structure and Physical Features of Mars

The thinness of the Martian atmosphere allows most of the

Sun’s energy to escape into space. Daytime summer temperatures
on Mars can average about 50
degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees C).
But at night, the temperature can
plunge below -110 degrees Fahrenheit
(-78 degrees C). At the planet’s poles
the temperature can drop to -220
degrees Fahrenheit (-140 degrees C).
Robotic vehicles called rovers
have explored the Martian surface
and sent back detailed color photos
of what their cameras saw. Some
parts of Mars look like the American
Southwest. Only on Mars there are no
cacti or sagebrush plants. But there
Images sent back to Earth
are plenty of rocks of all sizes. They from the Pathfinder rover
are as old as the Solar System and show that land features on
Mars resemble some parts
may contain clues about the planet’s
of Earth.
distant past. The rocks rest on clay
soil that has a lot of iron. The iron has
rusted, giving Mars its characteristic
reddish brown color. While our sky is blue, the Martian sky is
pinkish. This is because swirling dust storms toss particles of
the soil into the atmosphere.

17
 mars

MARS IN CLOSE UP
Not too long ago, scientists thought of Mars as a cold, dead
planet. That view has changed as rovers and other spacecraft
have given us a much closer look. Martian geography is a lot
more complex and interesting than people once thought. Mars
has shifting, pinkish sand dunes, plunging canyons, huge cra-
ters, polar ice caps, and towering volcanoes. Winds can gust
up to 100 miles (161 km) per hour and faster. Violent dust storms
periodically cover the entire planet.
The northern hemisphere is mostly flat lowland with very
few craters. In contrast, the southern hemisphere is more
mountainous and has many craters. The darker- and lighter-
colored regions of the planet, which once baffled scientists, are
the result of different types of surfaces. Layers of bright dust
reflect the sunlight, so they appear lighter, while uncovered
rocky areas look darker.

WATER ON MARS
There is convincing evidence that large amounts of water once
flowed on Mars. Markings on the surface of the planet appear
to be dried up riverbeds. The way rocks are placed also sug-
gests that catastrophic floods once surged across the surface.

18
 Structure and Physical Features of Mars

So far, most of the water found on Mars is locked up as ice at

the planet’s north pole. The southern ice cap is mostly frozen
carbon dioxide. As seasons change on Mars, the polar ice fields
alternately melt and freeze. These changes affect the planet’s
weather and climate.
Scientists suspect that Mars even had lakes and oceans. A
three-dimensional map created by the Mars Global Surveyor,
an orbiting spacecraft, shows an enormous flat plain with
what appears to be
a shoreline simi-
lar to shorelines
A European
on Earth. Because Space Agency
Mars has a freez- spacecraft
ing cold climate, it
photographed
this image of
is not likely that a ice on the floor
lot of liquid water of a crater near
the north pole
will ever be found. of Mars.
However, in 2000,
a NASA (National
Aeronautics and
Space Administration) spacecraft spotted something spilling
down the sides of the Nirgal Vallis, which is a 250-mile-long
valley. A possible explanation is that water from underground
sources is able to well up in certain places on Mars.

19
 mars

SPECTACULAR NATURAL
WONDERS
Mars has some pretty amazing-looking places. The physical fea-
tures of Mars tend to be super-sized and are among the most
outstanding in our Solar System. Volcanic mountains on Mars,
though inactive, are
many times larger
than volcanoes found
on Earth. Olympus
Scientists
think that Mons, for instance,
the carved- is the highest peak
out patterns in the Solar System.
in this gully
may be proof This Martian peak is
that water three times higher
once flowed than Mount Everest—
across the
surface of which is 29,029 feet
Mars. (8,484 meters) high—
and has a base that
is about as big as the
state of Arizona.
Mars also has unbeatable canyons. Valles Marineris makes
the Grand Canyon look small by comparison. Valles Marineris
is a network of canyons that lies to the south of the Martian
equator. It is about 3,000 miles (4,827 km) long and would stretch
20
across the entire United States. The main
canyon is 420 miles (676 km) wide. The
deepest parts reach a depth of 4.2 miles
(6.7 km), which is many times deeper
than the Grand Canyon.
The largest sand dune field in the
Solar System is near the northern polar
ice cap of Mars. The dunes surround This view of Olympus
Mons is a combination of
the north pole and sometimes mix with images collected in 1978
snow blowing in the region. by the Viking spacecraft.
The western hemisphere of Mars fea-
tures a broad plateau called Tharsis. It
is bigger than all of Europe and contains
most of the volcanoes on Mars.
Billions of years ago, meteorites and asteroids crashed into
Mars, covering the planet with craters. Hellas Basin is the largest
of these impact craters. If it were located on Earth, it would
cover half of the United States.

Scientists combined
information collected
by satellites to
create this three-
dimensional image
of Valles Marineris,
the largest canyon
system on Mars.
21
 mars

In the southern highlands of Mars, orbiting spacecraft have

photographed a number of valleys. If flowing water carved out
these valleys, then the Martian climate must have been much
warmer in the past. The planet would also have needed a thicker
atmosphere to keep the water from evaporating.

INSIDE MARS
Scientists think Mars has a core that is mostly molten iron or a
blend of iron and sulfur. Long ago, this core was extremely hot.
Like Earth’s core, it generated a magnetic field that surrounded
the planet. As the Martian core cooled, the magnetic field gradu-
ally weakened. It is practically all gone
now. A mantle of different kinds of min-
erals surrounds the core. The Martian
crust, which lies on top of the mantle,
is mostly basalt. This hard black volca-
nic rock also covers more than half of
Earth’s surface. On Mars, as on Earth,
the crust was formed from the melting
of the upper mantle. The unique fea-
tures of the Martian mantle are due to
volcanic activity, erosion (the wearing The planet’s molten iron
core is surrounded by
away of materials), and the impact of layers made up of a variety
meteorites and asteroids. of elements and rocks.

22
 Structure and Physical Features of Mars

PHOBOS AND DEIMOS:

THE MOONS OF MARS
Mars has two moons, and their names are Phobos and Deimos.
Because of their odd shape, some astronomers have compared
them to potatoes. Both moons are made of rock and ice and
are very small, as far as moons go. They are actually asteroids
that strayed too close to the planet’s gravitational field. Pho-
bos is about 13 miles (21 km) across at its widest point. It orbits
Mars once every seven hours and thirty-nine minutes. By con-
trast, our Moon takes about twenty-seven days to orbit Earth.
Phobos’s orbit is slowly shrinking. Astronomers estimate that
in about 50 million years, Phobos will either
crash into Mars or break into pieces from
the force of the planet’s gravity.
Deimos is even smaller than Phobos. With
a width of about 8 miles (13 km), this moon is
one of the smallest bodies in the entire Solar
System. Deimos completes one orbit every
thirty hours and eighteen minutes. Scientists
think it may be possible to use Deimos as
a landing site for future missions to Mars.
Manned missions might even store supplies This image of Phobos
and communication equipment on Deimos was taken in 2003
for base camps on Mars.
by the Mars Global
Surveyor.
23
 mars

24
 3
Mars through
the ages
Centuries before the invention of telescopes, astronomers
noticed that most celestial bodies seemed to stay in one place.
However, they counted five objects that were different. Not only
did they shine with a steady light, but they also changed their
positions during the course of a year. Ancient Greek observ-
ers called these mysterious objects “wandering stars.” One of
these objects seemed to have a strange reddish glow. It might
have reminded people of the color of blood.
In time, this planet became connected in people’s minds with
war and violence. In the Babylonian and Sumerian cultures
of ancient Mesopotamia—where present-day Iraq is located—

From early descriptions more than one hundred years ago (upper
right) to present-day satellite imagery (center), the way scientists
observe and understand Mars has changed through the years. Even
our understanding of Martian life (lower left corner) has changed as
new discoveries are made.
25
25
 mars

the planet was named Nergal

in honor of the god of war
and death. The ancient Greeks
A statue of called the planet Ares after
Mars, the their god of war. The Romans
Roman god
of war. gave the name Mars to the
planet. Like the Greeks, the
Romans identified the planet
with blood, war, and violence.
Today, many call Mars the
“Red Planet.”

BRAHE AND KEPLER

Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer who lived during the
sixteenth century. Between 1576 and 1596, Brahe made a series
of drawings that showed the movements of the planets. Mars
especially interested him. Using only his eyes and various mea-
suring instruments, he charted the movement of Mars over the
course of a year.
Even without a telescope, Brahe still had one of the best
observatories in the world. His assistant was a bright young
German mathematician named Johannes Kepler. Like many
astronomers of his time, Brahe thought that Earth was the

26
 Mars through the ages

center of the universe and all the planets revolved around it in

perfect circles.
Kepler, however, disagreed. He thought that the Sun was the
center, but could not prove it. Kepler eventually realized that
the drawings of Mars in orbit clearly showed that the planet’s
orbit was not a perfect circle, but was an ellipse. Using these
drawings as a starting point, Kepler proved that the old Earth-
centered image of the Solar System was wrong. He showed
that all the planets, including Earth, revolve around the Sun in
elliptical orbits, not perfect circles. Kepler even figured out the
distance between Mars and the Sun at different times during
its orbit.

WILLIAM HERSCHEL
In 1757, Wilhelm Herschel left his home in Germany at the age
of nineteen and began a musical career in England where he
changed his name to William. In his mid-thirties, he happened
to read a book on astronomy. This book changed his life and
inspired him to become an astronomer. With the help of his sci-
entist sister Caroline, he developed many telescopes that could
see across very far distances.
From his telescopic observations, Herschel figured out that
Mars was tilted on its axis by about 25 degrees. Since Earth’s

27
 As he observed
Mars over the course
of many months,
Herschel’s drawings
revealed that the
planet had craters,
canyons, polar ice
caps, and clouds.

axial tilt is about the same, Herschel concluded that Mars must
have seasons like our own. He also thought he observed clouds
above the Martian surface. This led him to suspect that the
planet had an Earth-like atmosphere. The Red Planet’s bright
polar regions reminded him of ice caps. He thought the planet’s
dark areas were probably seas, and the light orange areas were
dry land. Herschel believed that since they lived on a planet so
much like Earth, the Martians “probably enjoy a situation in
many respects similar to ours.”

SCHIAPARELLI’S CANALS
In 1877, the American astronomer Asaph Hall discovered the
two moons of Mars, which he named Deimos and Phobos, which

28
 Mars through the ages

Caroline Herschel
Caroline Lucretia Herschel was William
Herschel’s younger sister. When Caroline
eventually joined her brother in England,
she became interested in mathematics
and astronomy. In 1786 Caroline dis-
covered her first comet. This discovery
launched her career as a highly respected
astronomer. By 1797, she had discovered eight more comets. In 1828
Caroline received the gold medal from England’s Royal Astronomical
Society for her many contributions to science.

meant “terror” and “fear.” In September of the same year,

Giovanni Schiaparelli, a respected Italian astronomer, made
a detailed map of Mars. Over the next ten years, Schiaparelli
kept adding more and more geographical features, giving them
names from the Bible and other sources. His map stayed in use
until the twentieth century, when more powerful telescopes
could accurately view Mars. But his method of naming features
on Mars is still used.
Schiaparelli also found what he thought was a network of criss-
crossing lines on the surface of Mars. He called them “canali.”
In Italian the word canali can mean either human-made water

29
 mars

channels or naturally formed river-

beds. (Canali sounds very much like
the English word canals.) Schiaparelli
admitted that he did not really know
what these lines were. Other scientists
were more than willing to believe he
had found Martian-made canals. As
a result, the belief that Martian life
existed became stronger.

Published in 1890, this MARTIANS

drawing by Schiaparelli A great believer in the existence of
shows the canali that he
observed on the surface Martian-made canals was nineteenth-
of Mars. Some scientists century French astronomer Camille
believed that these lines
were proof that life- Flammarion. He had his own observa-
forms were making these tory near Paris. His writings about life
“canals” on Mars. on Mars had little scientific basis, but
strongly appealed to the imaginations
of his readers. In one of his books, he
wrote, “Mars appears to be habitable
to the same degree as the Earth. It is older, and so its human-
ity could be more advanced than ourselves . . . the climate and
conditions for life on Mars appear to be similar enough to Earth
that species slightly different from ours could live there.”

30
 Mars through the ages

Flammarion’s ideas about intelligent life on Mars made him a

very popular astronomer. But toward the end of the nineteenth
century, an American astronomer named Percival Lowell outdid
him in popularity. In 1894, Lowell opened a large observatory
near Flagstaff, Arizona, and called it Mars Hill. Lowell and
his assistants made drawings of what they saw through the
telescope. After a year of observing Mars almost nightly, Lowell
published a series of four articles and then a book based on
these articles. Simply called Mars, his book made him famous
overnight. People flocked to his lectures to hear his ideas about
the history of Mars and what life was like on this planet.
According to Lowell, the Martian climate was warmer than
Earth’s. Mars had lost much of its atmosphere but could still sup-
port life. With very little rainfall, the planet had become mostly
desert. In order to survive, Martians had learned to cooperate
and to share limited natural resources. They built a series of
canals to carry water from melting polar ice caps and irrigate
the drier parts of the planet. Lowell thought that the dark green
areas visible through a telescope were actually farmlands.
He believed that Martians were probably many times larger
and stronger than people on Earth. Since Mars had much less
gravity, the planet could easily handle larger forms of life. Lowell
guessed that the average Martian was about 20 feet (6 meters)
tall, had the strength of fifty humans, and would weigh about
4,000 pounds (1,816 kilograms) on Earth.

31
 mars

By the early 1900s, Percival Lowell was considered an expert

on Mars and Martian civilization. But not everyone accepted
his theories. Other astronomers tried to prove the existence
of canals but were unable to see them, even when they used
more powerful telescopes. A Martian canal controversy that
began with Giovanni Schiaparelli once again flared up, this
time between “canalists,” or people who believed that Martians
made the canals, and “anti-canalists” who doubted the canals
and Martians’ existence.
The canalists believed the crisscrossing lines on the Martian
surface were proof of intelligent life. Only an advanced civi-
lization, they argued, could have built such a complex system
of canals for carrying snow melt from the Martian poles to the
drier areas of the planet. The “anti-canalists,” on the other hand,
suspected that Lowell’s eyes had been playing tricks on him.
An English astronomer in 1903 conducted an experiment
with thirteen-year-old students to demonstrate how Lowell had
been fooled. He showed the students a drawing containing
smudges, squiggles, and spots, and asked them to draw what
they saw. Students in the front, sitting closer to the drawings,
drew random, unrelated shapes. But students in the back of
the classroom automatically connected the shapes into straight
lines. The lines looked a lot like Lowell’s Martian canals. But
even the results of this experiment failed to convince those who
wanted to believe there really were canals on Mars.

32
 The Martians Have Landed!
While many scientists were beginning to doubt Lowell’s ideas
about Mars, the general public continued to believe that life
would be found there. In 1898 the British writer H. G. Wells,
inspired by Lowell’s book Mars, published War of the Worlds,
a science-fiction novel. In the book, technologically superior
Martians invade Earth because their own planet is dying.
Lowell had imagined Martians as peaceful, wise beings. But
Wells turned them into hostile creatures
bent on destroying human civilization.
Wells’ Martians easily conquered England
but then were defeated by the one thing
they have no defense against—germs, or
sickness, found on Earth.
In 1938, the American actor and direc-
tor Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre
on the Air broadcast their own version of
the novel by H. G. Wells. The radio play
aired on October 30, one day before
Halloween. During the broadcast, Wells
announced that what people were hear-
ing on their radios was just a play and not
real life. But these announcements did not
stop people all over America from panick-
ing. Many actually believed that Martians
Not all stories portrayed had landed in Grover’s Mill, New Jersey,
Martians as cruel creatures and were causing massive destruction.
eager to destroy humans. Frightened by what they took to be actual
Some people believed that news reports, people warned their friends
the aliens were curious and
peaceful beings. and neighbors, phoned loved ones to say
goodbye, and sped off in their cars to
escape the invaders from outer space. 33 33
 Contacting People on Mars
In the 1800s, as people on Earth became more and more interested
in Mars, several creative individuals dreamed up ways to contact
Martians. One scheme involved planting enough pine trees in Sibe-
rian wheat fields to create a right angle that would be as large as
a city and therefore visible to Martian telescopes. Another equally
outrageous idea was setting up large mirrors across the entire Euro-
pean continent. The mirrors would flash sunlight toward Mars in a
series of repeated patterns. An Austrian astronomer proposed dig-
ging a twenty-mile-long trench in the Sahara desert, filling it with
kerosene, and then setting the kerosene on fire. The blaze would be
a signal to any Martians looking for signs of life on Earth.

MARS AND MARINER

SPACE PROGRAMS
Scientists generally agree that the space age began in 1957 with
the launch of the Soviet satellite Sputni k. The purpose of this
mission was to get a close-up look at Earth’s Moon. In 1962 the
Soviets launched Mars 1, the first attempt in human history to
look at Mars from outer space instead of from Earth-based
observatories.
The space probe Mars 1 came within 120,000 miles (193,000
km) of Mars. It transmitted data for two years before finally
quitting. Meanwhile, the United States embarked on its own series

34
 Mars through the ages

of unmanned missions to Mars. NASA’s Mariner space program

included nine separate missions. Mariner 4 was the first suc-
cessful mission. Launched on November 28, 1964, the vehicle was
small by today’s standards. It has been described as a “wind-
mill hurtling through space.” It weighed about 575 pounds
(261 kg) and was about 9 feet (2.7 m) by 22 feet (6.7 m) in size.

No Signs of Life
On July 14, 1965, Mariner 4 reached its destination, 228 days
after its launch. It came within 6,114 miles (9,846 km) of Mars.
A camera on board the vehicle transmitted the first close-up
photographs of Mars ever taken. Many observers were deeply
disappointed. They had hoped the photos would reveal signs of
life or at least a life-supportive environment. Instead the photos
showed a dry, dusty surface pockmarked with craters. There
was no water anywhere to be seen. If anything, Mars had more
in common with our moon than with Earth. Newspapers began
referring to the Red Planet as “the dead planet.”

Warm Daytime Temperatures

Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 came even closer to Mars. Both probes
passed within 2,175 miles (3,500 km) of the planet in the sum-
mer of 1969. The two probes sent back more than two hundred
images of Mars. Again, there were no signs of canals or any
forms of life. The great canal controversy appeared to be finally

35
The black and white images shown here are surface images taken by Mariner 4. (The
planetary image of Mars, which indicates where each Mariner 4 photograph was
taken, comes from the Viking spacecraft.)
 Mars through the ages

settled. However, Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 measured tempera-

tures on Mars and discovered that daytime temperatures near
the Martian equator could reach a high of 60 degrees Fahren-
heit (16 degrees C). But at night the temperature dropped below
-110 degrees Fahrenheit (-80 degrees C). Temperatures at the
Martian poles were even colder, reaching -220 degrees Fahren-
heit (-140 degrees C). The probes also determined that the polar
caps were largely made of frozen carbon dioxide. On Earth
this substance is known as dry ice and is used to keep things
very cold.
While the Mariner space program was underway, the Soviet
Union continued to launch its own Martian probes. Both Mars 2
and 3 carried their own landers, which are spacecraft equipped
to land on the surface of a planet. The lander aboard Mars 2
was the first human-made object to penetrate the Martian
atmosphere. Unfortunately, it crashed before it could send any
data back to Earth. The Mars 3 lander made a successful landing
but then a violent dust storm prevented it from functioning.

Underground Ice and

Breathtaking Landscapes
The next big breakthrough in the scientific exploration of Mars
was NASA’s Mariner 9. Launched on May 30, 1971, it took only
167 days to reach Mars. This unmanned probe became the first
spacecraft to orbit another planet. Circling within 1,025 miles

37
 mars

Mariner 9
became the first
probe to orbit a
planet other than
Earth. An artist’s
depiction of the
orbit shows an
enlarged view of
Earth and the
Moon just past
Mars.

(1,650 km) of the surface, it took more than 7,300 photographs

in the course of one year. More than any of the earlier probes,
Mariner 9 revealed the many faces of the Martian landscape.
The photos showed enormous volcanoes, incredibly gigan-
tic canyons, and areas of permafrost, which is ground that is
permanently frozen. The permafrost alone was a major discov-
ery. It suggested that Mars might contain water in the form of

38
 Mars through the ages

underground ice. Scientists guessed that if water is present on

Mars, could there be some form of life, too? Even if no life cur-
rently exists on Mars, could the planet have supported life in
the past?
Mariner 9’s round-the-planet photos allowed astronomers
to create the first detailed map of another planet in our Solar
System. They also showed that the large dark green patches on
the surface of Mars, once thought to be vegetation, are actually
rocky areas that look green when seen through a telescope.

A Place Where Water Once Flowed

Mariner 9’s most astonishing discovery was the evidence of
dry riverbeds. Thousands of them marked the planet’s surface.
This could only mean one thing: in the very distant past, huge
amounts of water must have flowed freely on Mars. Water and
life go hand in hand. So it was reasonable for astronomers to
think that plants and animals may have once thrived on Mars.
But the planet would have needed a much thicker atmosphere
and a much warmer climate in order for Mars to have so much
water. Now the climate is too cold and dry, and the atmosphere is
too thin. The information from Mariner 9 gave rise to new ques-
tions about the Red Planet. Why did the Martian atmosphere
become so thin? Why is the planet so much colder than Earth?
And what happened to all that water?

39
 mars

TWO VIKINGS
The dramatic success of Mariner 9 inspired NASA scientists
to attempt to land a spacecraft on Mars and hunt for signs
of life. The new mission involved a pair of spacecraft named
Vi king 1 and Vi king 2. Both spacecraft had an orbiter and a

This image was taken by one of the Viking orbiters in 1976,

and shows some of the large and inactive volcanoes on the
surface of Mars.

40
 Mars through the ages

lander. Scientists carefully selected two different landing sites.

On August 20, 1975, Vi king 1 was launched. It touched down on
the Martian surface on July 20, almost one year later. Vi king 2,
launched in September 1975, landed the following September.
Both vehicles landed intact and continued to perform until the
early 1980s.
The two Viking missions pushed the exploration of Mars
further than it had ever been before. Thanks to these missions,
we now know why the Red Planet is so red. Rich deposits of iron
in Martian rocks have rusted. We also learned why the Martian
sky has its distinctive color. Dust storms on the planet’s surface
blast pink and red soil particles into the air.

Testing Soil Samples on Mars

These discoveries were only part of what the Vi king missions
accomplished. The orbiters mapped more than 97 percent of the
planet and determined that the north polar cap contains water
in the form of ice. The landers collected soil samples, studied
climate changes, and measured wind speeds. Each lander had
its own laboratory for analyzing the soil samples and looking
for evidence of organic life, past or present.
The laboratories on the Vi king landers ran a series of tests on
the Martian soil. The tests found signs of chemical reactions but
nothing that showed organic life was present. However, some
of the scientists on the Vi king mission teams doubted the results

41
 mars
mars
The Face on Mars and other
Strange Sights
Another controversy that grew out of the two Viking
missions was related to the photographs of the Martian
surface. One scientist, examining the photos, noticed a rock
with what looked like the letter B. When
reporters heard this, their imaginations
went into high gear. Peering into NASA
monitors in Pasadena, California, they
soon began seeing more letters as well
as numbers carved into Martian rocks.
Before long, television viewers were
sure that Martians had carved these
messages in order to communicate with
us. People also claimed the photographs
from Mars revealed even more evidence
of Martian civilization. They saw pyra-
mids, entire cities, and a giant human
face in the images sent from Mars. Were
their eyes playing tricks on them or had Scientists believe that
they really seen objects made by Mar- the “face” on the surface
tian hands? of Mars is actually a
NASA scientists explained that the combination of rocks and
markings were the result of natural shadows.
processes. But many citizens remained
doubtful. They believed the Viking mis-
sions had proved that Martians existed
and that the government was covering up the evidence to
keep people from panicking. In reality, no such evidence has
been found.
42
4 2
 Mars through the ages

of these tests. One of those scientists was Carl Sagan. He argued

that living microbes in the soil might have caused the reactions
that the experiments had detected. And even if microbes were
not in the soil samples, maybe they would be found deep
underground. Sagan also wondered if the fossilized remains of
ancient plants and animals might also be buried underground.
If there was any kind of organic life on Mars, the only way to
find out would be to bring soil samples back to Earth or send
astronauts to Mars. With the failure of the Vi king missions to
find signs of life, scientific interest in the exploration of Mars
began to fade. This changed when a greenish rock about the size
of a potato, found by accident near Earth’s South Pole, prompted
a whole new set of questions and a second round of missions
to Mars.

43
 mars

44
 4
New Questions,
New Discoveries
Roberta Score, an American geologist, was snowmobiling
with fellow scientists near the South Pole. The exact location
was Alan Hills, and the year was 1984. Score noticed a green-
colored rock in the ice. Something about the rock intrigued her,
so she sent it to the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, for
analysis. Scientists in Houston named the rock A LH84001. “A LH”
stands for Allan Hills, and “84” is the year when the rock was
discovered. For nine years it sat in storage at the Space Center.
Then in 1993, scientists carried out a detailed analysis of the
small, green rock.

The 2001 Mars Odyssey provided this view of the planet’s south
pole. The different colors represent the various amounts of hydrogen
found in the soil. Future Mars missions may give us more details
about the planet’s chemical makeup.
45
45
 mars

Much to everyone’s surprise, the rock turned out to be

from Mars. But what was it doing on Earth and how did it get
here? Even more important, what did the rock reveal about the
possibility of life on Mars? Scientists are pretty certain they have
answers for the first two questions. But the third question—
what does A LH84001 tell us about life on Mars—has started a
major controversy within the scientific community.
The rock is roughly 4.5 billion years old. It formed around the
same time that Mars was taking shape. Millions of years ago,
an asteroid or a giant meteorite probably
smacked into Mars. The impact sent tons
of rocks hurtling skyward. The rocks
traveled so fast they were able to escape
the gravitational pull of Mars. Instead of
falling back onto the planet’s surface,
they ended up in the ice-cold void of outer
space.
For about 16 million years, the rock
from Mars wandered aimlessly in the
Solar System. Its wandering days ended
about 13,000 years ago when it strayed too
close to Earth. Our planet’s gravitational
field grabbed the rock and pulled it into
Earth’s atmosphere. The rock had become a Scientists today continue
to study ALH84001 to
meteor that eventually crashed somewhere see if it really is proof that
there was once—and may
46 still be—life on Mars.
 New Questions, New Discoveries

in Antarctica. Thousands of years later, Roberta Score found

the rock, but its journey was not yet over. It still had a puzzling
story to tell.
Scientists understand the origin of A LH84001. However, they
are still not sure about what the rock reveals about life on Mars.
A careful analysis using an electron microscope discovered what
could be the fossilized remains of Martian bacteria. If this were
really the case, then we would know for sure that Earth is not
the only place where life occurs. We could also be reasonably
certain that Mars once had an environment in which living
organisms could develop.
But for now, scientists
disagree about what these
microscopic structures are
and how they formed. Are
they the remains of once-
living Martian microbes,
or are they only tiny
crystals embedded in the
rock? Maybe they are not
even from Mars at all. The
structures could be Earth-
An image from an electron
microscope scan shows what
born bacteria that found may be the remains of a tube-
their way into the rock in like organism from Mars.
Antarctica.

47
 mars

This unsolved puzzle has sparked a controversy similar to the

one between canalists and anti-canalists in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. Scientists who believe the microscopic,
tube-shaped structures found in A LH84001 are the remains
of Martian bacteria have been called “microfossilists.” Those
who believe otherwise are “anti-microfossilists.” The structures
themselves are so small it would take more than 250,000 of them,
lined up end to end, to equal 1 inch (2.54 centimeters).

WHERE DID LIFE BEGIN?

Solving this puzzle could even open the door to a much larger
understanding about the origin of life on Earth. In evolutionary
theory, life on Earth began as single-celled organisms. During
the course of millions of years, these simple organisms gradually
evolved, becoming more and more complex. Eventually, they gave
rise to the many kinds of species that now inhabit our world,
from microbes to giant pandas and everything in between.
But what if Martian rocks landed on Earth millions of years
ago and brought with them tiny microbes that began to grow
and develop? What if all forms of life on Earth began with
single-celled microbes from Mars? If that were true, then we
humans are really Martians—at least in terms of our origins.
On the other hand, it could be the other way around. What if an
asteroid collided with Earth and propelled tons of rocks into

48
 New Questions, New Discoveries

space? Some of the rocks could have ended up on Mars. If they

contained microscopic organisms, then the process of evolution
might have begun there as well as on Earth. A third possibility is
that seed-like spores blowing through space happened to land on
both planets and began to grow and reproduce independently.

MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR

AND PATHFINDER
The discovery of the small, green rock near the South Pole led
to a new interest in exploring Mars. Scientists hoped the next
round of missions might finally answer the question of whether
life currently exists on Mars or if it had existed there in the past.
On November 6, 1996, the Mars Global Surveyor was launched.
The spacecraft contained instruments for mapping the surface
of Mars and for studying its atmosphere and polar ice caps.
The mission goals were to create a detailed map of Mars, search
for signs of life, and locate possible landing sites for future
missions.
The Mars Global Surveyor did not land on Mars. After reach-
ing the planet ten months after launch, it went into orbit. While
it was in operation, the Surveyor completed twelve orbits a day
and sent back images that were up to fifty times clearer than
any previous images. These images gave scientists their most
accurate view of the planet’s environment.

49
 mars

The Surveyor also tried to

find out what happened to the
planet’s magnetic field. Most of
the planets in our Solar System
have what scientists call a mag-
netosphere, which is an invisible
network of magnetic lines that
trap charged particles. Venus
and Mars do not appear to have
such lines. Scientists want to
know why. Instruments aboard
the Mars Global Surveyor did
This detailed image from
the Mars Global Surveyor find traces of magnetism below
shows the walls of a meteor the Martian surface. But so far,
crater on Mars. the question of why the planet
lacks a strong magnetic field
remains unanswered.

Pathfinder
Pathfinder was launched one month after the Mars Global Sur-
veyor. It reached speeds of 17,000 miles (27,400 km) per hour,
covered more than 408,000 miles (658 km) a day, and slammed
into the Martian atmosphere on July 4, 1997, two months before
the Surveyor. Heat shields kept Pathfinder from burning up on
entry. As Pathfinder approached the surface of Mars, three large

50
 New Questions, New Discoveries

parachutes opened, slowing down the lander’s speed to about

35 miles (56 km) per hour. Then huge air bags inflated in just
two seconds.
Pathfinder bounced about sixteen times before coming to
rest. Pathfinder had landed on a rolling plain known as Ares
Villis. Within minutes, Pathfinder began to communicate with
NASA computers on Earth. It also lowered a ramp to the Martian
surface. Out came Sojourner, the first rover ever to set wheels
on another planet. It was about the size of a microwave oven,
had six wheels, and could maneuver on its own using lasers to
feel its way around and to avoid obstacles.
While instruments aboard the lander analyzed the atmo-
sphere, Sojourner studied nearby rocks and soil. It detected large
deposits of silicon. On Earth volcanic rocks typically contain sil-
icon. So it is likely that Mars once had many active volcanoes.
Since the Mariner 9 mission twenty-six years earlier, scientists
had become very interested in understanding the role of water
in the history of Mars. Mariner 9 convinced scientists that liquid
water had once flowed on Mars. Photographic images showed
markings that resembled dry riverbeds on Earth. Mariner 9
also detected ice in the polar caps of Mars and underground
deposits of ice in the form of permafrost.
In 1997, Pathfinder’s rover gave scientists more evidence that
water once flowed on Mars. Using the rover’s roving “eye,” they
looked at the way rocks were laid out around the landing site.

51
 mars

The rocks appeared to have

been tumbled into place. The
likely cause was a powerful
river or flood. The body of
water would have flowed
through the Ares Villis plain
and was possibly hundreds
of miles wide!
In September 1997, NASA
Part of Sojourner’s mission was to lost contact with the Pathfind-
analyze the chemicals that make up er’s lander. Six months later,
some of the planet’s different rocks.
the mission officially ended.
What about Sojourner? Since
the little rover runs on solar
power, it could still be roaming around, bumping into things.
Then again, it might have stopped working years ago.

SPIRIT AND OPPORTUNITY

In 2003, NASA launched two new spacecraft destined for Mars.
The launches were one month apart. The spacecraft landed in
January 2004. Each one contained an advanced kind of rover. The
rovers were called Spirit and Opportunity. Unlike Pathfinder’s
rover, these improved models have been able to explore much
more of the Martian terrain. They were only expected to last for

52
 New Questions, New Discoveries

about ninety days. But after four years, Spirit and Opportunity
were still in operation. Much larger than Sojourner, the rovers
each weigh about 400 pounds (180 kg). They carry identical sets
of scientific instruments for probing their alien surroundings.
Special scraping tools can scratch the surface of Martian rocks
so scientists can study the rocks’ interior.
The twin rovers have supplied a lot of information about
Martian rocks and soils. They have also sent back more than
100,000 color images of the landscape and confirmed that
water was once present. Thanks to the rovers’ investigations,
scientists are reasonably sure that millions of years ago Mars
had a warmer climate and a thicker atmosphere. Under these
conditions, ancient Martian rivers probably turned volcanic
craters into lakes and created oceans in the lowland areas.
Many questions still remain. When did Mars have rivers,
lakes, and oceans? How long did the planet have so much water?
Where did all this water go? Why did the climate become so cold
and dry? Of course, the really big question is did life develop
on Mars? And if it did, what happened to it? We know that the
total amount of bacteria on Earth is greater than the combined
mass of all of Earth’s plants and animals. That is a lot of microbes!
Some forms of bacteria have been found in extremely harsh
environments on Earth, such as Antarctica or deep in the ocean
near heat vents. So it might be possible for microbes to live in
harsh conditions on other planets.

53
 mars

So far no life has been found on

Mars, where conditions are much
harsher than anything here. But
perhaps Martian bacteria live below
the surface of the planet in warm,
geothermal pools. They might have
also become dormant in order to
survive. Some scientists even won-
der if Mars is going through its own
Ice Age. If the planet ever warms
up again, dormant bacteria might Rock samples examined by Mars
rovers continue to give scientists
“wake up” even after millions of a better idea of how Mars was
years have passed. Understanding formed.
climate change on Mars may even
enable us to understand climate
change on Earth.

MANNED MISSIONS
AND BEYOND
Sending astronauts to Mars will likely be the next major step
in the exploration of this planet. But manned missions will not
happen for at least another twenty-five years or so. That is how
long it will take to design and test new rockets, spacesuits, and
life-support systems. Space expeditions also cost a lot of money,

54
 New Questions, New Discoveries

and it will take a while to come up with enough money to cover

the very high cost of these experiments.
NASA officials are committed to eventually putting humans
on Mars, but the first step will be putting astronauts on the
Moon. The last time an astronaut set foot on the Moon was
more than thirty years ago. The visit was a short one—about
one day. But the next generation of astronauts might actually
live on the Moon for longer periods of time. They will experience
what it is like to live and work in an environment with one-sixth
of Earth’s gravity. They will also test new kinds of spacesuits
designed to protect space travelers from Mars’ solar radiation,
low atmospheric pressure, and extremely cold climate. In
addition, for the first time in human history they will know
what it is like to live on a Solar System body other than our own.
Future lunar, or Moon, expeditions will give scientists vital
information they need to help astronauts survive a mission to
Mars. The trip to Mars will take many months and will cover
millions of miles in space. Once there, astronauts will have to
stay for about one-and-a-half years until Mars comes closest to
Earth again. When that happens, the journey home will be much
faster than at other times.
A major reason for sending people to Mars is to look for
signs of past or present life. Manned missions may finally give
us the answer to a very big question: Is life something rare in
the universe or is it commonplace, happening on many worlds

55
 Scientists continue to gather as much evidence as they can
to better understand the structure and environment of the Red
Planet. This may lead to a better understanding of how the
planet can support life.

56
This colorized
photograph shows
what Earth and
the Moon look like
from Mars. Perhaps
someday humans will
be able to colonize
the Red Planet, and
this is the view
they will see when
they gaze into the
Martian sky.

and not just on our own? A related question is whether Mars

will be able to sustain life in the future. It is possible that one
day Mars will be our second home—a place where humans will
pass their entire lives without ever setting foot on Earth.

MARS:THE NEXT EARTH?

Looking beyond manned flights to Mars, some scientists and
science fiction writers imagine a time when people will colo-
nize the planet. For this to happen, Mars will have to go through
a major makeover. As things stand now, Mars is not livable.
Freezing temperatures, dust storms that can sweep across the
entire planet, no surface water, and deadly ultraviolet radiation
are some of the dangers that would make living on Mars just
about impossible.

57
 mars

So what would it take for humans to find Mars a reasonable

place to live? One idea is to terraform the planet. The astronomer
Carl Sagan figured it would take thousand of years to terraform
Mars. Such an undertaking would involve making Mars as Earth-
like as possible, with plenty of water, a moderate climate, good
farmland, and a thicker breathable atmosphere. But how can
people do this? One scientist has proposed surrounding Mars
with giant mirrors hung in space. The mirrors would reflect
sunlight toward the polar ice caps. The sunlight would then melt
the ice, giving Mars a steady supply of running water. Another
idea is to build factories on Mars that would produce nothing
but greenhouse gases. These gases would trap sunlight, heating
up the atmosphere so underground ice would melt and rise to
the surface.
Carl Sagan even thought it would be a good idea to construct
canals to carry water from the melting ice caps to the drier
parts of the planet. If that were happen, then the canalists who
believed Martians built canals on Mars would be proven right
after all. Only the Martians would be us and the canals would
be the work of our own hands.

58
 New
N Questions,
ew Q New
uestions, N ew Discoveries
Discoveries

QUICK FaCTS
abOUT MaRS
NAME AND ORIGIN OR SOURCE OF NAME: Mars, Roman god of war
NICKNAME: The Red Planet
SIZE: About 4,128 miles (6,792 km) in diameter
DISTANCE FROM EARTH: About 142 million miles (228 million km), but may
vary since Mars has an elliptical orbit
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: About 142 million miles (228 million km), but
varies from 36 million miles (58 million km) to more than 250 million miles
(402 million km) since Mars has an elliptical orbit
NUMBER OF MOONS: Two—Phobos and Deimos
TYPE OF PLANET: Terrestrial
TEMPERTAURE RANGE: -220 degrees Fahrenheit (-140 degrees C) to
50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees C)
LENGTH OF DAY: 24 hours, 37 minutes
LENGTH OF YEAR: 686.98 Earth days (about 670 Mars days)
MISSIONS TO MARS: Flybys: Mariners 4, 6, and 7; Orbiters: Mariner 9,
Vikings 1 and 2, Mars Global Surveyor, 2001 Mars Odyssey. Landed
missions: Vikings 1 and 2, Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity
59
59
 Glossary
astronomers—Scientists who study molten—To be in liquid form as a
planets, stars, and galaxies. result of intense heat.
atmosphere— All the gases that probe—Any kind of spacecraft
surround a planet or a star. designed to explore
extraterrestrial objects and
atom—The basic building block of send back data to computers on
all matter. Earth.
axis—An imaginary straight line satellite—Any natural or human-
going through the center of a made object that orbits a larger
planet around which the planet body such as a planet or moon.
or other celestial body rotates. The Moon is a satellite of Earth.
The axis of Earth and Mars are The Mars Global Surveyor,
tipped at about the same angle. which orbited Mars, is also a
dormant—Not actively growing satellite. Human-made satellites
or showing signs of life, but transmit scientific data.
capable of becoming active spores—Small, usually one-
again. celled structures produced
ellipse—An oval shaped like a by seedless plants and
slightly flattened circle. some bacteria. In a harsh
environment, spores can remain
geothermal—Relating to sources dormant for long periods of
of heat inside a planet like Earth time. When conditions improve,
or Mars. they can develop into complete
individuals of their species.
mantle—An interior section of a
planet that is located between terrestrial—Relating to the
the core and the outer crust. land rather than the sea or
atmosphere. Terrestrial planets
microbe—A germ or other
like Mars and Earth have a solid
extremely small organism
surface made of rock and soil.
that can only be seen with a
microscope.

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 Find Out More
BOOKS
Bell, Jim. Postcards from Mars: The First Photographer on the Red Planet. New
York: Penguin, 2006.

Goss, Tim. Mars. Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2008.

Irvine, Mat and David Jefferis. Exploring Planet Mars. New York: Crabtree
Publishing: 2007.

Jefferis, David. Mars: Distant Red Planet. New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2008.

Miller, Ron. Mars. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2006.

Scott, Elaine. Mars and the Search for Life. New York: Clarion Books, 2008.

WEBSITES
Ask an Astronomer—Mars
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_kids/AskKids/mars.shtml

Mars Express—European Space Agency

http://www.esa.int/SPECIA LS/Mars_Express/index.html

Imagine Mars
http://imaginemars.jpl.nasa.gov/index2.html

Is There Life on Mars?

http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngexplorer/0401/articles/
mainarticle.html

Mars
http://kids.nineplanets.org/mars.htm

Mars Exploration—Fun Zone!

http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/funzone_flash.html

Mission to Mars
http://athena.cornell.edu/kids

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 mars

NASA Mars Exploration Program

http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov

NASA Solar System Exploration for Kids

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/kids/index.cfm

Windows to the Universe—Mars

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mars/mars.html

bIbLIOGRaPHY
The author found these resources especially helpful when researching this
book.

Boyce, Joseph M. The Smithsonian Book of Mars. Washington and London:

Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002.

CBS News. “The Next Giant Leap for Mankind.” http://www. cbsnews.com/
stories/2008/04/04/60minutes/main3994925.shtml

Miller, Ron and William K. Hartmann. Grand Tour: A Traveler’s Guide to the Solar
System. New York: Workman, 2005.

Moore, Patrick. Patrick Moore on Mars. London: Cassell, 1998.

NASA Mars Exploration Missions. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/present/

2003.html

NASA Mars Exploration Program. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/images.html

NASA Mars Global Surveyor. http://mgs-mager.gsfc.nasa.gov/Kids/funfacts.html

National Geographic. “Mars Colonies Coming Soon?” http://news.

nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0315_050315_marscolony.html

Raeburn, Paul. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet. Washington, DC:
National Geographic Society, 1998.

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 Index
Page numbers in boldface indicate Kepler, Johannes, 26-27
photos or illustrations.
life-forms, 13, 15-16, 35, 42, 43, 48-49
A LH84001, 45-48, 46, 47 See also Martians
Allan Hills, 45 Lowell, Percival, 31-32, 33
asteroids, 21, 46
axis,12 magnetic field, 13
mantle, 22, 22
bacteria, 46-48, 47, 53 Mariner, 34-39
Brahe, Tycho, 26 4, 35, 36
6, 35, 37
canals, 15, 16, 28-30, 30, 32, 35 7, 35, 37
core, 22, 22 9, 37-39, 38, 40, 51
craters, 21 Mars, 6, 11, 12, 14, 25, 36, 56
atmosphere, 13, 16-17, 22, 39
Deimos, 13, 23, 28-29, 59 color of, 26, 41
compared to Earth, 13, 57-58
Earth, 6, 9 day (length of), 12, 13, 59
compared to Mars, 13, 59 discovery of, 25-30
distance from Mars, 59 distance from Sun, 13, 59
Global Surveyor, 18, 49-50, 50
Flammarion, Camille, 30, 31 interior, 22-23, 22
land features, 18, 20-22, 20, 21, 29-30,
gas giants, 8, 10 30, 38
geography (of Mars), 18 life on, 13, 15, 16, 30-33, 35, 39, 42, 43,
gravity, 13 48-49, 57-58
missions to, 22, 33-44, 54-56, 59
Hall, Asaph, 28 See also spacecraft
Hellas Basin, 21 moons of, 13, 22, 22
Herschel, name, 26, 26, 59
Caroline, 29, 29 nickname, 26, 59
William, 27-28, 28, 29 orbit of, 23, 27
hydrogen, 5 probe, 33, 37
size, 13, 59
ice, 12, 19, 19, 22, 38, 41 surface, 17, 17, 18
temperature, 13, 17, 37, 59
Jupiter, 6, 8, 9 viewing (from Earth), 12
year (length of), 13, 59

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 mars

Martians, 15, 30-32, 33, 33 Sagan, Carl, 44, 57, 58

Mercury, 6, 10 sand dune, 21
microbes, 42, 46-48, 47, 53 Saturn, 6, 8, 9
microfossilists, 48 Schiaparelli, 28-30, 30
moons, 11, 12, 13 Score, Roberta, 45
See also Deimos, Phobos seasons, 12
mountains, 20-21, 21 snow, 21
Sojourner, 51-52, 52
Neptune, 6, 9, 10 sol, 12
Solar System, 5, 9
Olympus Mons, 20-21, 21 spacecraft, 17, 18, 19, 34-44, 49-54
Opportunity, 52-53 See also Mariner, Mars Global Surveyor,
oxygen, 16 Pathfinder, Opportunity, rovers,
Sojourner, Spirit, Vi king
Pathfinder, 17, 17, 50-52 Spirit, 52-53
Phobos, 13, 23, 23, 28, 29, 59 stars, 4, 5
planets storms, 17
age of, 5 Sun, 5, 6, 6, 9, 10-11, 12, 17
dwarf, 6 distance from Mars, 13, 27, 59
formation, 5-6
gas, 6 Uranus, 6, 8, 9
terrestrial, 6, 10-12, 59
Pluto, 6, valleys, 19, 22
poles, 17, 21, 37 Venus, 6, 9, 10-11
polar caps, 12 Vi king, 21, 40-44, 40
volcanoes, 20-21, 21, 22
radiation, 16
rocks, 17, 17, 54 War of the Worlds, 33
See also A LH84001 water, 12, 18-19, 19, 22, 29-30, 31, 39, 41,
rovers, 17, 17, 54, 54 53-54

about the author

George Capaccio is both a writer and a storyteller. He loves to visit schools and
perform stories from all over the world for young audiences. He also enjoys
writing educational books about history and science. He lives in Arlington,
Massachusetts, with his wife, Nancy, and their Golden Retriever.

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