LABORATORUL 7

OSCILATORUL

With this module, the student should be able to understand and explain the operation of an astable
multivibrator constructed from discrete components.

Objectives:

 Investigate the astable multivibrator.

 Understand how the time constants resulting from the components used affect the output.

Astable multivibrator SO 4203-8L

Technical data:

Operating voltage : +15V

Safety features : Reverse polarity protection;

Overload protection for up to 24 V

Dimensions : Eurocard 160x100mm

Circuit groups : - Astable multivibrator 2 x BC 550C

- 5 simulated faults

SO4203-8L - Description of the module

The "Astable Multivibrator" UniTr@in card SO 4203-8L features a single astable multivibrator constructed
with discrete components. It can be used to investigate how an astable multivibrator circuit works.
Switching times for the circuit can be varied by connecting various bias resistors included on the circuit
board. Different switching times produce different output patterns. The rectangular output patterns mean that
the circuit can be used as a square-wave generator, clock pulse generator or as a timing circuit for a flashing
light, for example.
The circuit is supplied with the operating voltage directly from the UniTr@in bus via the terminal strip.

Astable Multivibrator

Introduction

A multivibrator can generate pulses, store binary digits or delay pulses by a finite period of time.
Multivibrator circuits also form the basis for the flip-flops or latches used in computer memory

Multivibrators consist of two transistors both in common emitter mode and connected so that the output of
each one (collector) goes to the input (base) of the other. The transistors are so arranged that when one turns
on the other turns off. This means multivibrators have two states, one with the first transistor switched on
and another when the second transistor is switched on. The stability or the length of time that the circuit
remains in each state depends on its construction. The astable multivibrator featured on this card feeds back
output to input via capacitors that form RC circuits with the bias resistors at the bases of the transistors. It
works as follows:

1. When a transistor turns on its output drops to 0V, but the capacitor connected to that output has a
store of charge that was built up when the output was at the full power supply voltage.

2. As one end of the capacitor drops from 15 V to 0 V, the stored charge means that the potential
difference across the capacitor remains the same so that the other end drops even further to a voltage
of -15V.

3. This other end is however connected to the base of the second transistor. The negative voltage at the
base ensures that this second transistor turns off.

4. This point is also connected to the positive of the power supply, though, via the bias resistor. As the
capacitor now starts discharging through that resistor, the voltage at the base therefore starts to rise
towards the power supply voltage.

5. When the voltage reaches the threshold voltage for the transistor, it turns on again. Its output is also
connected via a capacitor to the base of the first transistor which immediately turns off and the
process is repeated at its base.

The circuit thus has two unstable states and oscillates from one state to the other. The time that the circuit
remains in each state depends on how long it takes the capacitor to discharge through the bias resistor before
the threshold voltage of the transistor is reached. This is wholly dependent on the time constant for the RC
circuit so formed. If identical components are used on each side of the circuit, it should remain in each state
for the same length of time and the output from either transistor is close to being a square wave. At any
given time, the two outputs are inverted with respect to one another. If different components are used a
rectangular wave results with state durations of different lengths.

Since the durations can easily be determined by selection of components, such circuits are useful as timer
circuits. They can also be used to provide well defined clock pulses or as a generator for square or
rectangular waves.

Experiment 1

Astable Multivibrator

The circuit demonstrates how different resistor values within an astable multivibrator circuit affect the
output waveform.
Experiment set-up

: jumper inserted
: jumper omitted

Procedure

Procedure

1. Connect an Experimenter to the UniTr@in-I Interface List of connections

and insert the experiment card Astable multivibrator
circuit SO4203-8L. From To
Insert the jumpers shown by solid lines in the circuit diagram
and make connections to the card from the UniTr@in-I Interface Terminal X17 Interface A-
as described in the list of connections.
Interface A- Interface B-

To measure Va (voltage across

transistor)

Terminal X11 Interface A+

Terminal X15 Interface B+

Used later - not connected initially

To measure Ve (voltage at base of

transistor)

Terminal X13 Interface A+

Interface X14 Interface B+

 Jumpers

B1,B4

B1 Terminals X3- B4 Terminals X9-

X4 X10

Used later - not connected initially

B2 Terminals X5- B3 Terminals X7-

X6 X8

2. Close any virtual instruments you may have open and Settings
open the Oscilloscope virtual instrument from the
Instruments menu. Oscilloscope 5V / div
Channel A DC coupling, Red
Adjust it to the values shown in the table on the right.

Oscilloscope 5V / div
Channel B DC coupling, Blue

Mode X/T 200 μs /

div
Trigger:
Oscilloscope  on A
Time-base and
trigger  on falling
edge

 Pretrigger
25%

It may be necessary to alter the settings

to analyse some parts of the waveform

3. Record oscilloscope traces of the input and output voltages for the circuit. Confirm the settings you
are using in the following table then perform the experiments dragging the traces into the appropriate
grids.

For all traces in table below: 5 5 200

: V : V : μs

Tip:
Remember to change the jumper positions (specified) and the connection leads
 (Va or Ve) to get the traces required.

The input resistance of the measuring equipment in the UniTr@in contributes may
have an effect on the timing values you measure. Inasmuch, the measurements are
qualitative in nature.

Output voltages (Va1 & Va2) Input voltages (Ve1 & Ve2)

Jumpers: Jumpers:
B1 B1
B2 B2
B3 B3
B4 B4

Output traces: This trace shows the input voltages to both transistors.

What is happening when the input is at constant voltage?

Va1 tlow ms thigh ms T Ts

The transistor is on The output is high

Va2 tlow ms thigh ms T ms and
The transistor is off The output is low

Tip:

Try moving the connections slightly so

you can measure at input and output of
the same transistor.

Jumpers: Jumpers:
B1 B1
B2 B2
B3 B3
B4 B4

Output traces: This trace shows the input voltages to both transistors.

What is happening when the input is rising?

Va1 tlow ms thigh ms T ms

The capacitor is charging

Va2 tlow ms thigh ms T ms up
 The capacitor is
discharging

Jumpers: Jumpers:
B1 B1
B2 B2
B3 B3
B4 B4

Output traces: This trace shows the input voltages to both transistors.

What factor determines the rate of the rise in voltage?

Va1 tlow ms thigh ms T ms

The time constant of the RC circuit.

Va2 tlow ms thigh ms T ms
The switching speed of the transistor.

What is the effect if the input voltage rises more quickly?

The output is high for a shorter duration

The voltage of the output is smaller in amplitude

4. These tables describe the output waveforms from the Astable Multivibrator circuit. Complete the
tables with the timing values you obtained for Va1.

Jumper tlow thigh T f

Configuration [ms] [ms] [ms] [KHz]
Tips:
B1 + B4
T is the period f is the
of the frequency of the f
B2 + B3 waveform. waveform. =1/T

B1, B2 + B4

5.

Timing
Jumper Configuration Bias Resistors Ratio of Bias Resistors Timing Ratio
tlow / thigh
 332k 220k
B1 + B4 / = / =

332k 121k
B2 + B3 / = / =

166k 220k
B1, B2 + B4 / = / =

6. The duration of each logic level in the output waveform is

in direct proportion to the resistor values in the RC circuit.

in inverse proportion to the resistor values in the RC circuit.

in no way affected by the resistor values within the RC circuit.

When a transistor turns on:

its output voltage is low (zero volts)

its output voltage is high (15 volts)

There is a capacitor that connects the output from the 'on' transistor to the base
of the other transistor. This capacitor holds stored charge which initially leads to
a

5. Explain the negative voltage at the base of the 'off' transistor.

operation of the
circuit studied. positive voltage at the base of the 'off' transistor.

The base of each transistor is also connected to the power supply voltage (15
volts). The voltage at the base begins to

increase positively, through zero volts, until the threshold for the transistor
is reached.

drop, through zero volts, until the stored charge in the capacitor reaches the
threshold for the transistor.

The speed of the transition of the transistor from off to on is affected by both the
value of the capacitance and resistance in the circuit.
 The bigger the resistance the quicker the transistor turns on again.

The smaller the resistance the quicker the transistor turns on again.

6. List three or more

applications for
the astable
multivibrator.

Experiment 2

With this module, the student should be able to understand and explain the operation of a bistable
multivibrator constructed from discrete components.

Objectives:

 Investigate the response of a bistable multivibrator to input pulses generated by two push-buttons
debounced by differentiator circuits.

Bistable multivibrator SO 4201-8M

Technical data:

Operating voltage : +15V

Safety features : Reverse polarity protection;

Overload protection for up to 24 V

Dimensions : Eurocard 160x100mm

Circuit groups : - Bistable multivibrator with 2 x BC 550C transis

- 4 simulated faults
SO4201-8M - Description of the module

The "Bistable Multivibrator" UniTr@in card SO 4201-8M features a single bistable multivibrator circuit
assembled from discrete components. The circuit consists of two transistor circuits, which lock each other
into two opposing states. They are triggered dynamically by a pulse produced from a differentiator circuit
element connected to the base via a diode. Push-buttons can be used to generate this pulse from the
operating voltage. This requires insertion of jumpers B1 and B2.

The circuit is supplied with its operating voltage directly from the UniTr@in bus via the terminal strip.

Bistable Multivibrator

Introduction

A multivibrator can generate pulses, store binary digits or delay pulses by a finite period of time.
Multivibrator circuits also form the basis for the flip-flops or latches used in computer memory

Multivibrators consist of two transistors both in common emitter mode and connected so that the output of
each one (collector) goes to the input (base) of the other. The transistors are thus so arranged that when one
turns on the other turns off. This means multivibrators have two states, one with the first transistor switched
on and another when the second transistor is switched on. The stability or the length of time that the circuit
remains in each state depends on its construction.

A bistable multivibrator switches between two stable states. Once put into either of these states (one
transistor off, the other one on), the outputs will remain there until such a time as they are triggered into the
other state by an input pulse. This property makes these devices ideal for memory uses, since any bit stored
will remain until instructed to change.

Another term that is used in combination with this type of circuit is "flip-flop". The name comes from the
ability to flip from one state to another and back again. There are various designs of flip-flop, perhaps the
simplest of which is the RS type (c.f. Set/Reset). Such a device operates just like the basic bistable in that
the one input, usually called the S or Set input puts the device into one of two states, where it remains until
the other input, known as R or Reset is triggered to put it into the inverse state. Flip-flops are usually
designed to be used with fixed logic levels rather than the pulses that are used to trigger the simple bistable
seen in the following experiment. They change state in response to a change in logic level at the inputs.
Another type of multivibrator called a latch is closely related to a flip-flop but such devices change in
response to the input level itself rather than to the edges caused by one input level changing to another. More
advanced flip-flops and latches also have additional inputs such as clock and enable inputs.

Bistable Multivibrator

This circuit demonstrates how the bistable responds to input triggers provided by switches S1 and S2.

Experiment set-up
 : jumper inserted
: jumper omitted

Procedure

1. Connect an Experimenter to the UniTr@in-I Interface and List of connections

insert the experiment card Bistable multivibrator SO4201-8M.
From To
Insert the jumpers shown by solid lines in the circuit diagram and
connect the card to the UniTr@in-I Interface as shown in the list of
connections Ground connections..

Terminal MP6 Interface A-

Terminal A- Interface B-

To measure V1 (voltage across

transistor 1)

Terminal MP2 Interface A+

To measure V4 (voltage across

transistor 2)
 Terminal MP5 Interface B+

Used later - not connected

initially

To measure V2 (voltage at base of

transistor 1)

Terminal MP3 Interface A+

To measure V3 (voltage at base of

transistor 2)

Terminal MP4 Interface B+

Jumpers

B1,B2

It may be that, due to leakage on

the UniTr@in bus, pressing one
switch also causes a pulse from
the other. If this occurs the card
should be disconnected from the
terminal strip and power provided
by connecting to the +15 V and
outputs of the Experimenter. It is
also necessary to run a cable from
the end of D2 to the base of T2 in
order to eliminate one of the
simulated faults.

2. Close any virtual Settings

instruments you may have open
and open the following virtual Digital
instruments from the Instruments Voltmeter A Range 20V
menu. Mode DC / AV
- Voltmeter A
- Voltmeter B Digital
Voltmeter B Range 20V
Mode DC / AV

and adjust them to the settings shown in the table on the right.
 V1 V4 V2 V3

S1 pressed
3. What voltage levels appear at each of the test
briefly V V V V
points after a switch is pressed briefly?

S2 pressed
briefly V V V V

on off reason

T1
4. a) Which transistor conducts (on) and which does
not conduct (off) when push-button S1 is pressed
briefly?
Give reasons for your answers.

T2

on off reason

T1
4. b) Which transistor conducts (on) and which does
not conduct (off) when push-button S2 is pressed
briefly?
Give reasons for your answers.

T2

5. Compare V1 and V4. What pattern do you observe?

Does pressing one of the buttons twice in
succession affect the output?
 6. Describe briefly how the circuit works.
- Why does each switch only affect the output if
the other has been pressed?

Experiment 3

With this module, the student should be able to understand and explain the operation of a monostable
multivibrator constructed from discrete components.

Objectives:

 Investigate triggering of monostable multivibrator dynamically via a push button.

 Investigate triggering of monostable multivibrator by a periodic square wave signal.

Monostable multivibrator SO 4201-8N

Technical data:

Operating voltage : +15V

Safety features : Reverse polarity protection;

Overload protection for up to 24 V

Dimensions : Eurocard 160 x 100mm

Circuit groups : - Monostable multivibrator with

2 x BC 550C transistors

- 4 simulated faults
SO4201-8N - Description of the module

This UniTr@in-I plug-in card consists of a monostable multivibrator constructed with discrete components.
It demonstrates how a monostable works. The circuit is dynamically triggered using pulses triggered by a
manual push button or from the UniTr@in function generator.

The circuit is supplied with its operating voltage from the UniTr@in bus via the terminal strip.

Introduction

A multivibrator can generate pulses, store binary digits or delay pulses by a finite period of time.
Multivibrator circuits also form the basis for the flip-flops or latches used in computer memory

Multivibrators consist of two transistors both in common emitter mode and connected so that the output of
each one (collector) goes to the input (base) of the other. The transistors are so arranged that when one turns
on the other turns off. This means multivibrators have two states, one with the first transistor switched on
and another when the second transistor is switched on. The stability or the length of time that the circuit
remains in each state depends on its construction.

In a monostable multivibrator the output from one of the transistors is connected to the input of the other by
way of an intervening capacitor. The input with the capacitor is also pulled high by a bias resistor so that
that transistor is usually switched on. The base does not rise above about 0.7 V, the threshold voltage of the
transistor, since current flows between the base and emitter of the transistor. This means there is a potential
difference across the capacitor that causes it to build up a charge. The output of the transistor is connected
directly to the input of the other transistor via a series resistor. Since the output of the first transistor is low
when the transistor is on, the input to the second transistor is usually low ensuring that it is turned off. This
state is thus perfectly stable.

However, a positive trigger at the base of the second transistor will cause that transistor to switch on. When
this occurs, the output at its collector immediately drops to 0V. That end of the capacitor thus drops quickly
from nearly 15V down to 0. The charge stored on the capacitor means that the existing potential still exists
across its terminals and at the end of the capacitor connected to the input of the first transistor, a negative
voltage can now be measured. This negative voltage at its base causes the first transistor to turn off.
However, the bias resistor is still pulling the base high. The capacitor now begins to discharge through the
bias resistor and the voltage at the base rises. Eventually it rises enough to turn the first transistor back on
and the circuit returns to the initial stable state.

The second state only persists for the length of time it takes the capacitor to discharge and is therefore
unstable. The fact that only one of the possible states is stable gives rise to the name of the circuit.

The length of time that the circuit remains in the unstable state depends on the time constant of the RC
circuit formed by the capacitor and the bias resistor according to the formula:

ti = R · C · ln(2)

where ti is the length of the pulse and R and C are the values of the capacitor and the bias resistor.
(ln(2) is the natural logarithm of 2 = 0.69 approx.)
This can be determined by the choice of components. The monostable multivibrator can thus be used to
generate a rectangular pulse of fixed length from any trigger. Applications include pulse-shaping or
generating fixed delays.

Response of a monostable multivibrator to single triggers

This experiment demonstrates how the monostable responds to individual trigger pulses provided by pulling
the input to one resistor (the one with only resistive feedback - T1) high by means of a switch (S1).
(For a more detailed explanation of the pulse generator circuit, click on the circuit diagram).

Experiment set-up

Procedure

Procedure

1. Connect an Experimenter to the UniTr@in-I Interface and List of connections

insert the experiment card Monostable multivibrator
SO4201-8N. From To
Insert the jumpers and connect the card to the UniTr@in-I Interface
as shown in the list of connections MP2/MP3MP4/MP5/MP Interfac
 7 e A+

Interfac
MP8
e A-

Interfac
MP6
e B+

Interfac
Interface A-
e B-

Jumpers

B1 (initially), B2 (as required)

2. Close any virtual instruments you may have open and open Settings
the Oscilloscope virtual instrument from the Instruments
menu. 1 V / div
Oscilloscope
Coupling DC,
Adjust it to the values shown in the table on the right. Channel A
Green

Oscilloscope 5V / div
Channel B Coupling OFF

Mode X/T
Oscilloscope 5 ms / div
Time-base Trigger B, 5V (1
and trigger square up)
Pretrg 25%

Note 1: With the above settings,

channel B will not appear on the
oscilloscope traces. The channel
only reflects the signal caused by
the random, pre-debounced
pressing of switch S1, which is not
particularly meaningful. It is used
solely as a trigger for the
measurements to be made on
channel A.

Note 2: You are free to use

alternative settings if you prefer.
For instance, reducing the
 oscilloscope timebase allows more
accurate measurement of pulse
length provided the beginning and
end remain visible in the trace.
Also, measurements may be
subject to random effects that may
cause them to differ from those in
the standard solution (see 11
below).

3. Insert a jumper at B1 and run a short connecting lead between MP6 and the switch S1. Also, connect
the positive input of channel B (ANALOG IN B+) to MP6 and the positive of channel A (ANALOG
IN A+) to the output of T1 at MP2. The negative inputs A- and B- should both be connected
together to ground. Since channel B is connected directly to the switch, you can use it to trigger the
oscilloscope when you press the button. It is not necessary to display the channel on the oscilloscope.
Set the oscilloscope timebase to 5 ms and press the button of switch S1. Copy the resultant
oscilloscope trace into the grid below by drag and drop.

Grid 1

5 ms
:

5V
:

5V
:

25%
Pretrg:

15 V
Vb :

DC
Coupling:

4. Now to investigate what happens at other key points of the circuit when the switch is pressed. For
each of the grids below, connect the corresponding measuring point to A+ and change the
oscilloscope timebase to that indicated for the individual grid. The oscilloscope should continue to
trigger from channel B. Copy the oscilloscope traces that result from pressing the switch into the
corresponding grids by drag and drop.

Grid 2: Voltage at MP7 Grid 3: Voltage at MP3

200 μ 5 ms
: :
 500 m 500 m
: :

5V 5V
: :

25% 25%
Pretrg: Pretrg:

DC DC
Coupling: Coupling:

Grid 4: Voltage at MP4 Grid 5: Voltage at MP5

5 ms 5 ms
: :

5V 5V
: :

5V 5V
: :

25% 25%
Pretrg: Pretrg:

DC DC
Coupling: Coupling:

5.

5. What do the traces suggest to you about what is occurring at each point in the circuit?

1. MP7

2. MP3

3. MP2

4. MP4
 5. MP5

6. Measure the duration of the pulse that you recorded in Grid

Pulse duration = ms
1.

7. Now remove jumper B1 and insert a jumper at B2. Repeat your measurement of the output voltage
from section 3. Copy the resultant oscilloscope trace into the grid below by drag and drop.

Grid 6

500 μ
:

5V
:

5V
:

25%
Pretrg:

15 V
Vb :

DC
Coupling:

8. Measure the duration of the pulse that you recorded in grid

Pulse duration = ms
6.

9. If the duration of the pulse in Grids 1 and 6 are different,

can you suggest a reason why?

Pulse duration with R2 (90.9 kilohms)

10. Use the formula ti = RC·ln(2) to calculate theoretical values
= ms
for the pulse durations you would expect for Grid 1 and
Pulse duration with R3 (10 kilohms)
Grid 6.
= ms
 11. Do the predicted values for the pulse duration tally with
your observations? If not, can you think why?

Experiment 4

Response of a monostable multivibrator to multiple triggers

This experiment demonstrates how the monostable responds to rapid triggering by a square wave signal
provided by a function generator.

Experiment set-up
Procedure

Procedure

1. Connect an Experimenter to the UniTr@in-I Interface and List of connections

insert the experiment card Monostable multivibrator
SO4201-8N. From To
Insert the jumpers and connect the card to the UniTr@in-I
Interface as shown in the list of connections Interface S (ANALOG
MP6
OUT)

MP8
Interface (ANALOG
(may be
OUT)
omitted)

MP2/MP3MP4/MP5/MP Interfac
7 e A+

Interfac
MP8
e A-

Interface S (ANALOG Interfac

OUT) e B+

Interfac
Interface A-
e B-

Jumpers

B1 (initially), B2 (as required)

Settings
2. Close any virtual instruments you may have open and open
the following virtual instruments from the Instruments Amplitude 1:1,
menu: 20% (4 Vpp)
Frequency 10 Hz /
- Function generator Function 65 Hz / 100 Hz /
- Oscilloscope generator 200 Hz
Mode
and adjust them to the values RECTANGLE
shown in the table on the right. Power ON
 Oscilloscope 5 V / div
Channel A Coupling DC, Red

1 V / div
Oscilloscope
Coupling DC,
Channel B
Blue

Mode X/T
Oscilloscope 20 ms / div
Time-base Trigger B, 1 V (1
and trigger square up)
Pretrg 25%

3. Insert a jumper at B1 but leave the switch disconnected. Instead, connect MP6 to the S output
(ANALOG OUT) on the Interface. Set up the function generator to output a 2 V square wave. Select
10 Hz as an initial frequency.
Connect channel B directly to the analog output S. This will be used once again to trigger the
oscilloscope, but this time the channel needs to be switched on so that it is visible on the trace.
Record the output on channel A of the scope and copy your results for each of the suggested
frequencies into the appropriate grid. As you alter the frequencies of the function generator, you may
need to change the time base of the oscilloscope to obtain a meaningful oscilloscope trace.

Grid 1: Frequency = 10 Hz Grid 2: Frequency = 62 Hz

20 ms 5 ms
: :

5V 1V
: :

5V 1V
: :

25% 25%
Pretrg: Pretrg:

DC DC
Coupling: Coupling:

Grid 3: Frequency = 100 Hz Grid 4: Frequency = 200 Hz

5 ms 5 ms
: :

5V 1V
: :
 5V 1V
: :

25% 25%
Pretrg: Pretrg:

DC DC
Coupling: Coupling:

4. To describe the output completely, it is not only necessary f = 10 Hz Output period T =

to consider the pulse itself but also the duration of the Mark-space ratio =
period between the end of one pulse and the start of the
f = 65 Hz Output period T =
next. The rectangular output wave can then be
characterised by a factor called the mark-space ratio, a ratio Mark-space ratio =
of the mark-time the length of the pulse to the period as a
f = 100 Hz Output period T =
whole, i.e. the time between the beginning of one pulse and
the beginning of the next. Measure the period for each of Mark-space ratio =
the outputs you and calculate the corresponding mark space f = 200 Hz Output period T =
ratio (expressed as a percentage).
Mark-space ratio =

5. What are your observations on the functioning of the

circuit?