Dry cleaning

Dry cleaning is any cleaning process for

clothing and textiles using a solvent other
than water. The modern dry cleaning
process was developed and patented by
Thomas L. Jennings.[1]

Dry cleaning still involves liquid but is so

named because the term 'wet' is specific
to water; clothes are instead soaked in a
water-free liquid solvent,
tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene),
known in the industry as "perc", which is
the most widely used solvent. Alternative
solvents are 1-bromopropane and
petroleum spirits.[2]

Most natural fibers can be washed in

water but some synthetics (e.g., viscose,
lyocell, modal, and cupro) react poorly with
water and must be dry-cleaned.[3][4]

History
Thomas L. Jennings is the inventor and
first to patent the commercial dry cleaning
process known as "dry scouring", on
March 3, 1821 (Patent Number: US
3,306X).[5] He was the first African-
American to be granted a patent of any
kind, although there were attempts to
prevent him; opponents claimed that the
nature of the process was dangerous.

An early adopter of commercial "dry

laundry" using turpentine was Jolly Belin in
Paris in 1825.[6] Modern dry cleaning's use
of non-water-based solvents to remove
soil and stains from clothes was reported
as early as 1855. The potential for
petroleum-based solvents was recognized
by French dye-works operator Jean
Baptiste Jolly, who offered a new service
that became known as nettoyage à sec—
i.e., dry cleaning.[7][8] Flammability
concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a
dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop
Stoddard solvent (white spirit) as a slightly
less flammable alternative to gasoline-
based solvents. The use of highly
flammable petroleum solvents caused
many fires and explosions, resulting in
government regulation of dry cleaners.
After World War I, dry cleaners began
using chlorinated solvents. These solvents
were much less flammable than petroleum
solvents and had improved cleaning
power.

Shift to tetrachloroethylene …
By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning
industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene
(perchloroethylene), or PCE for short, as
the solvent. It has excellent cleaning
power and is nonflammable and
compatible with most garments. Because
it is stable, tetrachloroethylene is readily
recycled.[2]

Infrastructure …

Dry cleaning businesses, from the

perspective of the customer, are either
plants or drop shops.[9] A plant does on-site
cleaning.[9] A drop shop receives garments
from customers, sends them to a large
plant, and then has the cleaned garment
returned to the shop for collection by the
customer.[9] The turnaround time is longer
for a drop shop than for a local plant.[9]
However, running a plant requires more
work for the business owner.[9] Since 2010,
in some markets, web apps have been
used to schedule low-cost home delivery
for dry cleaning.[9]

This cycle minimized the risk of fire or

dangerous fumes created by the cleaning
process. At this time, dry cleaning was
carried out in two different machines—one
for the cleaning process, and the second
to remove the solvent from the garments.
Machines of this era were described as
vented; their drying exhausts were expelled
to the atmosphere, the same as many
modern tumble-dryer exhausts. This not
only contributed to environmental
contamination but also much potentially
reusable PCE was lost to the atmosphere.
Much stricter controls on solvent
emissions have ensured that all dry
cleaning machines in the Western world
are now fully enclosed, and no solvent
fumes are vented to the atmosphere. In
enclosed machines, solvent recovered
during the drying process is returned
condensed and distilled, so it can be
reused to clean further loads or safely
disposed of. The majority of modern
enclosed machines also incorporate a
computer-controlled drying sensor, which
automatically senses when all detectable
traces of PCE have been removed. This
system ensures that only small amounts
of PCE fumes are released at the end of
the cycle.

Mechanism

Structure of cellulose, the main constituent of cotton.

The many OH groups bind water, leading to swelling of
the fabric and leading to wrinkling, which is minimized
when these materials are treated with
when these materials are treated with
tetrachloroethylene and other dry cleaning solvents.

In terms of mechanism, dry cleaning

selectively solubilizes stains on the article.
The solvents are non-polar and tend to
selectively extract compounds that cause
stains. These stains would otherwise only
dissolve in aqueous detergents mixtures
at high temperatures, potentially damaging
delicate fabrics.

Non-polar solvents are also good for some

fabrics, especially natural fabrics, as the
solvent does not interact with any polar
groups within the fabric. Water binds to
these polar groups which results in the
swelling and stretching of proteins within
fibers during laundering. Also, the binding
of water molecules interferes with weak
attractions within the fiber, resulting in the
loss of the fiber's original shape. After the
laundry cycle, water molecules will dry off.
However, the original shape of the fibers
has already been distorted and this
commonly results in shrinkage. Non-polar
solvents prevent this interaction,
protecting more delicate fabrics.

The usage of an effective solvent coupled

with mechanical friction from tumbling
effectively removes stains.
Process

A modern dry cleaning machine with touchscreen and

SPS control, manufacturer EazyClean, type EC124,
photo taken prior to installation

Series 3 Dry cleaning machine with PLC control,

manufacturer, BÖWE Textile cleaning Germany
A dry-cleaning machine is similar to a
combination of a domestic washing
machine and clothes dryer. Garments are
placed in the washing or extraction
chamber (referred to as the 'basket' or
'drum'), which constitutes the core of the
machine. The washing chamber contains
a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates
within an outer shell. The shell holds the
solvent while the rotating drum holds the
garment load. The basket capacity is
between about 10 and 40 kg (22 to 88 lb).

During the wash cycle, the chamber is

filled approximately one-third full of
solvent and begins to rotate, agitating the
clothing. The solvent temperature is
maintained at 30 degrees Celsius
(86 degrees Fahrenheit), as a higher
temperature may damage it. During the
wash cycle, the solvent in the chamber
(commonly known as the 'cage' or 'tackle
box') is passed through a filtration
chamber and then fed back into the 'cage'.
This is known as the cycle and is
continued for the wash duration. The
solvent is then removed and sent to a
distillation unit consisting of a boiler and
condenser. The condensed solvent is fed
into a separator unit where any remaining
water is separated from the solvent and
then fed into the 'clean solvent' tank. The
ideal flow rate is roughly 8 liters of solvent
per kilogram of garments per minute,
depending on the size of the machine.

Garments are also checked for foreign

objects. Items such as plastic pens may
dissolve in the solvent bath, damaging the
textiles. Some textile dyes are "loose" and
will shed dye during solvent immersion.
Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads
or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be
enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density
of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm3
at room temperature (70% heavier than
water), and the sheer weight of absorbed
solvent may cause the textile to fail under
normal force during the extraction cycle
unless the mesh bag provides mechanical
support.

Not all stains can be removed by dry

cleaning. Some need to be treated with
spotting solvents — sometimes by steam
jet or by soaking in special stain-remover
liquids — before garments are washed or
dry cleaned. Also, garments stored in
soiled condition for a long time are
difficult to bring back to their original color
and texture.

A typical wash cycle lasts for 8–15

minutes depending on the type of
garments and degree of soiling. During the
first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils
dissolve into the perchloroethylene and
loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes
10–12 minutes after the loose soil has
come off to remove the ground-in
insoluble soil from garments. Machines
using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash
cycle of at least 25 minutes because of
the much slower rate of solvation of
solvent-soluble soils. A dry cleaning
surfactant "soap" may also be added.

At the end of the wash cycle, the machine

starts a rinse cycle where the garment
load is rinsed with freshly distilled solvent
dispensed from the solvent tank. This pure
solvent rinse prevents discoloration
caused by soil particles being absorbed
back onto the garment surface from the
'dirty' working solvent.

After the rinse cycle, the machine begins

the extraction process, which recovers the
solvent for reuse. Modern machines
recover approximately 99.99% of the
solvent employed. The extraction cycle
begins by draining the solvent from the
washing chamber and accelerating the
basket to 350–450 rpm, causing much of
the solvent to spin free of the fabric. Until
this time, the cleaning is done in normal
temperature, as the solvent is never
heated in dry cleaning process. When no
more solvent can be spun out, the
machine starts the drying cycle.

During the drying cycle, the garments are

tumbled in a stream of warm air (60–
63 °C/140–145 °F) that circulates through
the basket, evaporating traces of solvent
left after the spin cycle. The air
temperature is controlled to prevent heat
damage to the garments. The exhausted
warm air from the machine then passes
through a chiller unit where solvent vapors
are condensed and returned to the distilled
solvent tank. Modern dry cleaning
machines use a closed-loop system in
which the chilled air is reheated and
recirculated. This results in high solvent
recovery rates and reduced air pollution. In
the early days of dry cleaning, large
amounts of perchlorethylene were vented
to the atmosphere because it was
regarded as cheap and believed to be
harmless.

Many dry cleaners place cleaned clothes inside thin

clear plastic garment bags
After the drying cycle is complete, a
deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the
garments and removes further traces of
solvent, by circulating cool outside air over
the garments and then through a vapor
recovery filter made from activated carbon
and polymer resins. After the aeration
cycle, the garments are clean and ready
for pressing and finishing.

Solvent processing
A Firbimatic Saver Series. This machine uses
activated clay filtration instead of distillation. It uses
much less energy than conventional methods.

Working solvent from the washing

chamber passes through several filtration
steps before it is returned to the washing
chamber. The first step is a button trap,
which prevents small objects such as lint,
fasteners, buttons, and coins from
entering the solvent pump.
Over time, a thin layer of filter cake (called
"muck") accumulates on the lint filter. The
muck is removed regularly (commonly
once per day) and then processed to
recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many
machines use "spin disk filters", which
remove the muck from the filter by
centrifugal force while it is back washed
with solvent.

After the lint filter, the solvent passes

through an absorptive cartridge filter. This
filter, which contains activated clays and
charcoal, removes fine insoluble soil and
non-volatile residues, along with dyes from
the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes
through a polishing filter, which removes
any soil not previously removed. The clean
solvent is then returned to the working
solvent tank. Cooked powder residue is
the name for the waste material generated
by cooking down or distilling muck. It will
contain solvent, powdered filter material
(diatomite), carbon, non-volatile residues,
lint, dyes, grease, soils, and water. The
waste sludge or solid residue from the still
contains solvent, water, soils, carbon, and
other non-volatile residues. Used filters are
another form of waste as is waste water.

To enhance cleaning power, small

amounts of detergent (0.5–1.5%) are
added to the working solvent and are
essential to its functionality. These
detergents emulsify hydrophobic soils and
keep soil from redepositing on garments.
Depending on the machine's design, either
an anionic or a cationic detergent is used.

Symbols
The international GINETEX laundry symbol
for dry cleaning is a circle. It may have the
letter P inside it to indicate
perchloroethylene solvent, or the letter F to
indicate a flammable solvent
(Feuergefährliches Schwerbenzin). A bar
underneath the circle indicates that only
mild cleaning processes is recommended.
A crossed-out empty circle indicates that
dry cleaning is not permitted.[10]
Professional cleaning symbol

Dry clean, hydrocarbon solvent only (HCS)

Gentle cleaning with hydrocarbon solvents

Very gentle cleaning with hydrocarbon

solvents
Dry clean, tetrachloroethylene (PCE) only

Gentle cleaning with PCE

Very gentle cleaning with PCE

Do not dry clean

Tetrachloroethylene is the main solvent used in dry
cleaning.

Solvents used

Perchloroethylene …

Perchloroethylene (PCE, or
tetrachloroethylene) has been in use since
the 1930s. PCE is the most common
solvent, the "standard" for cleaning
performance. It is a highly effective
cleaning solvent. It is thermally stable,
recyclable, and has low toxicity. It can,
however, cause color bleeding/loss,
especially at higher temperatures. In some
cases it may damage special trims,
buttons, and beads on some garments. It
is better for oil-based stains (which
account for about 10% of stains) than
more common water-soluble stains
(coffee, wine, blood, etc.). The toxicity of
tetrachloroethylene "is moderate to low"
and "Reports of human injury are
uncommon despite its wide usage in dry
cleaning and degreasing".[11]

Hydrocarbons …
Hydrocarbons are represented by products
such as Exxon-Mobil's DF-2000 or Chevron
Phillips' EcoSolv, and Pure Dry. These
petroleum-based solvents are less
aggressive but also less effective than
PCE. Although combustible, risk of fire or
explosion can be minimized when used
properly. Hydrocarbons are however
pollutants. Hydrocarbons retain about 10-
12% of the market.

A modern dry cleaning machine for use with various

solvents
Trichloroethylene …

Trichloroethylene is more aggressive than

PCE but is very rarely used. With superior
degreasing properties, it was often used
for industrial workwear/overalls cleaning
in the past. TCE is classified as
carcinogenic to humans by the United
States Environmental Protection
Agency.[12]

Supercritical CO2 …

Supercritical CO2 is an alternative to PCE;

however, it is inferior in removing some
forms of grime.[13] Additive surfactants
improve the efficacy of CO2.[14] Carbon
dioxide is almost entirely nontoxic. The
greenhouse gas potential is also lower
than that of many organic solvents.

The dry cleaning process involves

charging a sealed chamber which is
loaded with clothes using gaseous carbon
dioxide from a storage vessel to
approximately 200 to 300 psi. This step in
the process is initiated as a precaution to
avoid thermal shock to the cleaning
chamber. Liquid carbon dioxide is then
pumped into the cleaning chamber from a
separate storage vessel by a hydraulic, or
electrically driven pump (which preferably
has dual pistons). The pump increases the
pressure of the liquid carbon dioxide to
approximately 900 to 1500 psi. A separate
sub-cooler reduces the temperature of the
carbon dioxide by 2 to 3 degrees Kelvin
below the boiling point in an effort to
prevent cavitation which could lead to
premature degradation of the pump. [15]

Consumer Reports rated supercritical CO2

superior to conventional methods, but the
Drycleaning and Laundry Institute
commented on its "fairly low cleaning
ability" in a 2007 report.[16] Supercritical
CO2 is, overall, a mild solvent which lowers
its ability to aggressively attack stains.

One deficiency with supercritical CO2 is

that its electrical conductivity is low. As
mentioned in the Mechanisms section, dry
cleaning utilizes both chemical and
mechanical properties to remove stains.
When solvent interacts with the fabric's
surface, the friction dislocates dirt. At the
same time, the friction also builds up an
electrical charge. Fabrics are very poor
conductors and so usually, this build-up is
discharged through the solvent. This
discharge does not occur in liquid carbon
dioxide and the build-up of an electrical
charge on the surface of the fabric attracts
the dirt back on to the surface, which
diminishes its cleaning efficiency. To
compensate for the poor solubility and
conductivity of supercritical carbon
dioxide, research has focused on
additives. For increased solubility, 2-
propanol has shown increased cleaning
effects for liquid carbon dioxide as it
increases the ability of the solvent to
dissolve polar compounds.[17]

Machinery for use of supercritical CO2 is

expensive—up to $90,000 more than a PCE
machine, making affordability difficult for
small businesses. Some cleaners with
these machines keep traditional machines
on-site for more heavily soiled textiles, but
others find plant enzymes to be equally
effective and more environmentally
sustainable.

Other solvents: niche, emerging,

etc.
…

For decades, efforts have been made to

replace PCE. These alternatives have not
proven economical thus far:

Stoddard solvent – flammable and

explosive, 100 °F/38 °C flash point
CFC-113 (Freon-113), a CFC. Now
banned as ozone-unfriendly.
Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane ("liquid
silicone"), called D5 for short. It was
popularized by GreenEarth Cleaning.[18]
It is more expensive than PCE. It
degrades within days in the
environment.
Dibutoxymethane (SolvonK4) is a
bipolar solvent that removes water-
based stains and oil-based stains.[19]
Brominated solvents (n-propyl bromide,
Fabrisolv, DrySolv) are solvents with
higher KB-values than PCE. This allows
faster cleaning, but can damage some
 synthetic beads and sequins if not used
correctly. Healthwise, there are reported
risks associated with nPB such as
numbness of nerves.[20] The exposure to
the solvents in a typical dry cleaner is
considered far below the levels required
to cause any risk.[21] Environmentally, it
is approved by the U.S. EPA. It is among
the more expensive solvents, but it is
faster cleaning, lower temperatures, and
quick dry times.

See also
Fabric restoration
List of laundry topics
 Wet cleaning

References
1. "Thomas Jennings" . National
Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved
December 4, 2019.
2. David C. Tirsell "Dry Cleaning" in
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
2000.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a09_049
3. Hunter, Jennifer (22 May 2019). "Dry
Cleaning Your Wool Sweaters? Don't
Bother" . The New York Times.
Retrieved 30 May 2019.
4. Zubair, Rashid (10 January 2021). "Is
Dry Cleaning better than washing" .
Retrieved 25 January 2021.
5. "US Patent: 3,306X" . Directory of
American Tool and Machinery Patents.
Retrieved December 4, 2019.
. Hasenclever, Kaspar D (2001). "Dry
Cleaning - Treatment of Textiles in
Solvent" . In Wypych, George (ed.).
Handbook of Solvents. ChemTec
Publishing. p. 883.
ISBN 9781895198249.
7. "How Dry Cleaning Works" .
Science.howstuffworks.com.
Retrieved 2006-03-30.
 . "How To Start a Laundry / Dry Cleaning
Business in Nigeria" . Jalingo.co.
Retrieved 2018-01-04.
9. Lee, Sunny (1 October 2019). "The
uncertain future of your neighborhood
dry cleaner" . The Outline. Retrieved
2019-10-11.
10. "Professional textile care symbols" .
GINETEX - Swiss Association for
Textile Labelling. Archived from the
original on 2013-05-28. Retrieved
2013-07-18.
11. E.-L. Dreher; T. R. Torkelson; K. K.
Beutel (2011). "Chlorethanes and
Chloroethylenes". Ullmann's
 Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
doi:10.1002/14356007.o06_o01 .
ISBN 978-3527306732.
12. EPA Releases Final Health
Assessment for TCE [1] September
2011. Accessed 2011-09-28.
13. "Dry-cleaning with CO2 wins award
[Science] Resource" . Resource.wur.nl.
2010-10-12. Archived from the
original on 2012-03-12. Retrieved
2013-03-14.
14. "How can we use carbon dioxide as a
solvent?" . Contemporary topics in
school science. Retrieved 2016-08-29.
15. "Liquid/supercritical carbon
dioxide/dry cleaning system" . 1993-
12-06. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
1 . Drycleaning and Laundry Institute.
"The DLI White Paper: Key Information
on Industry Solvents." The Western
Cleaner & Launderer, August 2007.
17. [2] , Townsend, Carl W.; Sidney C. Chao
& Edna M. Purer, "Liquid carbon
dioxide cleaning system employing a
static dissipating fluid"
1 . Tarantola, Andrew. "There's a Better
Way to Dry Clean Your Clothes" .
Gizmodo. Retrieved 2016-08-29.
19. Ceballos, Diana M.; Whittaker, Stephen
G.; Lee, Eun Gyung; Roberts, Jennifer;
Streicher, Robert; Nourian, Fariba;
Gong, Wei; Broadwater, Kendra (2016).
"Occupational exposures to new dry
cleaning solvents: High-flashpoint
hydrocarbons and butylal" . Journal of
Occupational and Environmental
Hygiene. 13 (10): 759–769.
doi:10.1080/15459624.2016.1177648
. PMC 5511734 . PMID 27105306 .
20. "HAZARD EVALUATION 1-
Bromopropane" Archived 2013-11-06
at the Wayback Machine July 2003.
Accessed 2014-Jan-22
21. Azimi Pirsaraei, S. R.; Khavanin, A;
Asilian, H; Soleimanian, A (2009).
"Occupational exposure to
perchloroethylene in dry-cleaning
shops in Tehran, Iran" . Industrial
Health. 47 (2): 155–9.
doi:10.2486/indhealth.47.155 .
PMID 19367044 .

External links
Hazard Summary provided by the
United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
NIOSH Safety and Health Topic:
Drycleaning
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