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p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e-ISSN: 2349-879X; Volume 5, Issue 6; July-September, 2018, pp. 388-401
© Krishi Sanskriti Publications
http://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html

Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric

Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India
Aryaman Agarwal
Year 12 Haileybury and Imperial Services College,
Hertford, United Kingdom

Source: Author’s Own Photo

1. INTRODUCTION
Most people know about the beauty and majesty of the Taj Mahal, one of the architectural wonders of the world. Fewer people
know about the mathematics and geometric principles that underlie not just this structure, but many of the ancient Mughal and
Hindu structures in India.
The purpose of this article is to shed more light on the symbolic and stylistic use of geometry in India’s ancient tombs,
temples and mosques. This is by no means an exhaustive review of India’s architecture. Rather, it’s meant as a brief overview to
enhance appreciation for India’s built heritage for students of mathematics, architecture, and history alike.
Sacred Geometryy Mathematicall and Geometriic Applicationss in the Anciennt Architecturee of India 389

Mu
ughal Architeecture
Geeometry withinn Mughal Islam
mic Architecture in India
Geometry iss one of the most
m importantt elements of Islamic
I Art. A close observation of Islam
mic architecturee shows that
geoometric shapes like stars, trriangles, circlees, squares, heexagons and different
d a repeatedly used. From
types of polygons are
reppetition of these basic shapees, more compplicated patternns emerge. Within Islamic architecture,
a coomplex geomeetric designs
creeate an impresssion of unendding repetition, which servess to evoke andd remind peopple of the infinnite nature of Allah. (The
Meetropolitan Muuseum of Art, 2001)
2

V
Various polygon
ns used in Islam
mic patterns

Symbolicallyy, the circle deepicts Allah’s infinite

i nature.. Almost all Islamic patterns begin at the centre
c of a circcle. This also
sym
mbolises beingg one with God d (Allah).

Thhe Triangle sym

mbolises human
n existence andd the principless of humanity.

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390 Aryam
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The square is a symbol of the

t material woorld and physiccal experience..

The Hexagonn is a symbol of

o heaven.

The Star is a symbol of thee spread of Islaam.

Image Sourcce: Guneet Khu
urana. Geometrry of Islamic Architecture. Feebruary 18, 20113.

2. TYPES OF ISLAMIC GE
EOMETRIC PATTERNS
P

Islamic Geometrric Patterns (IG GP) are mostlly based on poolygons such as Hexagons and Octagons. The Star Polygon is the
funndamental elem ment of IGP. Patterns
P whosee main elementts are from hexxagon are classified as 6- pooint geometricaal patterns; a
staar is called a 6-
6 point star. Accordingly,
A p
patterns are labbeled as 8-, 100-, 12-... point geometrical patterns.
p (Adbuullahi & Bin
Emmbi, 2013)

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Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India 391

Image Source: Yahya Abdullahi and Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi. “Evolution of Islamic Geometric Patterns,” in Frontiers of
Architectural Research.

3. EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRY IN MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

Humayun’s Tomb
Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi (1565 AD) is one of the most iconic examples of Mughal Architecture in India. Examining the
various geometric patterns employed, one can see examples of 6-point and 8-point patterns in the marble flooring, window grills,
and balcony railings of the Tomb.
The aerial view of Humayun’s Tomb shows the extensive use of geometry. The base of the tomb is a cube with arches made
up of rectangles and triangles.

Image Source: “Humayun’s Tomb” Cultural India. http://www.culturalindia.net/monuments/humayun-tomb.html

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3922 Aryam
man Agarwal

Image Sourcee: “Humayun’s Tomb,”

T TripHobo. https://www.ttriphobo.com/plaaces/delhi-india//humayun-tomb

The use of geometrical

g sh
hapes can be seeen in not onlyy the tomb butt also in the laay out of the gardens.
g The abbove picture
shoows an octagonn shaped pond..
Image Sourcee: “Humayun’s Tomb”
T Cultural India.
I http://ww
ww.culturalindia.nnet/monuments//humayun-tomb.html

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Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India 393

The Red Fort

The 6-point and 8-point patterns are also repeated in the Red Fort of Agra (1546 AD). One can also see the occasional use of
10-point and 12-point examples in the Red Fort (Adbullahi
Bin Embi, 2013). Mughal architecture in India used red sandstone, white marble and polychromatic titles as the
main cladding and decorative materials. Great effort was exerted to create accurate and perfect proportions of pattern
shapes and angles. (Asher, 1992) In addition to these materials, IGP are one of the key decorative elements of both
secular and religious buildings in Islamic architecture. Geometric designs were used in an intricate manner to give
birth to various patterns to decorate the floors, ceilings, walls, windows and gardens.
The Red Fort in Agra. Image source: Mahesh Bhanupanth. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red-Fort,Delhi.JPG

Stonework Detail from various Mughal Architecture sites (From left: Humayun Tomb in Delhi; Red Fort in Agra; Friday
Mosque of Fatehpur-Sikri; Etimad-ud-Daulah tomb; Lahore Fort in Pakistan.)
Image Source: Yahya Abdullahi and Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi. “Evolution of Islamic Geometric Patterns,” in Frontiers of Architectural
Research.

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394 Aryaman Agarwal

Taj Mahal

Perhaps the best-recognised example of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal was constructed in 1632 AD
in Agra, and it is a perfect example of the use of symmetry and geometry, both inside and outside. Throughout the monument,
one can see 6-point, 8-point, 10-point,12-point, 16- point and other complex patterns.
From a bird’s eye view, one can see that the tomb is in the shape of a cube with chambered corners to give it an
octagonal cross section. The octagonal structure of the tomb symbolises the physical world and the path to heaven.
The Taj is built with such accurate mathematical calculation that the four minarets that surround the structure would
fall outwards in the event of a serious earthquake, so as not to damage the main tomb.
Floor Plan of The Taj Mahal. Image Source: http://islamicarchitectureinindia.weebly.com/taj-mahal.html

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Sacred Geometryy Mathematicall and Geometriic Applicationss in the Anciennt Architecturee of India 395

One of the most

m remarkablle parts of the Taj Mahal is its i enormous onion-shaped
o d
dome, which is located at the exact centre
a is flanked by four smalleer domes, one on
of the structure, and o each cornerr. At 115 ft, thee marble cylindrical dome is topped with
a lootus design - one
o of the mostt stunning featuures of the entiire structure.
Image Sourcee :http://www.taj-mahal.net/newttaj/textMM/imagges/domeexterioor7.jpg
Hiindu Temple Architecture
A
Ovverview of Hinndu Temple Arcchitecture
Staarting in the 1sst century CE, there arose a new style of bhakti
b Hinduissm, in which devotees
d worshhipped central deities. This
praactice of worshhip necessitated
d temples, whoose formal stylle was codifiedd over time. In particular, thiss temple archittecture relied
heaavily on the usse of harmonio ous geometry, which, interestingly, is very similar to fracctal geometry. Hindu temples offer some
of the best exam mples of fractaal buildings, which
w were connstructed long before the birrth of fractal theory
t and maanifested the
relligious cosmic visions (Adanee & Dutta, 20114)

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396 Aryaman Agarwal

Image Source: “Hindu Architecture” in Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/Hindu_Architecture/

Overview of Fractal Geometry
Fractal geometry is a field of mathematics identified in the 1970s by Benoit Mandelbrot. The process by which shapes are made
in fractal geometry is very simple, yet contrasts starkly with classical geometry. While classical geometry uses formulas to define
a shape, fractal geometry uses iteration. A fractal is a never-ending pattern, created by repeating a similar process over and over
in an ongoing feedback loop. (Physorg.com, 2011)

Illustration of self-repetition in fractal geometry. Image Source: Bovill, Carl. Fractal geometry in architecture and design. 1996

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Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India 397

Symbolism of Fractal Geometry in Hindu temple architecture

George Michell, author of The Hindu Temple explains, “The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents the
quest for moksha - ultimate spiritual liberation, the realisation of oneness by setting out to dissolve the boundaries between man
and the divine.” (Michell, 1977) Temples are a symbol of the cosmos and their form symbolically represents the
cosmos.(Trivedi, 1993)
Fractal geometry, which represents “views of the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature” also has
connections to cosmology. For example, in 1987 the Italian physicist Luciano Pietronero argued that the
Universe shows “a definite fractal aspect over a fairly wide range of scale” based on correlations of galaxies and
clusters, their spatial distribution and average mass density. (Dataisnature, 2015)
Within Hindu temples, one can see uses of fractal geometry, namely through the repetition of geometrical towers,
surrounded by mirror images of smaller, similar geometrical towers at various levels. This repetition creates the illusion of an
object repeating itself endlessly, towards a proposed infinity.
Image Source: “The Fractal Structure of Hindu Temples” https://fractalenlightenment.com/14556/fractals/the-fractal-structure-of-hindu-
temples

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398 Aryaman Agarwal

Examples of Fractal Geometry in Hindu Temple Architecture Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho

The Khajuraho Temples constructed by the Chandela dynasty between 900 AD and 1130 AD show incredible symmetry and
use of fractal geometry. Following the traditional grid geometrical design called vastu -purusha-mandala, the temples in the
complex are laid out in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple, called the
garbhagriya. The shikhara, or spire of the temple, rises above the garbhagriya. This structure and symmetry convey core beliefs
and mathematical principles.
Within the Khajuraho temple complex, the Kandariya Mahadev temple is one of the best examples of recursive temple
architecture in India. The Shikhara (rising towers) are said to mimic the forms of mountains, which are themselves self-similar.
(Dataisnature, 2015) The pillared halls near the entrances (mandapas) are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and
mathematical precision.
Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Madhya Pradesh Image Source: http://www.dataisnature.com/?p=2138
Khajuraho temples use the 8×8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (right) found in Hindu temples. Above
the temple’s brahma padas is a Sikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles
and turning-squares concentric layering design that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.(Munshi 2015)

Image Source: Sayan Munshi, “Architecture of the Khajuraho Temples”. https://curatorhall.wordpress.com/2015/05/10/architecture-of-

the-khajuraho-temples/

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Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India 399

The Sun Temple, Modhera

The Sun Temple at Modhera (1026-27 AD) is one of the earliest Solanki temples of Gujarat. In its architectural elements,
particularly its reservoir, it show elements of self-repeating fractal geometry. Measuring 176 feet by 120 feet, the reservoir
(kunda) is paved with stones all around. There are four terraces with recessed steps to descend to the bottom of the tank. The
rectangular and square shape of these steps, combined with their repeated pattern yields a fractal effect, meant to reflect the
process of the universe and its energy. (Jain-Neubauer, 1981)

The Reservoir at the Sun Temple at Modhera

Image Source: Tanisha Dutta & Vinayak S. Adane “Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture & Fractal Geometry”
https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v3i12/U1VCMTQzMjI=.pdf

Image Source: Prayash Giria - https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28536799

Virupaksha Temple, Hampi

The Virupaksha Temple at Hampi (740 AD) represents the pinnacle of Dravidian temple architecture. The temple is built on five
fully developed moldings of a high plinth. A sense of geometric symmetry is created through the outer faces of the sanctum
walls, which are divided into two intermediate projections and two corner projections with four recesses in between. Similarly,
within the mandapa, the walls on either side of the northern, eastern and southern regions are divided into two projections and
two recesses. The superstructure over the sanctum is three storeys tall, and repeats many elements of the parapet and walls
beneath. (Archaeological Survey of India, 2011)

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400 Aryam
man Agarwal

In the archittecture of the Virupaksha

V Teemple, the use of fractal geoometry means that both the parts p of the tow
wer, and the
tow
wer as a wholee have the samee character. Thhis explains thee universal apppeal of the structure, as it proovides viewers with a sense
of scale, even whhen viewing it from
f different distances.
Tower of the Virupaksha
V Tem
mple at Hampi. Im
mage Source: htttp://templenet.coom/Karnataka/vvirupa.jpg

Aerial View of Virupakshaa Temple at Haampi

Imaage Sourcee: https://im
mage.slideshareccdn.com/mathem
maticsandart-150505062338-convversion-gate02/995/mathematics--and-art-31-
6388.jpg?cb=1501435168

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Sacred Geometry Mathematical and Geometric Applications in the Ancient Architecture of India 401

4. CONCLUSION
Whether in the form of traditional or fractal geometry, applications of mathematics and geometry play a key role in not only
giving India’s ancient architecture its characteristic look, but also expressing significant symbolic aspects. Understanding the
basic geometry and corresponding symbolism underlying these structures yields a deeper appreciation for India’s history and
heritage, through it sacred spaces.
WORKS CITED

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[4] Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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structure-of-hindu-temples
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[11] Jain-Neubauer, Jutta. The Stepwells of Gujarat: In Art-historical Perspective. New Delhi: Abinav Publications, 1981.
[12] Khurana, Guneet. Geometry of Islamic Architecture. February 18, 2013. Accessed online at
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[13] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Islamic Art. “Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
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https://curatorhall.wordpress.com/2015/05/10/architecture-of-the-khajuraho-temples/
[16] The Oxford Dictionaries, “Geometry”. Access online at https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/geometry
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fractals.html
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[19] Trivedi, Kirti. “Hindu Temple: Models of a Fractal Universe.” Presented at the International Seminar on Mayonic Science & Technology,
January 1993.

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