Cognition in the Brain

IN THE LA OF JOHN GABRIEL!

Everything we know is either in

our genes or learned through ex-
perience. Only some experiences,
however, are remembered. We
6 quickly forget a great deal of our
lives. Selection of what we re-
member and what we forget is,
therefore, important for who we

t other times they failed to recognize a scene previously viewed (a forgotten experience). The level of brain activity in the

twentieth century, H.M. Due to surgery in 1953 intended to treat his epilepsy, H.M. became a globally amnesic patient who could

the amygdala commonly results in fear. It can be evidenced in various

ways, such as through palpitations, fearful hallucinations, or
frightening flashbacks in memory (Frackowiak & associates, 1997;
Gloor, 1997; Rockland, 2000). Damage to (lesions) or removal of
the amygdala can result in rnaladaptive lack of fear. The animal
approaches potentially dangerous objects without hesitation or
fear (Adolphs & associates, 1994; Frackowiak & associates, 1997).
Two other effects of lesions to the amygdala can be visual agnosia (inability
to recognize objects) and hypersexuality (Stefannaci, 1999).
The hippocampus plays an essential role in memory formation
(Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993; Dusek Eichenbaum, 1997; Eichenbaum,
1999; Gluck, 1996; O'Keefe, 2003). It gets its name from the Greek
word for "seahorse," its approximate shape. People who have
suffered damage to or removal of the hippocampus still can recall
existing memories. For example, they can recognize old friends
and places, but they are unable to form new ones (relative to the time of the
brain damage). New information—new situations, people, and places—
remain forever new. Korsakoff's syndrome-produces loss of memory
function. This loss is believed to be associated with deterioration
of the hippocampus. The syndrome can result from excessive
alcohol use. The hippocampus also appears to keep track of where things are
and how
 Cognition In the Brain

seeing the relations among items learned (Eichenbaum, 1997;

Squire, 1992). We return to the role of the hippocampus in
Chapter 5.
The thalamus relays incoming sensory information through
groups of neurons that project to the appropriate region in the
cortex. Most of the sensory input into the brain passes through
the thalamus. It is located in about the center of the brain, at
about the level of the eyes. To accommodate all the different
types of information that must be sorted out, the thalamus is
divided into a number of nuclei (groups of neurons of similar
function). Each nucleus receives information from specific senses.
The information is then relayed to corresponding specific areas in
the cerebral cortex. (Table 2.2 includes the names and roles of
the various nuclei.) The thalamus also helps in the control of
sleep and waking. When the thalamus malfunctions, the result
can be pain, tremor, amnesia, impairment of language, and
disruptions in waking and sleeping (Rockland, 2000; Sreriade,
Jones, & McCormick, 1997).
The hypothalamus regulates behavior related to species
survival: fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating. The
hypothalamus also is active in regulating emotions and reactions
to stress (Malsbury, 2003). It interacts with the limbic system. The
small size of the hypothalamus (from Greek hypo-, "under";
located at the base of the forebrain, beneath the thalamus) belies
its importance in controlling many bodily functions (see Table 2.1
for more information).
Midbrain
The midbrain helps to control eye movement and
coordination:The midbrain is more important in nonmammals
than in mammals. In nonmammals it is the main source of control
for visual and auditory information. In mammals these functions
are dominated by the forebrain. Table 2.1 lists several
structures (and corresponding functions) of the midbrain. But by
far the most indispensable of these structures is the

TABLE 2 . 2
•

Four
Major Nuclei of the
Four key tbalaitiic Thalamus*
nuclei
NAME OF Nucuust RECEIVES PROJECTS
FUNCTIONAL BENEFIT

INFORMATION FROM (TRANSMITS INFORMATION)

PRIMARILY To
Lateral geniculate nucleus
The visual receptors, via The visual cortex Permits us to see
optic nerves
Medial gesticulate nucleus The auditory receptors, via The auditory cortex Permits us to hear
auditory nerves
Ventroposterior nucleus The somatic nervous system The primary somatosensory Permits us to sense pressure
cortex and pain
 . Ventrolatetal nucleus The cerebellum The primary motor cortex Permits us to sense physical
(in the hinclbrain) balance and equilibrium
*Other thalamic nuclei also play important roles.
tThe names refer to the relative location of the nuclei within the thalamus: lateral, toward the right or left side of the medial nucleus; ventral,
closer to the belly than to the top of the head; posterior, toward the back, behind; ventroposterior, bellyward and in the back; ventrolateral,
hal/ward and on the side. Also, geniculate means "knee-shaped."
 Cognition in the Drain

However, across the span of development after birth, the

proportion of brain weight to body weight declines. The brain
weight of a newborn is proportionately much greater in relation
to body weight than is the brain weight of an adult. From infancy
through adulthood, the development of the brain centers chiefly
on the organizational complexity of the connections within the
brain. The individual's developmental increases in neural
complexity are paralleled by the evolutionary development of our
species. But the changing proportion of brain weight to body
weight in evolution
not.
For cognitive psychologists, the most important of these
evolutionary trends is the increasing neural complexity of the
brain. The evolution of the human brain has offered us the
increasing ability to exercise voluntary control over behavior. Is
has also increased our ability to plan and to contemplate
alternative courses of action. These ideas are discussed in the
next section with respect to the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function
The cerebral cortex forms a 1- to 3-millimeter layer that wraps
the surface of the brain somewhat like the bark of a tree wraps
around the trunk. In human beings, the many convolutions of
the cerebral cortex comprise three different elements. Sulci
(singular, sulcus) are small grooves. Fissures are large grooves.
And gyii (singular, gyrus) are bulges between adjacent sulci or
fissures (see Figure 2.5). These folds greatly increase the surface
area of the cortex. If the wrinkly human cortex were smoothed
out, it would take up about 2 square feet. The cortex comprises
80% of the human brain (Kolb & Whishaw, 1990). The complexity
of brain function increases with the cortical area. The human
cerebral.cortex enables us to think. Because of it, we can plan,
coordinate thoughts and actions, perceive visual and sound
patterns, and use language. Without it, we would not be human.
The surface of the cerebral cortex is grayish. It is sometimes
referred to as gray matter. This is because it primarily comprises
the grayish neural-cell bodies that process the information that
the brain receives and sends. In contrast, the underlying white
matter of the brain's interior comprises mostly white-colored,
myelinated axons.
The cerebral cortex forms the outer layer of the two halves of
the brain—the left and right cerebral hemispheres (Davidson &
Hugdahl, 1995; Galaburda & Rosen, 2003; Gazzaniga & Hutsler,
1995, 1999; Hellige, 1993, 1995; Levy, 2000; Mangun &
associates, 1994). Although the two hemispheres appear to be
quite similar, they function differently. The left cerebral
hemisphere is specialized for some kinds of activity. The right
cerebral hemisphere is specialized for other kinds. For example,
receptors in the skin on the right side of the body generally send
information through the medulla to areas in the left hemisphere
in the brain. The receptors on the left side generally transmit
information to the right hemisphere. Similarly, the left
hemisphere of the brain directs the motor responses on the right
side of the body. The right hemisphere directs responses on the
left side of the body. However, not all information transmission
is contralateral L-from one side to another (contra-, "opposite";
lateral, "side"). Some ipsilateral transmission—on the same side
—occurs as well. For example, odor information from the right
nostril goes primarily to the right side of the brain. About half of
the information from the right eye goes to the right side of the
brain. In addition to this general tendency for contralateral
specialization, the hemispheres also
 Cognition in the Brain
FIGURE 2.7

Visual codex

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communication
between the two
hemispheres. It is
as if the person
has two separate
specialized brains
processing
different
information and
performing
separate
functions.
Split-brain
patients are
people who have
undergone
operations
severing the cor-
pus callosum.
Split-brain
research reveals
fascinating
possibilities
regarding the
ways
we think. Many
in the field have
argued that
language is
localized in the
left hemi-
sphere. Spatial
visualization
ability appears
to be largely
localized in the
right hemi-
sphere (Fa.rah,
1988a, 1988b;
Gazzaniga, 1985;
Zaidel, 1983). It
appears that
roughly
90% of the adult
population have
language
functions
predominantly
localized within
 Cognition in the Brain

FIGURE 2.8

Research on spit-brain patients reveals that each

hemisphere of the brain processes images and other
information cistinctively. (a)A composite photograph
of two different faces is flashed before a spit-brain
subject (b) When sham a group of photographs and
asked to pick oat a person shown in the composite,
the subject will say it is the lace from the right half of
the composite. (c) However; if asked to point out
which one the subject originally saw, she Of
indicate the prcture from the lett side of the
composite. (After Lew Trevarthen, & Sperry,
1972)

,.

in one study, the participant is asked to focus his or her gaze

on the center of screen. Then a chimeric face (a face showing the
left side of the face of one person and the right side of
another) is flashed on the, screen. The partidpant then is
asked to identify what he or she saw, either by speaking or by
pointing to one of several normal (not chimeric) faces.
 Cognition in the Brain

what they do. The frontal lobe is associated with motor

processing and higher thought processes, such as abstract
reasoning (Stuns & Floden, 2003). The prefrontal cortex, the region
toward the front of the frontal lobe, is involved in complex motor
control and tasks that require integration of information over time
(Gazzaniga, Man-gun, & Ivrey, 2002). The parietal lobe is
associated with somatosensory processing. It receives inputs from
the neurons regarding touch, pain, temperature sense, and limb
position (Culham, 2003; Gazzaniga & associates, 2002). The
temporal lobe is associated with auditory processing (Murray,
2003). And the occipital lobe is associated with visual
processing (De Weerd, 2003). There are numerous visual areas
in the occipital lobe. Each is specialized to analyze specific
aspects of a scene, including color, motion, location, and
form (Gazzaniga & associates, 2002).
Projection areas are the areas in the lobes in which sensory
processing occurs. This name reflects the fact that the nerves
contain sensory information going to the thalamus. It is from here
that the sensory information is projected to the appropriate area
in the relevant lobe. Similarly, the projection areas project motor
information downward through the spinal cord to the appropriate
muscles via the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Now let us
consider the lobes, and especially the frontal lobe, in somewhat
more detail.
The frontal lobe, located toward the front of the head (the
face), plays a role in. judgment, problem solving, personality,
and intentional movement It contains the primary motor cortex,
which specializes in the planning, control, and execution of
movement, particularly of movement involving any kind of
delayed response. If your motor cortex were electrically
stimulated, you would react by moving a corresponding body part.
The nature of the movement would depend on where in the motor
cortex your brain had-been stimulated. Control of the various
kinds of body movements is located contralaterally on the
primary motor cortex. A similar inverse mapping occurs from top
to bottom. The lower extremities of the body are represented on
the upper (toward the top of the head) side of the motor cortex
and the upper part of the body is represented on the lower side
of the motor cortex.
Information going to neighboring parts of the body also comes
from neighboring parts of the motor cortex. Thus, the motor cortex
can be mapped to show where and in what proportions different
parts of the body are represented in the brain (Figure 2.10).
The three other lobes are located farther away from the front
of the head. These lobes specialize in various kinds of sensory and
perceptual activity. For example, in the parietal lobe, the primary
somatosensory cortex receives information from the senses about
pressure, texture, temperature, and pain. It is located right
behind the frontal lobe's primary motor cortex. If your
somatosensory cortex were electrically stimulated, you probably
 would report feeling as if you had been touched (Figure 2.11).
From looking at the homunculi (see Figures 2.10 and 2.11),
you can see that the relationship of function to form applies in
the development of the motor and somatosensory cortex regions.
The more need we have for use, sensitivity, and fine control in a
particular body part, the larger the area of cortex generally
devoted to that part. For example, we humans are tremendously
reliant on our hands and faces in our interactions with the world.
We show correspondingly large proportions of the cerebral cortex
devoted to sensation in, and motor response by, our hands and
face. •
The region of the cerebral cortex pertaining to hearing is
located in the temporal lobe, below the parietal lobe. This lobe
performs complex auditory analysis. This
 (Motor cortex)

Cognition in the Brain

FIGURE 2.11

(Sensory cortex)

As with
the primary
motor cortex
in the
frontal lobe,
a
homunc
ulus of
the
somatos
ensory
cortex
maps, in
inverted
form,
the parts
Of the
body from
which
the cortex
receives
information.
From In
Search
of the
Human
Mind by
Robert J.
Sternber
g,
copyrigh
t ID
1995 by
Harcourt
Brace &
Compan
y,
reproduced
by'
permission
of the
publisher.

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 Cognition in the Brain

The frontal association area In the frontal lobes seems to be Michael Posner is a
crucial to problem solving, planning, and judgment. Broca's and professor of
Wernicke% speech areas also are located in association areas. psycho/or( emeritus at
University of Oregon.
Although the roles of association areas in thinking are not com- the His groundbreaking research
pletely understood, these areas definitely seem to be places in has provided strong
the brain in which a variety of intellectual abilities are seated. evidence of links be• tween
cognitive operations and
Consider work that illustrates the function of the association localized brain activity. His
areas in integrating information horn various parts of the cortex work has helped to establish
(Petersen & associates, 1988, 1989; Posner & associates, 1988). joint cognitive experimental
and biological approaches to
Specifically, this work used PET scans to study regional cerebral higher brain function.
blood flow during several activities involving the reading of single
words. When participants looked at a word on a screen, areas of
their visual cortex showed high levels of activity. When they
spoke a word, their motor cortex was highly active. When they
heard a word spoken, their auditory cortex was activated. When
they produced words related to the wotds they saw (requiring
high-level integration of visual, auditory, .and motor information),
the association areas of the cortex showed the greatest amount
of activity.
The brain typically makes up only one fortieth of the weight
of an adult human body. Nevertheless, it uses about one fifth of
the circulating blood, one fifth of the available glucose, and one
fifth of the available oxygen. It is, however, the supreme organ
of cognition. Understanding both its structure and function, from
the neural to the cerebral levels of organization, is vital to an
understanding of cognitive psychology. The recent development
of the field of cognitive neuroscience, with its focus on localization
of function, reconceptualizes the mind-body question discussed in
the beginning of this chapter. The question has changed from
"Where is the mind located in the body?" to Where are particular
cognitive operations located in the nervous systems Throughout
the 'rest of the text, we return to these questions in reference to
particular cognitive operations as these operations are discussed in
more detail in subsequent chapters.

Brain Disorders
There are a number of brain disorders that can impair cognitive
functioning. The summary here is based in part on the work of
Gazzaniga and associates (2002).
Stroke .
One type of disorder is a vascular disorder, which is caused by a
stroke. Strokes occur when the flow of blood to the brain
undergoes a sudden disruption. People who experience stroke
typically show marked loss of cognitive functioning. The nature of
the loss depends on the area of the brain that is affected by the
stroke. There may be paralysis, pain, numbness, a loss of speech,
a loss of language comprehension, impairments in thought
processes, a loss of movement in parts of the body, or other
symptoms.
There are two different kinds of stroke WINDS stroke information
page). The first kind is an ischemic stroke. Usually such a stroke occurs
when a buildup of fatty tissue Occurs in blood vessels over a period
of years, and a piece of this tissue breaks off and gets lodged in
arteries of the brain. Ischemic strokes can be treated by clot-
busting drugs. The second kind of stroke is a hemorrhagic stroke, which.
occurs when a blood vessel in the brain suddenly breaks. Blood
then spills into surrounding tissue. As the
 Key Themes
Head Injuries
Head injuries result from many causes, such as car accidents,
contact with a hard object, and bullet wounds. Head injuries are of
two types (Gazzaniga & associates, 2002). In closed-head injuries, the
skull remains intact, but there is damage to the brain, typ-
ically from the mechanical force of a blow to the head. Slamming
one's head against a windshield in a car accident might result in
such an injury. In open-head injuries, the skull does not remain intact,
but rather is penetrated, for example, by a bullet.
. Head injuries are surprisingly common. Roughly 700,000 North
Americans suffer such injuries each year. Between 70,000 and
90,000 are left permanently disabled (The anatomy of a head injury).
Loss of consciousness is a sign that there has been some degree of
damage to the brain as a result of the injury. Damage resulting
from head injury can include spastic movements, difficulty in
swallowing, and the slurring of speech, among many other
cognitive problems. Immediate symptoms of a head injury include
Unconsciousness
Abnormal breathing
Obvious serious wound or fracture
Bleeding or clear fluid from the nose, ear, or mouth
Disturbance of speech or vision
Pupils of unequal size
Weakness or paralysis
Dizziness
Neck pain or stiffness
Seizure
Vomiting more than two to three times
Loss of bladder or bowel control
(Head injuries)
In summary, brain damage can result from multiple causes,
only a few of which are listed here. Others are listed throughout
the book. When brain damage occurs, it always should be treated
by a medical specialist at the earliest possible time. A neu-
ropsychologist may be called in to assist in diagnosis, and
rehabilitation psychologists can be helpful in bringing the patient
to the optimal level of psychological functioning possible under
the circumstances.

Key Themes
In Chapter I, we reviewed seven key themes that pervade
cognitive psychology. Several of them are relevant here.
One is relative emphases on biological and behavioral
mechanisms. The mechanisms 'described in this chapter are
primarily biological. But a major goal of biological researchers is
to discover how behavior relates to these biological
mechanisms. For example, they study how the hippocampus
enables learning. Thus, biology arid behavior work together.
They are not in any way mutually exclusive.
hindbrain (including the medulla to identify differences among four
oblongata, the pons, and the lobes. Roughly speaking, higher
cerebellum). The highly convoluted thought and motor processing occur
cerebral cortex surrounds the interior in the frontal lobe. Somatosensory
of the brain and is the basis for much of processing occurs in the parietal
human cognition. The cortex covers the lobe. Auditory processing occurs in
left and right hemispheres of the brain. the temporal lobe. And visual pro-
They are connected by the corpus cessing occurs in the occipital lobe.
callosum. In general, each hemisphere Within the frontal lobe, the primary
contralaterally controls the opposite motor cortex controls the
side of the body. Based on extensive planning, control, and execution
split-brain research, many of movement. Within the parietal
investigators believe that the two lobe, the primary somatosensory
hemispheres are specialized: In most cortex is responsible for sensations in
people, the left hemisphere seems our muscles and skin. Specific regions of
primarily to control language. The these two cortices can be mapped to
right hemisphere seems primarily particular regions of the body.
to control visuospatial processing. Association areas within the lobes
The two hemispheres also may appear to link the activity of the motor
process information differently. and sensory cortices, allowing for high-
Another way to view the cortex is level cognitive processes.
Key Terms 59

Thinking about Thinking: Factual,

Analytical,
Creative, and Practical Questions
1. How have views of the nature of the Include the main functions of each in
relation between the brain and your comments.
cognition changed over time? 4. Researchers already are aware that
2. Briefly summarize the main a deficit of a neurotransmitter,
structures and functions of the brain. acetylcholine, in the hippocam-
3. What are some of the reasons that pus is linked to Alzheimer's disease.
researchers are interested in finding Given the difficulty of reaching the
out the localization of function in the hippocampus without causing other
human brain? kinds of brain damage,
3 ho .w might re-
searchers try to treat Alzheimer's
0.In your opinion, why have the disease?
hindbrain, the mid-brain, and the
forebrain evolved (across the human 1.In your opinion, why is it that some
species) and developed (across discoveries, such as that of Marc Dax,
human prenatal development) in the go unnoticed? What can be done to
sequence mentioned in this chapter?
maximize the possibility that key
 discoveries will be noticed? could be studied effectively by
5. Given the functions of each Of the viewing the structure or function of
cortical lobes, how might a lesion in the human brain? Describe how a
one of the lobes be discovered? researcher might use one of the
techniques mentioned in this chapter
2.What is an area of cognition that
to study that area of cognition.

Key Terms
amygdala brain cerebellum
association areas brain stem cerebral cortex