What is a PLC?

PLC stands for “Programmable Logic Controller”. A PLC is a computer

specially designed to operate reliably under harsh industrial environments
– such as extreme temperatures, wet, dry, and/or dusty conditions. PLCs
are used to automate industrial processes such as a manufacturing plant’s
assembly line, an ore processing plant, or a wastewater treatment plant.

PLCs share many features of the personal computer you have at home.
They both have a power supply, a CPU (Central Processing Unit), inputs
and outputs (I/O), memory, and operating software (although it’s a
different operating software).

The biggest differences are that a PLC can perform discrete and continuous
functions that a PC cannot do, and a PLC is much better suited to rough
industrial environments. A PLC can be thought of as a ‘ruggedized’ digital
computer that manages the electromechanical processes of an industrial
environment.

PLCs play a crucial role in the field of automation, using forming part of a
larger SCADA system. A PLC can be programmed according to the
operational requirement of the process. In the manufacturing industry,
there will be a need for reprogramming due to the change in the nature of
production. To overcome this difficulty, PLC-based control systems were
introduced. We’ll first discuss PLC basics before looking at various
applications of PLCs.
If you want to learn how to program PLCs, you should check out some of
the different online PLC training courses. These courses can help jump-
start your career in control engineering.
PLC Basics
PLCs were invented by Dick Morley in 1964. Since then PLC has
revolutionized the industrial and manufacturing sectors. There is a wide
range of PLC functions like timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and
processing various analog signals.

The main advantage of PLC over a “hard-wired” control system is that you
can go back and change a PLC after you’ve programmed it, at little cost
(just the cost of the programmer’s time). In a hard-wired control system,
you’re essentially having to rip out wires and start from scratch (which is
more expensive and takes longer). Let’s look at an example to better
understand this advantage.
Imagine you have a light connected to a switch. In general, the light
operates under two conditions – ON and OFF. Now you are given a task
that when you turn ON the switch, the light should glow only after 30
seconds. With this hard-wired setup – we’re stuck. The only way to achieve
this is to completely rewire our circuit to add a timing relay. That’s a lot of
hassle for a minor change.

Light Switch
This is where a programmable logic controller comes into the picture,
which doesn’t require any additional wiring and hardware to make sure of
a change. Rather it requires a simple change in code, programming the PLC
to only turn on the light 30 seconds after the switch is turned ON. So, by
using a PLC, it is easy to incorporate multiple inputs and outputs.

This is just a simple example – a PLC has the ability to control much larger
and more complex processes. A PLC can be customized depending on the
application and needs of the user.
 Lig
ht operated by a PLC

How Does a PLC work?

The working of a programmable logic controller can be easily understood
as a cyclic scanning method known as the scan cycle.
 Block Diagram of
How A PLC Works
A PLC Scan Process includes the following steps

 The operating system starts cycling and monitoring of time.

 The CPU starts reading the data from the input module and checks
the status of all the inputs.
 The CPU starts executing the user or application program written in
relay-ladder logic or any other PLC-programming language.
 Next, the CPU performs all the internal diagnosis and
communication tasks.
 According to the program results, it writes the data into the output
module so that all outputs are updated.
 This process continues as long as the PLC is in run mode.
Physical Structure of PLC
The structure of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.

PLC Block
Diagram
Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitors the input values
from various input sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight scale,
hardwired signals, etc.) and produces corresponding output depending on
the nature of production and industry. A typical block diagram of PLC
consists of five parts namely:

 Rack or chassis
 Power Supply Module
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input & Output Module
 Communication Interface Module
Rack or Chassis
In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important
module and acts as a backbone to the system. PLCs are available in
different shapes and sizes. When more complex control systems are
involved, it requires larger PLC racks.

Small-sized PLC is equipped with a fixed I/O pin configuration. So, they
have gone for modular type rack PLC, which accepts different types of I/O
modules with sliding and fit in concept. All I/O modules will be residing
inside this rack/chassis.
 Breakdown of
PLC Rack

Power Supply Module

This module is used to provide the required power to the whole PLC
system. It converts the available AC power to DC power which is required
by the CPU and I/O module. PLC generally works on a 24V DC supply.
Few PLC uses an isolated power supply.

CPU Module and Memory

CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM memory. ROM
memory includes an operating system, drivers, and application programs.
RAM memory is used to store programs and data. CPU is the brain of PLC
with an octal or hexagonal microprocessor.
Being a microprocessor-based CPU, it replaces timers, relays, and counters.
Two types of processors as a single bit or word processor can be
incorporated with a PLC. One bit processor is used to perform logic
functions. Whereas word processors are used for processing text, numerical
data, controlling, and recording data.

CPU reads the input data from sensors, processes it, and finally sends the
command to controlling devices. DC power source, as mentioned in the
previous discussion is required voltage signals. CPU also contains other
electrical parts to connect cables used by other units.

Input and Output Module

Have you ever thought about how to sense physical parameters like
temperature, pressure, flow, etc? using PLC? Of course, PLC has an
exclusive module for interfacing inputs and output, which is called an
input & output module.

Input devices can be either start and stop pushbuttons, switches, etc and
output devices can be an electric heater, valves, relays, etc. I/O module
helps to interface input and output devices with a microprocessor. The
input module of PLC is explained in the below figure.

PLC
Input Module
 Circuit
Diagram of PLC Input Module
The input module of PLC does four main functions.

1. Input module interface receives the signal from process devices at

220 V AC
2. Converts the input signal to 5 V DC that can be used by PLC
3. Isolator block is used to isolate/prevent PLC from undergoing
fluctuation
4. After which the signal is sent to the output end i.e the PLC
There are two main sections in the input module namely the power section
and the logical section. Both sections are electrically isolated from each
other. Initially push button is closed. So, 220 V AC supply is given to the
bridge circuit through the resistors R1 and R2.

A bridge rectifier (such as a diode bridge rectifier) is used to convert the

AC signal into DC and Zener diode is used to provide a low voltage supply
to LED. When the light from LED falls on the phototransistor, it works in
the conduction region. Finally, a 5V DC supply is given to the processor.
The output module of PLC works similarly to the input module but in the
reverse process. It interfaces the output load and processor. So here the first
section would be logic session and the power section comes next. The
working of the output module is shown in the below figure
 PLC Output
Module
So, here when the program logic high signal is generated from the
processor, LED will turn ON and allow the light to fall on a
phototransistor. When the transistor goes to the conduction region, it
generates a pulse to the gate of the Triac. The isolator block is used to
isolate the logic section and control section.
Communication Interface Module
To transfer information between CPU and communication networks,
intelligent I/O modules are used. These communication modules help to
connect with other PLCs and computers which are placed at a remote
location.

Types of PLCs
The two main types of PLC are fixed / compact PLC and modular PLC.

Compact PLC
Within a single case, there would be many modules. It has a fixed number
of I/O modules and external I/O cards. So, it does not have the capability to
expand the modules. Every input and output would be decided by the
manufacturer.

Modular PLC
This type of PLC permits multiple expansion through “modules”, hence
referred to as Modular PLC. I/O components can be increased. It is easier to
use because each component is independent of each other.
 A Modular Type PLC
PLC are divided into three types based on output namely Relay output,
Transistor output, and Triac Output PLC. The relay output type is best
suited for both AC and DC output devices. Transistor output type PLC
uses switching operations and used inside microprocessors.

According to the physical size, a PLC is divided into Mini, Micro, and
Nano PLC.

Some of the manufacturers of PLCs include:

 Allen Bradley
 ABB
 Siemens
 Mitsubishi PLC
 Hitachi PLC
 Delta PLC
 General Electric (GE) PLC
 Honeywell PLC
PLC Applications
PLCs have a variety of applications and uses, including:

1. Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)

2. Glass Industry
3. Paper Industry
4. Cement Manufacturing
5. In boilers – Thermal Power Plants
PLC Programming
When using a PLC, it’s important to design and implement concepts
depending on your particular use case. To do this we first need to know
more about the specifics of PLC programming.

A PLC program consists of a set of instructions either in textual or

graphical form, which represents the logic that governs the process the
PLC is controlling. There are two main classifications of PLC programming
languages, which are further divided into many sub-classified types.

1. Textual Language
 Instruction list
 Structured text
2. Graphical Form
 Ladder Diagrams (LD) (i.e. Ladder Logic)
 Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
Although all of these PLC programming languages can be used to program
a PLC, graphical languages (like ladder logic) are typically preferred to
textual languages (like structured text programming).

Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the simplest form of PLC programming. It is also known as
“relay logic”. The relay contacts used in relay controlled systems are
represented using ladder logic.
The below figure shows a simple example of a ladder diagram.

PLC Ladder Logic

In the above-mentioned example, two pushbuttons are used to control the
same lamp load. When any one of the switches is closed, the lamp will
glow.
The two horizontal lines are called rungs and the two vertical lines are
called rails. Every rung forms the electrical connectivity between Positive
rail (P) and Negative rail (N). This allows the current to flow between input
and output devices.
Functional Block Diagrams
Functional Block Diagram (FBD) is a simple and graphical method to
program multiple functions in PLC. PLCOpen has described using FBD in
the standard IEC 61131-3. A function block is a program instruction unit
that, when executed, yields one or more output values.

It is represented by a block as shown below. It is represented as a

rectangular block with inputs entering on left and output lines leaving at
the right. It gives a relation between the state of input and output

Function Block
The advantage of using FBD is that any number of inputs and outputs can
be used on the functional block. When using multiple input and output,
you can connect the output of one function block to the input of another.
Whereby building a Function Block Diagram.

Example Functional Block Diagram

The figure below shows various function blocks used in FBD
programming.
Functional Block Programming
The figure below shows a ladder diagram and its function block equivalent
in Siemens notation.

Lad
der to functional block [Source]
 L
adder to functional block diagram [Source]

Structured Text Programming

Structured text is a textual programming language that utilizes statements
to determine what to execute. It follows more conventional programming
protocols but it is not case sensitive. A series of statements (logic) is
constituted of expressing assignments and relationships using several
operators. The structures text operators are listed below in the image.

Structured Text Programming

PLC Programming Examples

A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the
pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed. In this
application, if there should be an output from the lamp inputs from both
pump and pressure sensors are required. Hence, AND logic gates are used.
OR logic is used for the test input condition, it is required to give an output
of lamp on regardless of whether there is a signal from the AND system.
By using END or RET instruction in the ladder diagram, we can tell PLC
has reached the end of the program. The function block diagram and the
ladder diagram are shown below in the figure.

PLC Program to
Test Lamp Glowing
As another example, consider a valve that is to be operated to lift a load
when a pump is running and either the lift switch is operated or a switch
operated indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the
bottom of its lift channel.

OR logic is used for two switches and an AND logic is used with two
switches and the pump. Valve will be operated only if the pump is ON and
two switches are operated.

PLC
Program to Operate Valve
Consider a drinks machine that allows the selection of tea or coffee, milk or
no milk, sugar or no sugar, and will supply the required hot drink on the
insertion of a coin. From the below-shown figure, it is seen that either tea or
coffee is selected using the first OR logic gate.
The first AND gate give an output when either Tea or coffee is selected and
a coin is inserted into the machine. The output from this AND gate is given
to the second AND gate. The second AND gate operate only when hot
water combines with tea. Milk and sugar are optional additions that can
occur after a coin has been inserted.

FBD for
Drinking Machine
 Ladder
Logic for Drinking Machine Application

History of PLCs
Many early PLCs were not capable of graphical representation of the logic,
and so it was instead represented as a series of logical expressions in a
Boolean format (akin to Boolean algebra).
As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder
logic to be used, because it was a familiar format used for electro-
mechanical control panels. More modern formats, such as state logic and
Function Block diagrams exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder
logic.
 A possible reason for this is that programmers prefer the more visual
appeal of ladder logic over structured text programming.

Until approximately the mid-1990s, PLCs were programmed using

proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming
terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the
various logical elements of PLC programs.

Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC

programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII code representations of
contacts, coils, and wires were common.

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