Exercises Lecture 2 - Answers

Horizontal flight

Dr. ir. Mark Voskuijl

Daan Westerveld
Delft University of Technology

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SuperJet International - CC - BY – SA

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 AE1110x - Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering

Exercise 1
A, C & D) The equation for minimum airspeed is as follows:
s
W2 1
Vmin =
S  CLmax

If we assume that the amount of power is not limiting the minimum airspeed, then the minimum
airspeed is dictated by the maximum lift coecient. This maximum lift coecient is related to the
wing surface area, the air density and also by high lift devices.

Exercise 2
E) The maximum airspeed is found when the aerodynamic drag and the available thrust cross (the
intersection with the largest airspeed, as the thrust available can intersect the drag at multiple

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locations as we will see next week). The maximum airspeed is therefore limited by the combination

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of aerodynamic drag (less drag means we can y faster) and thrust available (more thrust available

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means we can y faster).

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Exercise 3
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We need to rewrite the equation in terms of CL :
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2 )2
(CD0 + k2 CL S 
Pa2max
3
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=
CL3 W 2
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S 
= Pamax

 
2 2 2
(CD0 + k2 CL ) CL3
W3 2
S 
= Pamax

 
2 2 4 2
CL3
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CD + 2CD0 k2 CL + k2 CL
0
W3 2
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S 
Pamax
3
 
k2 CL4 2
CL3 + 2CD0 k2 CL2 + CD
2
=0
W 2 0
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This 4th order equation we can use to calculate CL . We can either do this by hand (be prepared
to write a whole lot of pages!) or use a calculator or a computer (e.g. Wolfram Alpha). If we put
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in the equation, together with all the values we get

4
0:02384CL 3 + 0:0232C 2 + 0:06862 = 0
0:463CL L
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With this, we nd 4 values for CL :

 CL = 16:2744
 CL = 0:2358
 CL = 0:0929 + 0:1859i
 CL = 0:0929 0:1859i

We know that CL cannot be a complex number. The lift coecient of 16, while mathematically
correct, is higher than the maximum lift coecient. Therefore the aircraft cannot attain such a
lift coecient (it would already have stalled). Therefore, CL = 0:2358.

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Answers to Exercises Lecture 2 - Horizontal ight 1
 AE1110x - Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering

Exercise 4
A) When the aircraft is heavier there also needs to be more lift to support that weight. Since the
aircraft itself does not change, this means that the aircraft needs to y faster which in turn means
that more power is required (considering a constant angle of attack). Therefore, a higher weight
means the power required curve shifts upwards and to the right.

Exercise 5
The question is to
calculate the drag coecient. We know that the drag coecient is dened as:
CD = D= 21 V 2 S . First we need to convert the velocity from km/h to m/s. This gives us that
V = 147:2 m/s.
The only unkown left in the equation is the drag itself. It is given that the power setting is such
that the aircraft experiences no accelerations, in other words the drag is equal to the thrust. Since
we know power available we can nd the thrust from the denition of power available Pa = T V .

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This gives that the thrust (and thus drag) is equal to 12.9 kN. If this value is put into the equation
for the drag coecient we nd that CD = 0:0252.

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Exercise 6 rs e
1) The rst thing we notice in this question is the fact that we are dealing with a jet-powered
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aircraft. The fuel ow of a jet aircraft is given as F = CT T , and during steady, straight and
symmetric ight (such as in cruise) the thrust equals the drag. The specic range can then be
dened as V =F = CTV D .
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This specic range should be maximised. Since CT can be regarded as constant, we should maximise
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V/D or minimise D/V.

We can write D/V as DL L V1 = CCDL W V1 (since lift equals weight). Using the relation for airspeed
(which is valid when lift equals weight), we can write:
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CD 1 W
D=V = Wq = q
CL W2 1 W 2 CL
S  CL 2 S  CD
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Therefore, we should maximise CL =CD2 . We do this by applying the quotient rule:

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d CL
( 2)=0
dCL CD
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2
1
CD CL
2CD dC D
dCL
4 =0
CD
dCD 1 CD
=
dCL 2 CL

k1  k12 12k2 CD0

q

Using the fact that CD = CD0 + k1 CL + k2 CL2 we can nd that CLopt = 6k2 . We will
nd two values from this equation, but we need the positive value which is CLopt = 0:3897.
2) In order to nd the airspeed, we ll in the just found optimal lift coecient into the airspeed
equation. Of course we should not forget to rewrite the aircraft to Newton, by multiplying the
weight by the gravitiational acceleration g0 .
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2 Answers to Exercises Lecture 2 - Horizontal ight
 AE1110x - Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering

s
W2 1
V = = 232:1 m=s
S  CL

3) Finally, in order to calculate the Mach number we use the denition of the Mach number:
V 232:1
M= = = 0:753
a 308:06

You should not forget that in reality the weight of the aircraft gradually decreases, and so does the
optimum speed for maximum range. To calculate the actual range of the aircraft is thus not such
a straightforward procedure.

Exercise 7
A) A propeller aircraft can achieve maximum endurance at the condition of minimum power required

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since it uses the least amount of fuel per time unit in that condition (i.e. the fuel ow is at a

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minimum there).

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Exercise 8 rs e
In an idealised jet aircraft the fuel ow is directly related to the thrust. Since in steady, straight
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horizontal ight the thrust equals the drag the maximum endurance occurs at the point for minimum
drag. The second rectangle from the left is thus the correct one.
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Exercise 9
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1) In order to have maximum endurance, the aircraft needs to y at the condition for minimum
fuel ow. For a propeller aircraft (such as the DC-3) this condition occurs where there is minimum
power required (PR = DV ). If we rewrite this power required by multiplying it with L=L = 1, then
we nd PR = CCDL W V . If we put in the expression for V (valid when L = W ), then we nd that in
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order to y at minimum power required, the ratio of CL3 =CD2 needs to be maximised. This means
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taking the derivative with respect to CL of this ratio, and setting it equal to zero. If we do that
and work it out (if you are unsure how to do this, watch the video again) then we nd that:
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k1 
q
k12 + 12CD0 k2
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CL =
2k2

From this equation we need to take the positive lift coecient, which can be calculated as being
CL = 0:994.
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2) Now that we have the lift coecient, the airspeed can readily be calculated by lling in the
airspeed equation (every variable is known at this point):
s
W2 1
V = = 57:82 m=s
S  CL

3) The fuel ow can be calculated from F C

= P PR .
The power required can be calculated by
calculating the drag coecient and then the drag and multiplying that with airspeed. The drag
coecient is readily calculated by lling in the lift-drag polar with the found value for CL . This
gives that CD = 0:0615, which can be multiplied with 0:5V 2 S to nd the drag: D = 6:9359
103
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Answers to Exercises Lecture 2 - Horizontal ight 3
 AE1110x - Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering

N. If this is multiplied with airspeed, the power required is found as PR = DV = 401
103 W. With
the engine eciency and specic fuel consumption given, the fuel ow is calculated as F = 0:1085
kg/s.
4) Finally, in order to calculate the endurance the fuel mass needs to be divided by the fuel ow:
E = Wf =F . This gives the endurance in seconds. In order to go to the endurance in hours, this
should be divided by 3600: E = (Wf =F )=3600 = 4:1 hours. Of course, this value gives an idea of
the maximum endurance, since in reality the aircraft will decrease in weight due to the fuel burn.
This, in turn, will change the optimum speed for maximum endurance. To calculate the maximum
endurance correctly, an integration is thus needed.

Exercise 10
D) Every aircraft is speed unstable, because for every aircraft the drag force curve is parabolic with
speed. This means that there is always a point where, if the aircraft slows down, the drag grows

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causing the aircraft to slow down further. It is entirely possible to y in this region, however the
pilot must adjust the throttle setting accordingly.

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Exercise 11
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D) It will occur at the point of minimum drag. If the aircraft is ying faster than the airspeed for
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minimum drag and it is disturbed (it's suddenly ying faster) than the drag will be higher than the
thrust and thus the aircraft will go back to its original position on the performance diagram.
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If the aircraft is ying slower than the airspeed for minimum drag and it is disturbed (it's suddenly
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ying slower) the same will happen. Only now the aircraft will slow down even further because the
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drag is larger than the thrust. It will thus not return to its initial position and it is unstable.

Exercise 12
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Unstable) The aircraft is ying at a speed lower than the speed for minimum drag. This means
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that the drag will increase by ying slower, which makes the aircraft slow down further. The aircraft
is thus ying in the speed unstable region.
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Exercise 13
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The minimum airspeed is indicated in the performance diagram by the left-most side of the power
required curve. At this point the curve suddenly stops, indicating a stalled aircraft. If we look at
the x-axis location of this point we nd that it is 105 km/h.
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The maximum airspeed is indicated in this performance diagram by the intersection of the power
available and the power required curve. Once the power required is more than the power available,
the aircraft cannot y any faster. The maximum speed is then read from the graph and found to
be 265 km/h.
The airspeed for maximum specic endurance for a propeller aircraft occurs at the conditions for
minimum power required, meaning that is occurs at the lowest point of the power required graph.
This corresponds with an airspeed of 125 km/h.

Exercise 14
1) To calculate the stall speed at take-o, we need to ll in the equation for airspeed which holds
when lift is equal to weight:
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4 Answers to Exercises Lecture 2 - Horizontal ight
 AE1110x - Introduction to Aeronautical Engineering

s
W2 1 73500 9:81
r
2 1
Vs = = = 61:29 m=s
S  CL 122:4 1:225 2:56

This needs to be rewritten to km/h, which means multiplying with 3.6: Vs

= 61:29 3:6 = 220:6 km=h

2) To calculate the lift coecient for maximum specic range, we need to nd the condition for
which that occurs for a jet aircraft. This occurs where V =F is maximum, which for a jet means
minimum D=V . From this it can be found that this corresponds to the aerodynamic condition of
CL
 
CD2 max . If you dierentiate this fraction with respect to CL and put it equal to zero, you will
nd that the optimum CL can be found from:

k1 
q
k12 + 12k2 CD0
CLopt =
6k2

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Here, of course, the positive answer for the lift coecient should be used which corresponds to

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CL = 0:3683.

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3) The airspeed for maximum specic range is found by simply putting the value for the lift

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coecient found in the previous question into the airspeed equation shown previously. Of course,
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do not forget the fact that the aircraft is lighter due to the amount of fuel burned and the fact
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that the density is dierent as this altitude!
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s r
W2 1 (73500 8000) 9:81 2 1
Vs = = = 286:1 m=s
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S  CL 122:4 0:3483 0:3683

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4) In order to calculate the last question, we rst have to nd at which condition a jet aircraft has
maximum specic endurance. Maximum endurance occurs at minimum fuel ow which, for a jet
aircraft, is directly related to the thrust (and thus drag).
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This means that maximum specic endurance occurs at the condition CCDL
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. If you dierentiate
max
this fraction with respect to CL and equate it to zero, you will nd that the optimum CL equals
CL = CD0 =k2 = 0.56. The optimum speed is then found from the airspeed equation and equals
p

V = 232:0 m/s. This is slower than the speed for range, so our dierence should be positive and
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is equal to Vdif = Vr ange Vendur = 286:1 232:0 = 54:1 m=s

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Answers to Exercises Lecture 2 - Horizontal ight 5
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