LEGAL ENGLISH 2

PART I – TEXTS AND VOCABULARY

UNIT 4 LEGAL SYSTEMS...................................................................................................................................................... 2
SECTION I CIVIL LAW VS COMMON LAW................................................................................................................................ 2
WRITING: Report – Legal Actors in Common Law vs Civil Law .......................................................................................... 6
UNIT 4 LEGAL SYSTEMS...................................................................................................................................................... 8
SECTION II LANDMARKS IN THE COMMON LAW AND CIVIL LAW TRADITIONS ...................................................................... 8
WRITING: Argumentative Essay ...................................................................................................................................... 12
UNIT 5: HOW ARE LAWS MADE?...................................................................................................................................... 14
SECTION I: SOURCES OF LAW ............................................................................................................................................... 14
WRITING: Opinion Essay ................................................................................................................................................. 18
UNIT 5: HOW ARE LAWS MADE?...................................................................................................................................... 20
SECTION II: THE MAKING OF LEGAL RULES –AN EXAMPLE FROM THE USA .......................................................................... 20
WRITING: Contrast and Comparison Report ................................................................................................................... 23
UNIT 6 EU LAW ................................................................................................................................................................ 26
SECTION I: THE LEGAL ORDER OF THE EU............................................................................................................................. 26
WRITING: Proposal – PRIORITIES FOR YOUR REPRESENTATIVE IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT ................................. 30
UNIT 6 EU LAW ................................................................................................................................................................ 32
SECTION II: EU INSTITUTIONS AND THE LEGAL SOURCES OF UNION LAW ........................................................................... 32
WRITING: Argumentative Essay ...................................................................................................................................... 37
POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS – A SHORT GUIDE .......................................................................................................... 39
OBSERVATION SHEET FOR ORAL PRESENTATION ............................................................................................................. 39

PART II GRAMMAR REVISION

1. REPORTED SPEECH I ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
2. REPORTED SPEECH II .................................................................................................................................................... 43
3. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES ............................................................................................................................................... 50
4. EXPRESSING WISHES .................................................................................................................................................... 55
5. PASSIVE VOICE I ........................................................................................................................................................... 60
6. PASSIVE VOICE II .......................................................................................................................................................... 64

Academic year 2019-2020

1
 UNIT 4 LEGAL SYSTEMS
SECTION I CIVIL LAW VS COMMON LAW

STARTING UP

1. Consider the definitions for the phrase legal system:

DICTIONARY DEFINITION for legal system

dictionarycambridge.org the organizations and people in a country or area who work in the area of law
collinsdictionary.com the set of laws of a country and the ways in which they are interpreted and
enforced
Business Dictionary Legal regimen of a country consisting of (1) a written or oral constitution, (2)
primary legislation (statutes) enacted by the legislative body established by the
constitution, (3) subsidiary legislation (bylaws) made by person or bodies
authorized by the primary legislation to do so, (4) customs applied by the courts
on the basis of traditional practices, and (5) principles or practices of civil,
common, Roman, or other code of law.
macmillandictionary.com the set of laws of a particular country and the way that they are used
thefreedictionary.com a system for interpreting and enforcing the laws

 In your opinion, which definition is the most comprehensive?

 Is there any definition which is ambiguous or too limited?
 Which definition do you prefer? Why?

2. Read the names listed below. How are they connected with the legal systems that exist at present?

1. Justinian 2. William the Conqueror 3. Napoleon

READING

1. Read the text and decide whether the statements below refer to civil law systems or to common law
systems:

(1) The laws governing a case are based on both legal precedent, created by judges, and statutory laws,
created by legislatures.
(2) Most of the law is statutory law created by legislatures and not by judges following precedent.
(3) It is usually an inquisitorial system, where an investigating judge is actively involved in investigating the
facts of a case.
(4) It is usually an adversarial system, where the judge acts as an impartial referee between opposing parties
to a case.
(5) Juries are rarely used; a judge or panel of judges will decide the facts and the law to be applied.
(6) A jury may determine the facts, and a judge will decide the law to be applied.
(7) Prosecutors and defense attorneys may play a more limited role.
(8) There is an active role for prosecutors and defense attorneys.
(9) In many such systems, victims may bring civil claims, e.g., for monetary damages, in the context of a
criminal prosecution.
(10) Victims may be parties and have rights regarding their involvement, which may include having their own
attorneys and filing the initial charges.

2
(11) Victims have a role as witnesses and may have rights as a victim to receive information and limited
participation – however, victims are not a party in criminal cases.
(12) The U.S. and the U.K. are examples of such systems.
(13) Many European countries, including France and Germany, and a number of North, Central and South
American countries, like Mexico and Brazil, are examples of such systems.

Legal system refers to a procedure or out legal training can decide the facts of the
process for interpreting and enforcing the law. case, and if there is a conviction, then a judge
It elaborates the rights and responsibilities in a determines the appropriate sentence based on
variety of ways. Legal systems vary from 45 the jury’s verdict.
5 country to country, and sometimes within a Civil law systems place greater
single country. Although they develop in emphasis on legal codes crafted by the
different ways, legal systems also have some legislature. Civil law statutes tend to be more
similarities based on historically accepted detailed than statutes under common law
justice ideals. Legal systems do fall into groups 50 systems, and contain continuously updated
10 or patterns with some similar features within legal codes that specify all matters capable of
each group. Among the main groups that you being brought before a court, the procedure to
might encounter are: 1) common law; 2) civil be followed, and the appropriate punishment.
law; 3) religious law; and 4) customary law. Civil law systems rely less on judges and
Many countries employ more than one of these 55 more on academic legal experts to make legal
15 systems at the same time to create a hybrid interpretations. In a civil law system, the judge’s
system. role is to establish the facts of the case and to
Common law was originally developed analyze and apply the legislature’s written laws.
by judges through case-by-case court decisions, Because of this, legislators and legal scholars
rather than through legislation enacted by a 60 who draft and interpret the codes are
20 legislature. In this system, much of the law is important in civil law legal systems.
made by judges’ decisions, called precedent. The role of judges is different in civil law
This means that if a similar case has been systems compared to common law systems.
resolved by a court in the past, a court is bound There are two types of judges in a civil law
to follow the reasoning used in the prior 65 system: an investigating judge (or magistrate)
25 decision. While judges are very important in and trial or sitting judges. Civil law systems are
common law systems, legislatures still have a based on the belief that justice is best served
part to play. Common law systems also rely on when a judge is an active participant in
statutes that are passed by the legislature or a investigating the facts of the case, thus the
parliament, and judges have the role of 70 investigating judge or magistrate will typically
30 interpreting how the legislature’s laws are lead the investigation. Unlike common law
applied in individual cases. systems, which focus on the trial to determine
In common law legal systems, legal the facts, civil law legal systems mostly focus on
proceedings are mostly adversarial, rather than pre-trial investigation and hearings to establish
inquisitorial. This means that for the most part, 75 the facts. The actual trials can be relatively brief
35 two opposing parties (adversaries) appear and informal because the trial judge will review
before a judge who moderates. Defendants are the case file developed by an investigating
entitled to be present and to be represented by judge. During trial, witnesses are generally
a lawyer. The attorneys on both sides generally allowed to give additional kinds of evidence and
have an active role in representing their clients 80 the defendant often gives a statement. Cross-
40 throughout the case and in presenting evidence examination is rare.
and arguments in court. A jury of people with-
adapted from https://www.justice.gov/nsd-ovt/international-legal-systems-pages-1-9

3
2. Consider the phrase legal system. Which other phrases containing the adjective legal are there in the text
you have just read? Can you think of other possible words which can be used before or after legal?

3. A. Match the verbs on the left with the nouns on the right, as they appear in the text. Are there any other
possible combinations?

(1) to enforce (a) before a judge

(2) to fall into (b) a case
(3) to enact (c) the case file
(4) to resolve (d) a client
(5) to follow (e) a code
(6) to pass (f) evidence
(7) to appear (g) the facts
(8) to represent (h) groups
(9) to present (i) the law
(10)to determine (j) legislation
(11)to draft (k) the reasoning
(12)to establish (l) the sentence
(13)to review (m) a statute
(14)to give (n) a statement

3. B. Complete the sentences below, using an appropriate verb from the previous exercise (3.A.). Pay
attention to the form of the verb.

(1) The right ___________ before a judge is partly designed to discourage abuses.
(2) The Supreme Court remanded (returned) the case back to the district court ___________ a sentence in
light of these circumstances.
(3) They ___________ a new civil code, making provisions for what Westerners called "the family" — a
concept that had no definite legal reality in Japan, and could not be expressed by any single Japanese
word.
(4) The government could certainly go to employers and ___________ stiff penalties and cut that spigot
off.
(5) Marked and unmarked police cars, a speed camera and police motorcyclists will combine ___________
the new restrictions.
(6) We must also ___________ the facts of ministerial involvement and awareness in these cases.
(7) There is no tracking mechanism to ensure they do not ___________ the wrong hands.
(8) As a result, Judge Arnold wrote, the panel had ___________ the reasoning of one of the court's earlier
decisions even though that decision was unpublished.
(9) Furthermore, it is rare for such experts to be called ___________ evidence or for their views to be
tested.
(10)But specialists in criminal law said it would be a fairly simple matter for Congress ___________ a
statute exempting terrorism cases.
(11)The accused may ___________ evidence at their trials and cross-examine witnesses for the
prosecution.
(12)When you ___________ a client, and they make requests, you're supposed to respond.
(13)It is a big concern but we are working very hard on a solution to try and ___________ the matter
before it goes to court.
(14)The President emphasised the need to ___________ this case and that the European Parliament would
continue to defend human rights in all parts of the world.

4
WATCHING A VIDEO - What is the difference between common and civil law?

Watch a short video on common law vs civil law and decide the order in which the following statements
appeared in the video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gm5v9Tf0W2U

A. Common law judges could be described as culture heroes.

B. King Henry II steered the English legal system in a direction that allowed him to consolidate his power.
C. In civil law systems, the judges are bound to the written law.
D. In civil law systems, codified statutes form the basis of the law.
E. In common law, the judge has a greater flexibility to interpret the law and to find a solution for the case.
F. In common law systems, case law is of primary importance.
G. Justinian ordered the creation of codes of law.
H. Many legal codes of European countries were based on the laws compiled between 528 and 534 and then
developed in their own way.
I. Stare decisis is the legal principle of determining legal points in litigation according to precedent.
J. The lawyers in the civil law systems represent their clients, but it is less central than in a common law
system.
K. The presentation and/or argumentation of the case are central in the common law system.

1. F 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. E

Considering the text you read earlier, does the video you have watched include any new piece of information
on common / civil law systems?

CASEFILE: LAW IN OTHER CULTURES

Read the text below and then answer the questions below:

1. What evidence in this passage argues against the existence of a ‘natural law’ that governs all societies?
2. Are there any laws in Romania that are not universal but that are specific to Romanian culture? What about
other countries and their laws?
3. What other kinds of laws can you think of that are so common they might be considered universal?

Each society has rules by which it lives. Every government establishes formal rules, called laws, to
control the behavior of people living under its authority and to carry out its policies. But what are the
origins of these rules, and why do laws differ so markedly from society to society?
Over the centuries, some political philosophers have claimed that there is a universal morality, an
5 unwritten law for all people and societies that operates for the maximum good of the individual and
society. They argue that this ‘natural law’ exists above and apart from the ‘positive law’ formally enacted
by government and enforced by definite penalties.
To test this idea, a famous legal anthropologist, E. Adamson Hoebel, surveyed much of the
literature about law and legal practices throughout the world. Although he found great variation in what
10 different societies consider to be crimes, Hoebel also discovered certain behaviours that are universally
outlawed. Generally , these are acts that threaten the survival of individuals or groups within a society or
the society itself. For example, in every society, laws against murder guarantee the lives of its people. All
societies also protect the right to personal property with laws against its theft or destruction or other
behaviours that threaten property rights.
15 But Hoebel also found that in some cultures certain crimes are considered more serious than
they are in other cultures. Public drunkenness, for example, is a particularly serious crime in Egypt. On

5
 the other hand, Botswana reserves its strongest legal penalty for cattle rustling.
According to Hoebel, a nation’s laws and legal system can only be explained by understanding its
history and culture. Such understanding should include consideration of outside influences important in
20 the development of that society, its attitudes about the origin of law, the structure and operation of its
legal system, and its deeply held traditional beliefs.
The strong legal sanctions in Botswana against cattle rustling most likely developed out of its
need to maintain adequate food supplies. In an area where food shortages occur frequently, stealing
cattle would have serious consequences, making it a major crime.
25 In many Islamic countries, all law is believed to have divine origins, so to disobey the law is much
the same as disobeying God. Egyptian and Saudi Arabian laws regarding public drunkenness are a case in
point. Alcoholic beverages are banned by the religious teachings of Islamic culture and are absolutely
forbidden by the laws of both countries.
By Western standards such laws may appear too harsh and the penalties too severe. But by the
30 standards of the societies and cultures in which these laws operate, such controls on behavior seem
necessary and appropriate.

WRITING: Report – Legal Actors in Common Law vs Civil Law

Consider the following legal actors in a criminal trial: police, prosecutor, counsel for the defence, victim. Read
the sources indicated below (you may use other relevant sources of your own) and write a 300-word report
pointing out to the similarities and differences of these legal actors’ roles in common law and civil law
systems.

https://www.justice.gov/nsd-ovt/international-legal-systems-page-1
www.fjc.gov/sites/default/files/2015/Common%20and%20Civil%20Law%20Traditions.pdf

Possible structure:

INTRODUCTION – State the purpose of your report and explain how you intend to achieve it

DISCUSSION – The facts you have gathered should be analysed and discussed with specific reference to the
given issue. Your points should be grouped and arranged in an order that is logical and easy to follow.

CONCLUSION – You should show the overall significance of what has been covered. You may want to remind
the reader of the most important points that have been made in the report or highlight what you consider to
be the most central issues or findings.

VOCABULARY BUILDER

1. Put the following words and phrases into their correct place in the table, depending on their function.

 along with  also  and  as well as

 besides  correspondingly  equally  furthermore
 in addition  in brief  in conclusion  in the same way
 likewise  moreover  similarly  thus
 therefore  to conclude  to summarise  to sum up briefly
 too  we can conclude that  what's more

6
ADDITION EQUATION CONCLUSION
and equally in conclusion

2. Complete these sentences with one of the words or phrases from above. In most cases, more than one
answer is possible.

(a) Tourism brings much needed money to developing countries. .................. it provides employment for the
local population.
(b) .................. bringing much-needed money to developing countries, tourism provides employment for the
local population.
(c) Tourists should respect the local environment. .................. they should respect the local customs.
(d) .................. industrial waste, pollution from car fumes is poisoning the environment.
(e) In order to travel, you need a passport. ................., you might need a visa, immunisation jabs and written
permission to visit certain areas.
(f) Drugs are banned in Britain - .................. weapons such as guns and knives.
(g) All power corrupts. ................., absolute power corrupts absolutely.
(h) You shouldn't smoke, drink, take drugs or eat unhealthy food. .............., you should live a healthier lifestyle.
(i) The ozone layer is becoming depleted, the air in the cities is becoming too dirty to breathe and our seas
and rivers are no longer safe to swim in. .................. pollution is slowly destroying the planet.
(j) Your grades have been very poor for the past two years. .................. you need to work really hard if you
want to pass your exams next month.

QUIZ – Check your knowledge

What are the nationalities of the people w ho come from these countries?

COUNTRY NATIONALITY COUNTRY NATIONALITY

1. Afghanistan 21. Malaysia
2. Argentina 22. Mexico
3. Australia 23. Morocco
4. Bangladesh 24. the Netherlands
5. Belgium 25. Norway
6. Brazil 26. Pakistan
7. Canada 27. Peru
8. Denmark 28. the Philippines
9. Egypt 29. Poland
10. England 30. Portugal
11. Finland 31. Russia
12. Greece 32. Saudi Arabia
13. India 33. Scotland
14. Iran 34. Spain
15. Iraq 35. Sweden
16. Ireland 36. Switzerland
17. Israel 37. Thailand
18. Japan 38. Turkey
19. Kuwait 39. Wales
20. Lebanon 40. Yemen

7
 UNIT 4 LEGAL SYSTEMS

SECTION II LANDMARKS IN THE COMMON LAW AND CIVIL LAW TRADITIONS

STARTING UP

Here is a list of Romanian jurists. Apart from being famous lawyers, they distinguished themselves in other
domains: domestic or international politics, literature, legal education. Read the list and divide them into
three groups, according to the headings in the table. You may need to use the internet to find out more
about them.

 Take Ionescu  Nicolae Titulescu

 Ion Lahovary  Mihail Kogălniceanu
 Constantin Nacu  Eugen Herovanu
 Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea  Titu Maiorescu
 George Papahagi  Radu Rosetti
 Ionel Teodoreanu  Matei Cantacuzino
 Mircea Manolescu  Hurmuz Aznavorian
 Istrate Micescu  Constantin Dissescu
 Vintilă Dongoroz  Toma Stelian
 Alexandru Vălimărescu

POLITICS LITERATURE LEGAL EDUCATION

READING I: An eminent jurist and judge: Sir William Blackstone

1. Consider the following phrases that will appear in the text. Read their descriptions. Is it possible to easily
translate these phrases into another language? Why/ Why not? Discuss.

 Middle Temple is one of the four Inns of Court

 Inns of Court are a group of four institutions of considerable antiquity that have historically been
responsible for legal education. Their respective governing bodies, the benches, exercise the exclusive
right of admitting persons to practice by a formal call to the bar. They consist of the Inner Temple and
Middle Temple (both housed within the area known as The Temple), Lincoln’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn—all
of which are located in the general vicinity of the Royal Courts of Justice, at the boundary between the
City of London and Westminster.

 The Vinerian Professorship of English Law, formerly Vinerian Professorship of Common Law, was
established by Charles Viner who by his will, dated 29 December 1755, left about £12,000 to the
Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of Oxford, to establish a Professorship of the
Common Law in that University, as well as a number of Vinerian scholarships and readerships. Until the

8
 establishment of the Vinerian Chair, only Canon Law and Roman (Civil) Law had been taught at Oxford
and Cambridge. Therefore, only the Inns of Court provided any instruction in the Common Law, which
was of most practical use to practitioners. Upon Sir William Blackstone's appointment to the Vinerian
Professorship, his lectures were the first to be given on the English Common Law in any university in
the world.

 The Court of Common Pleas, or Common Bench, was a common law court in the English legal system
that covered "common pleas", actions between subject and subject, which did not concern the king.

2. The following sentences have been removed from the text. Read the text and place them correctly.

(a) they served as textbooks for the teaching of law for many years
(b) he became a student at the Middle Temple
(c) by ignoring some of its more obscure aspects
(d) for nine years as a member of Parliament
(e) to retire from his practice and concentrate
(f) with an increasingly active public life in London
(g) to demonstrate that English law as a system of justice was comparable to Roman law and the civil law
of the continent
(h) as “the great guardian of peace, virtue, property, and happiness”

The jurist and judge Sir William volumes between 1765 and 1769. He at-
Blackstone was born in London in 1723. In 1741, 30 tempted (5) _________. The Commentaries had
(1) _________ one of the Inns of Court, and by a profound influence on the common law legal
1746 he had become a barrister. system and on legal education – (6) _________
5 In 1750 Blackstone took the degree of – not only in England but also in the United
Doctor of Civil Law. In July 1753 he decided to States which, as a new nation, was trying to
(2) _________ on teaching academic law and 35 establish its own laws and legal system. He still
doing legal work in and around Oxford. remains a revered figure in US legal culture.
Blackstone had developed a particular Blackstone believed that human laws were like
10 interest in common law, and in 1753 he began scientific laws. They were creations of God
to lecture on that subject. These were the first waiting to be discovered just as Isaac Newton
lectures on English law ever delivered in a 40 had discovered the laws of gravity a century
university. His audiences admired the lucidity earlier. For several years Blackstone combined
and charm of his style and the simplicity with academic life in Oxford (7) _________. In March
15 which he presented the subject. He once 1761 he was elected member of Parliament for
described law (3) _________. Some of his critics Hindon, in south-west England, though he had
argued that in fact he oversimplified the highly 45 no great enthusiasm for the post.
complex system of common law (4) _________. Blackstone sat in the House of
But his attempt to synthesize the whole of Commons (8) _________. He was not a zealous
20 English law is generally seen as being an politician: he spoke mainly on legal and
impressive achievement. constitutional questions. In 1770 Blackstone
In 1754 Blackstone published Analysis 50 accepted the office of judge of the Court of
of the Laws of England, a synopsis of his lec- Common Pleas. In the 10 years of his judgeship
tures for the guidance of his pupils. In October he administered the law satisfactorily but
25 1758 he was elected the first holder of a chair attained no special distinction. Toward the end
(the Vinerian professorship) of common law. His of the 1770s his health failed; he died in
lectures formed the basis of his Commentaries, 55 February 1780.
which were published in four successive

9
3. Read the text and fill in the missing information about Sir William Blackstone’s life in the table:

1723
1741
by 1746
1750
1753
1754
1758
between 1765 and 1769
1761
1770

READING II: The Napoleonic Code – A Brief Outline

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What does codification mean in a legal context?

2. When did legal codification start in Romania? How many civil codes have existed in Romania?

2. Read the text and choose the appropriate definition for the words numbered 1-14.

(1) the state of being under the control of someone else and of having no freedom
(2) an official order, especially one that is given in a forceful and unfair way
(3) of or relating to a church especially as an established institution
(4) a person's husband or wife
(5) to feel angry because you have been forced to accept someone or something that you do not like
(6) the office, function, or work of a tutor
(7) a statement in an agreement or a law that a particular thing must happen or be done
(8) having a particular name
(9) the custom by which all of a family's property goes to the oldest son when the father dies
(10)an agreement that allows you to borrow money from a bank or similar organization, especially in order
to buy a house, or the amount of money itself
(11)the state or duty of being a guardian
(12)to explain something in a very clear way with details
(13)a piece of information or a description of an event that is written on paper or stored on a computer
(14)an implied contract which arises without the express agreement of the parties

3. Use the words given in capital at the end of each sentence to form a new word that fits in the context.

(a) A _________ of teaching resources is available for this purpose. VARY

(b) The applicant contends that the council acted _________ on a number of grounds. LAW
(c) Even though the declaration will not be legally binding on states when adopted, it will be significant in
terms of _________ international law. CUSTOM
(d) Speakers then took turns to denounce the government, complaining of unemployment, _________ and
corruption. POOR
(e) All of the contracts examined include payment of _________. ROYAL
(f) This alienation process naturally may lead to frustration and _________. RESENT
(g) We provide _________ services for companies who seek domicile in tax-friendly jurisdictions. DOMICILE
(h) Good and happy parents embrace the joys of _________, while tolerating its many frustrations. PARENT
10
(i) The right to the use of residence base is a unique kind of _________ rights in our country. USUFRUCT
(j) The company will fund the _________ from its existing cash resources. ACQUIRE

4. Reread the text and answer the questions below:

1. What were French laws based on before 1789?

2. Which laws had most influence in France before the Napoleonic Code came into force?
3. Which three adjectives best define French law before 1789?
4. What did the new laws spell out?
5. Which are the main principles under the new laws?
6. What does the first book of the code comprise?
7. What does the second book of the code comprise?
8. What does the third book of the code comprise?

France, like many other European children, marriage, personal relations of spouses8,
countries, used to have a system of "common 35 and the dissolution of marriage by annulment or
law" just like England. Laws were based on divorce. The code subordinated women to their
customs (coutumes) which varied from region to fathers and husbands, who controlled all family
5 region, as well as on ecclesiastical1 and royal property, determined the fate of children, and
laws. The customs were collected into written were favoured in divorce proceedings. Many of
records2. Those used around Paris (the 40 those provisions9 were reformed only in the
"coutumes de Paris") were most influential, and second half of the 20th century. The second book
by the end of the 18th century they came to deals with the law of things: the regulation of
10 dominate. property rights — ownership, usufruct, and
This mix of customary, ecclesiastical and servitudes10. The third book deals with the
royal law, poorly understood and resented3 by 45 methods of acquiring rights: by succession,
the population, was quickly overthrown during donation, marriage settlement, and obligations.
the Revolution and in 1790 laws were passed In the last chapters, the code regulates a number
15 establishing equality before the law and of nominate11 contracts, legal and conventional
abolishing previously held privileges. One of the mortgages12, limitations of actions, and
main projects of the Revolution was to replace 50 prescriptions of rights.
laws based on custom, religion or royal edict4 by With regard to obligations, the law
a uniform written code that would apply to establishes the traditional Roman law categories
20 every citizen in the same way, and which could of contract, quasi-contract13, delict, and quasi-
be read and understood by all concerned, in the delict. Freedom to contract is not spelled out14
same way that Roman law had been. Under the 55 explicitly but is an underlying principle in many
code all male citizens are equal: primogeniture5, provisions.
hereditary nobility, and class privileges are More than two centuries after its promul-
25 extinguished; civilian institutions are gation, the Napoleonic Code is still living law in a
emancipated from ecclesiastical control; great part of the world. History has thus partly
freedom of person, freedom of contract, and 60 justified the melancholic words uttered by
inviolability of private property are fundamental Napoleon in exile: “My real glory is not the forty
principles. battles I won, for Waterloo’s defeat will destroy
30 The first book of the code deals with the the memory of as many victories… What nothing
law of persons: the enjoyment of civil rights, the 65 will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil
protection of personality, domicile, guardian- Code.”
ship6, tutorship7, relations of parents and

11
WRITING: Argumentative Essay

Here are three of Blackstone’s most famous quotes:

(1) “It is better that ten guilty persons escape than one innocent suffer.”
(2) “No enactment of man can be considered law unless it conforms to the law of God.”
(3) “Aristotle himself has said, speaking of the laws of his own country, that jurisprudence, or the knowledge of
those laws, is the principal and most perfect branch of ethics.”

To what extent do you agree or disagree with them? Choose one of the statements and write a 300-word
essay, giving your own opinion.

Use the structure given below:

Paragraph 1 - The Introduction

There are three sentences you need in the introduction:
 paraphrase the question;
 give your view/opinion;
 outline the specific topics that will be discussed in the main body paragraphs.

Paragraph 2 - Main Body Paragraph 1

This is how the paragraph should look:
 introduce the topic (topic sentence - opinion A);
 explain/give detail;
 example.

Paragraph 3 - Main Body Paragraph 2

This is how the paragraph should look:
 introduce the topic (topic sentence- opinion B);
 explain/give detail;
 example.

Paragraph 4 - The Conclusion

 give a summary of the main points
 restate own views/opinion/justify

For more information on the structure of your essay go to:

www.ieltsachieve.com/ielts-writing-task-2/2017/5/22/how-to-write-an-agree-or-disagree-essay

VOCABULARY BUILDER

Complete these sentences with the correct form of one of the verbs in the box. Both sentences in each
sentence pair should use the same verb. In some cases, the meaning of the verb may change slightly.

adjust alter deteriorate exchange fade

reduce renovate swell switch vary

1. Moving to the countryside radically .................... our lifestyle.

Some people choose .................... their appearance with surgery.

12
2. By .................... to a different provider, it can be possible to pay much less for your mobile phone bills.
I chose drama as an extra-curricular activity, but .................... to photography a few weeks later.

3. It can take time to .................... to living in a different country.

Prices seem low, but when you .................... them to allow for tax, they are considerably higher.

4. The noise built up rapidly, and then just as quickly it .................... into the distance.
As the applause ...................., the speaker started talking.

5. The amount of tax you pay on a car .................... according to the amount of carbon dioxide it emits.
People's reactions to the medicine ....................a lot, with some people complaining it has no effect at all.

6. Everyone should try to .................... the amount of fat in their diet.

Many companies were forced to .................... their workforce during the recession.

7. Economic crises often .................... into social unrest.

The weather ...................... rapidly when it started raining and the winds picked up.

8. Ankles and other joints often .................... when people travel by air.
The town is home to 3,000 people, but this figure .................... to 12,000 in the same summer.

9. The tokens can be .................... for food in the student canteen.

Shops will normally....................damaged goods if you have a receipt.

10. Businesses in the city centre were offered funding so they could .................... their premises.
In some cases it can be more expensive to .................... an old building than knock it down and build a new one.

QUIZ – Check your knowledge

Complete the following sentence pairs with the appropriate word.

1. aboard / abroad
More and more people go _______ for their holiday.
In 2002, she became the first woman to travel _______ the space shuttle Discovery.

2. action / activity
We decided to take immediate _______ when we realised there was a problem.
The environmental changes in the area are the result of human _______.

3. advice / advise
Can you _______ me on the best course of action to take?
He offered me some excellent _______.

4. affect / effect
Diverting the course of the river will have a major _______ on the local ecosystem.
Frequent traffic jams in the suburbs seriously _______ journey times into the city.

5. appreciable / appreciative
Widening the road made an _______ difference to the flow of traffic.
The applause at the end of the concert was warm and _______.

13
 UNIT 5: HOW ARE LAWS MADE?
SECTION I: SOURCES OF LAW

STARTING UP

1. Based on your legal knowledge, how would you define the phrase source of law?

2. How would you classify the sources of law? Which are the criteria that you might use?

3. Consider the following definition:

source of law = something (as a constitution, treaty, custom, or statute) that provides the authority for
judicial decisions and for legislation - merriam-webster.com

Is this definition similar or different from what you came up with earlier?

How would you rank (in the order of their importance) the sources of law mentioned in the definition above,
considering the Romanian legal context?

READING: Sources of Law - Overview

1. Read the text and decide which of the following phrases are suitable as titles for the numbered sections.

A. Religion and Morality.

B. Scientific Commentaries.
C. Legislation.
D. Custom
E. Judicial Decisions.
F. Delegated Legislation.

2. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right:

(1) violation (n.) (a) the process of becoming known or developing

(2) disapprove (v.) (b) to have or show a strong feeling of respect and admiration for God or a god
(3) gradually (adv.) (c) the fact that there is too little of something
(4) authoritative (adj.) (d) an act of officially accepting or allowing something
(5) worship (v.) (e) the group of people in a country or part of a country who have the power to
make and change laws
(6) regulate (v.) (f) slowly over a period of time or a distance
(7) compel (v.) (g) to force someone to do something
(8) emergence (n.) (h) (especially of an agreement) that cannot be legally avoided or stopped
(9) legislature (n.) (i) an action that breaks or acts against something, especially a law, agreement,
principle, or something that should be treated with respect
(10)approval (j) to control an activity or process by rules or a system
(11)binding (adj.) (k) to think that something is wrong, or to have a bad opinion about someone
(12)paucity (n.) (l) containing complete and accurate information, and therefore respected

14
 Each country’s legal system has its own organ of the government. It began transforming
sources of law, with greater weight placed on the customary rules of behaviour into definite
some sources than others. Sources of law could 55 and enacted rules of behaviour of the people.
be classified into several categories, as follows: The king, as the sovereign, started
5 1. _____. Custom has been one of the giving these his approval. Soon legislation
oldest sources of law. In ancient times, social emerged as the chief source of law and the
relations gave rise to several usages, traditions legislature got recognition as the legal
and customs. These were used to settle and 60 sovereign, i.e. law-making organ of the state. In
decide disputes among the people. Customs contemporary times, legislation has come to be
10 were practiced habitually and violations of cus- the most potent, prolific and direct source of
toms were disapproved and punished by the law. It has come to be recognized as the chief
society. Initially social institutions began work- means for the formulation of the will of the
ing on the basis of several accepted customs. 65 state into binding rules.
Gradually, the state emerged as the 4. _____. Because of several pressing
15 organised political institution of the people reasons like paucity of time, lack of expertise
having the responsibility to maintain peace, law and increased demand for law-making, the
and order; naturally, it also began acting by legislature of a state finds it essential to
making and enforcing rules based upon customs 70 delegate some of its law-making powers to the
and traditions. In fact, most of the laws had executive. The executive then makes laws/rules
20 their birth when the state began converting the under this system. It is known as delegated
customs into authoritative and binding rules. legislation. Currently, delegated legislation has
Custom has been indeed a rich source of Law. come to be a big source of law. However,
2. _____. Religion and religious codes 75 delegated legislation always works under the
appeared naturally in every society when superior law-making power of the legislature.
25 human beings began observing, enjoying and 5. _____. In contemporary times,
fearing natural forces. These were accepted as judicial decisions have come to be an important
superior heavenly forces and worshiped. source of law in some legal systems. It is the
Religion then started regulating the 80 responsibility of the courts to interpret and
behaviour of people and began invoking “Godly apply laws to specific cases. The courts settle
30 sanction”, “fear of hell”, and “possible fruits of the disputes of the people in cases that come
heaven”, for enforcing the religious codes. It before them. The decisions of the courts are
compelled the people to accept and obey binding on the parties to the case. These also
35 religious codes. Several religions came forward 85 get accepted as laws for future cases. But not all
to formulate and prescribe definite codes of judicial decisions become laws.
conduct. The rules of morality also appeared in 6. _____. The works of eminent jurists
society. These defined what was good and what always include scientific commentaries on the
was bad, what was right and what was wrong. constitution and the laws of each state. These
40 The religious and moral codes of a society 90 are used by the courts for determining the
provided to the state the necessary material for meaning of law. It helps the courts to interpret
regulating the actions of the people. The state and apply laws.
converted several moral and religious rules into The jurists not only discuss and explain
its laws. Hence religion and morality have also the existing law but also suggest the future
45 been important sources of law. 95 possible rules of behaviour. They also highlight
3. _____. Since the emergence of the weaknesses of the existing laws as well as
legislatures in 13th century, legislation has the ways to overcome these. Interpretations
emerged as the chief source of law. given by them help the judges to interpret and
Traditionally, the state depended upon customs apply laws to specific cases.
50 and the decrees or orders of the king for 100 Thus, law has several sources. However,
regulating the behaviour of the people. in contemporary times law-making by the
Later on, the legislature emerged as an legislature constitutes the chief source of law.*

15
*the text is adapted from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/law-essay/law-meaning-features-sources-and-types-of-law/40363

3. Reread the text and decide if the statements below are true (T), false (F) or not stated (NS).

A. Countries around the world usually rank available sources of law differently.
B. In Romania, the oldest source of law is the custom.
C. Religion and law are closely interconnected.
D. The oldest surviving parliament in the world is the national parliament of Iceland.
E. At present, legislation has generally become the most important source of law.
F. Delegated legislation is also called subordinate legislation.
G. Case law can be one of the main sources of law in some legal systems.
H. Modern textbooks are not treated as works of authority and therefore not a source of law, although they
are frequently referred to within the courts.

4. Use the words given in capital at the end of each sentence to form a new word that fits in the context.

(a) We must not _______ the Bill, said the Prime Minister at length. WEIGH
(b) The President has ordered the _______ of all documents that shed light on human rights abuses. CLASS
(c) As part of their divorce _______, Jeff agreed to let Polly keep the house. SETTLE
(d) At an early date compilations were formed in Italy for the use of legal _______ and jurists. PRACTICE
(e) His stubborn _______ of the law won him the applause of the people. FORCE
(f) They were accused of _______ in their treatment of the hostages. HUMAN
(g) We will use and build on existing strategies, including civil _______, to resist globalization and to assert our
rights. OBEY
(h) Many people were _______ denied the right to vote. WRONG
(i) We have inserted certain _______ into the treaty to safeguard foreign workers. PROVIDE
(j) Following _______ of the law, new regulations were issued affecting imports and exports of crude oil. ACT
(k) The world has changed _______ since Plato's time. RECOGNIZE
(l) The young justice of the peace was noted for his _______ and determination. WILL
(m) This latest conflict further illustrates the _______ of the UN. WEAK
(n) The report said mistakes happened because of a _______ of the law. INTERPRET

5. Study the information in the table below:

Connector Meaning Use

a) therefore for that reason, consequently to give a logical consequence
b) for because, since to give a reason
c) further more, in addition to state another fact
d) thus so, in this way, consequently to give a logical consequence
e) however by contrast, on the other hand to show a contrast with something that was said before

Choose the best connector from the table above to complete the following passage:

Judicial precedent is of fundamental importance in the English legal system, (1) ______ the principles
of the common law, which have developed gradually through case law over the centuries, are the main source
of English law.
The English courts are bound to follow decisions of higher courts in the judicial hierarchy; (2) ______ in
many cases they must also follow their own decisions. Decisions of inferior courts, (3) ______, do not have
binding force. Decisions concerning the interpretations of statutes are also binding, (4) ______ English lawyers
must always refer to case law even if the facts of the case they are preparing are covered by statute law and

16
not common law rules. The law reports are (5) ______ basic works of reference for members of the English
legal profession.

WATCHING A VIDEO – Sources of law in the US

Watch a short video giving details on the sources of law in the United States and fill in the missing words.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=88&v=XiDL0rvS_A0&feature=emb_logo
A. The major sources of law in the US are:
(1) The _________________
(2) _________________
(3) _________________ _________________
(4) _________________ _________________
B. In the US there is a _________________ _________________ in each _________________.
C. The national legislature is called _________________.
D. The written laws are called _________________.

COMPARISON: Federal Systems – North American Federalism

Read the text below and answer the following questions/ tasks:

1. Why did federalism develop differently in Canada and the United States?
2. Are the Canadian and the US systems of federalism more alike than they are different? Explain your answer.
3. Identify as many European federal countries and possible.

The United States and Canada have always been described as ‘best friends’. Like all the best friends,
these North American neighbors have both differences and similarities. A good example of each is found
in their federal forms of government.
Federalism in each country divides power between national and regional governments. In the US the
5 government in Washington, DC, handles national affairs, and 50 state governments make regional
decisions. In Canada, the government in Ottawa decides national policy. The 10 provinces deal with
regional issues. Even though they are similar, the two systems developed differently. The framers of the
US Constitution reacting to the abuses they felt under the British, wanted a national government with
limited authority. However, events over the past 200 years have increased the powers of the national
10 government, often at the expense of the states. In the 1860s, the Civil War finally established the
supremacy of the nation over the states. In the 20th century the growth of the industrial society has
presented problems too complex for the states to handle.
Still, the states have not withered away. In the past 50 years, many states have adopted new
constitutions or made significant changes in their old ones as their leaders work to modernize state
15 government. In addition, Presidents, notably Nixon and Reagan, have attempted to shift some power back
to the states.
Canada’s federalism grew from different needs and has developed differently. When Britain granted
Canada self government in 1867, Canadian leaders wanted a federal system that would preserve the
cultural uniqueness of its regions, but avoid the divisiveness that led to Civil War in the US. But they also
20 wanted a central government strong enough to resist any efforts of the US to expand into Canada. As a
result, the provinces received only a few powers such as control of education, transportation and welfare.
Since 1945, however, urban growth has created a greater need for those services and has shifted much of
Canada’s government to the provinces.
Dissatisfaction with the cultural policies of the national government also has contributed to the
25 growth of provincial power. In the 1970s, for example, the Parti Quebecois agreed that Quebec should
have a status separate from Canada in order to preserve the heritage and the rights of French Canadians.

17
 Although the citizens of Quebec defeated this proposal in 1980, the controversy caused the national
government to pay greater attention to provincial concerns. However, when Canada adopted a new
constitution in 1982, it did not significantly change the distribution of power between the levels of
30 government, despite years of debate on the issue.
Although the two federal systems are different, each national government has used its fiscal power
to influence state policy in areas where it has no authority. For example, in the 1960s, the Canadian
government promised to pay half the cost of some social programs if the provinces would enact them. The
US government has threatened to withhold federal highway funds if states do not comply with speed limit
35 guidelines.

WRITING: Opinion Essay

The rules and laws we have in life are meant to guide us and protect us, and to keep order in our society.
Imagine that you get to make 3 rules that everyone in the world must follow. What rules would you make
and why? Write a 300-word essay giving your opinion.

SUGGESTED STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION – explain why laws/ rules are generally important in your own opinion

BODY – Paragraph 1 – describe the first rule and explain why you consider it necessary/ relevant
Paragraph 2 – describe the second rule and explain why you consider it necessary/ relevant
Paragraph 3 – describe the third rule and explain why you consider it necessary/ relevant

CONCLUSION - give a summary of the main points + restate own views/opinion/justify

VOCABULARY BUILDER

1. Complete these sentences with the correct form of one of the verbs in the box. Both sentences in each
sentence pair should use the same verb. In some cases, the meaning of the verb may change slightly.

 adapt  cut  decline  disappear  expand

 improve  promote  relax  replace  transform

(a) Email has largely .................... the traditional letter as a means of written business communication.
The plan is to .................... all the old desktop computers in the library with netbooks.

(b) Some companies are slow to.................... to a changing market.

Courses can be .......................... to suit the needs of individual students.

(c) The symptoms of illnesses like measles aren't usually serious, and .................... within a few days.
As the sun ....................... behind the clouds, the temperature quickly dropped.

(d) A college course can help you to find a job or get .................... at work.
The 'Peter Principle' is a theory which says that in a big company, everyone eventually gets .................... to a
job that is beyond their ability.

(e) Some people think that the government should ................... the rules regarding building on protected land.
For the final part of the exercise, you need to repeatedly tighten, then .................... your stomach muscles.

18
(f) The government's aim in the next five years is to .................... educational standards.
The best way of .................... your English is to practise using it as much as possible.

(g) Water freezes in the pipes, forcing them to .................... and burst.
Britain's universities .................... at an unprecedented rate at the end of the twentieth century.

(h) Supermarkets .................... prices on many basic items to attract m ore customers.
I believe that governments should increase spending on the arts instead of .................... it.

(i) Email and social networking websites have .................... the way people communicate.
When it was closed down, the old fire station was .................... into an art gallery.

(j) House prices are so high that the number of people buying their own home has .................... in the last five
years.
Because so many people are out of work, living standards are .................... rapidly.

QUIZ – Check your knowledge

Complete the following sentence pairs with the appropriate word.

(1) avoid / prevent

(a) Rapid international action managed to .................... an environmental disaster from taking place.
(b) There are areas in the city that are wise to .................... after dark.

(2) beside / besides

(a) The company's main office is .................... the railway station.
(b) .................... their regular daytime job, m any people do extra work in the evening.

(3) briefly /shortly

(a) .................... before the earthquake began, m any animals were seen to be behaving in an unusual manner.
(b) She spoke .................... but passionately about the need to help those in developing countries.

(4) canal / channel

(a) A .................... system joined the two main rivers, which made transporting goods much quicker.
(b) When television first became popular in the early 1950s, there was only one .......................

(5) conscientious / conscious

(a) Most people are ................. of the need to protect the environment.
(b) .................... workers should be rewarded for their hard work.

(6) considerable / considerate

(a) In my opinion, some people are not very .................... of those around them.
(b) A ............................................amount of money was spent on developing the

(7) continual / continuous

(a) The computer system has given us .................... problems ever since we installed it. Some days it works,
other days it doesn't.
(b) The ........................noise from the new motorway has forced many people to move.

19
 UNIT 5: HOW ARE LAWS MADE?
SECTION II: THE MAKING OF LEGAL RULES –AN EXAMPLE FROM THE USA

STARTING UP

How many different terms do you know referring to legislation? Can you complete the box? The number of
letters in each word or phrase is given in brackets.

a (7) A E
b (7, 3) N D A
c (11, 9) G V A M
d (3, 2, 10) A C T O F P A R L I A M E N T
e (9) E T

READING: Introducing Legislation in the US Congress

1. The word BILL can be either a noun (n.) or a verb (v.) and it can have multiple meanings. Read the
following sentences and decide what part of speech each underlined word is, as well as its meaning.

(1) This bill of rights did not have an appreciable effect on government decisions.
(2) If you prefer you can request an itemized bill and get a list of every call you have made.
(3) Questions regarding the bill may then be asked, and debate follows.
(4) Please bill me for the books.
(5) A provisional compromise has been reached in this case, which forms the basis for the future bill.
(6) He was billed as the new Brad Pitt.
(7) We were billed for three nights at the hotel when we were only there for two.
(8) She was billed to be performing for three nights at Radio City.
(9) Three bank employees plan to steal damaged dollar bills that are supposed to be shredded.
(10)Ornithologists tend to use the word “bill” more often than “beak.”
(11)You can speak to them, make them open up like they won't to the Old Bill.
(12)The two or three top-billed actors in a movie will usually be announced prior to the title of the movie

2. Read the text quickly and match the numbered words with their synonyms below:

(1) approval (5) duration (9) reject

(2) bring together (6) end a session (10)reverse
(3) change (7) income (11)supporter
(4) commerce (8) lawmaker (12)united

3. Read the text and identify the similarities and the differences between the Romania and the USA, as far as
the making of laws is concerned.

4. Give your personal reaction to the text using these phrases:

I didn’t know / I already knew that … What surprised me was …

It must be really difficult for … It’s hard to believe that …

20
 Where do the ideas for new laws come 50 begins, i.e. the bill is debated and possibly
from? Most new proposals originate in the amended. The third takes place after any
executive branch – the White House and its amendments are added to the bill and the
executive agencies. Special interest groups, house is ready to take a final vote.
5 such as agricultural organizations, business Bills passed by one house are then sent
groups, or trade1 associations, may also pro- 55 to the other. There the legislative process
pose new laws. Even ordinary citizens can play a begins all over again, and the bill’s sponsors in
role in the legislative process by suggesting new the new house must work to build support for
laws to their senator or representative. their legislation. If the final House and Senate
10 Although almost anyone can propose versions of a bill are different, a conference
legislation, only members of Congress can 60 committee meets. This temporary joint9
formally introduce a bill. There is no limit to the committee is responsible for working out the
number of bills a legislator2 can introduce in a differences in the House and Senate versions to
session. Although the Constitution states that produce a compromise bill acceptable to both
15 all revenue3 bills must be introduced in the houses. The resulting bill must be accepted or
House of Representatives, all other type of 65 rejected as rewritten; no further amendments
legislation may begin in either house. may be added. If the bill is approved by both
Bills introduced during a term of houses, it is finally ready to be sent to the
Congress must be passed into law by the end of White House.
20 that term. Otherwise, they ‘die’ and can no The president has four choices in
longer be considered. Backers4 of dead bills, 70 handling a bill. First, the President may approve
however, may reintroduce them during the next the legislation by signing the bill into law.
term5 and begin the process again. Second, if the President is not strongly in favour
Often, more than one member of the of a bill, he or she can refuse to act on it for ten
25 Senate or the House will sponsor, or introduce, days, excluding Sundays. After this time, it
the same bill. The sponsors must then work to 75 automatically becomes law.
convince a majority of the House and the Third, the President can veto10 the bill.
Senate, or 269 individuals, that their bill is To do this, the President returns the bill
worthy of passage6. unsigned to the house where it originated,
30 In every stage of the legislative process, along with a statement of objections. Congress
the sponsors of a bill must rally7 support for 80 may then amend the bill to suit the President or
their legislation if it is to move on to the next try to override11 the President’s veto. A two-
35 step. They will use many tactics to gain this thirds vote of both houses will override a veto
support, including lobbying, agreeing to and enact a bill into law.
amendments8, or deleting offending parts of the Finally, if Congress adjourns12 within ten
bill. One of the main methods of gathering 85 days of placing the bill on the President’s desk,
support for a bill is called ‘logrolling.’ Logrolling and the President has not signed it, the bill is
40 can be described as ‘you scratch my back, I’ll automatically killed. This is called pocket veto.
scratch yours.’ When a bill becomes law, it is
For a bill to become law, it must have registered with the National Archives and the
three readings during its progress through 90 Records Service. Then, it is printed in the United
either house. The first reading takes place when States Code, a collection of federal laws
45 a bill is introduced. Neither house actually reads currently in force. The next step involves
the text of a bill on the day it is introduced. enforcing the law, a responsibility that rests
Instead, it is printed in the Congressional with the executive branch of the federal
Record, a written account of the proceedings in 95 government.
both the Senate and the House. The second
reading usually comes when the floor action
adapted from Turner, M.J.; Switzer, K. & Redden, C. (1996) – American Government. Principles and Practices

21
5. Fill in the sentences below with the missing prepositions. You may need to refer to the text to check your
answers.

(a) Here are two sisters who come _____ the wrong side of the tracks in Los Angeles and have come to
dominate the world of women's tennis.
(b) Coronaviruses, which originate _____ bats but can infect a number of animals, are famed for being
able to jump from animals to people.
(c) In the past decade, China has gone from playing a moderate role _____ Latin American trade to
becoming the region’s second-largest trading partner.
(d) What do these results suggest _____ you?
(e) There is a limit to the amount of power we can delegate _____ our representatives.
(f) They have become a much too easy target for advisers who are not worthy _____ that name.
(g) There is strong public support _____ the policy.
(h) You've also shown a regrettable tendency to act _____ your own initiative.
(i) During the communist era, visitors to the country had to register _____ the police.
(j) The decision ultimately rests _____ the council.

WATCHING A VIDEO – Lawmaking in the UK

The text below is about the lawmaking process in the UK. Fill in the sentences below with the missing words
and then watch the video to check your answers.

One of Parliament’s main jobs is to examine and approve new laws. The law-making process usually
begins with a (1) _______, which is a (2) _______ for either a new law or a (3) _______ to an existing one. Bills
can be introduced by the (4) _______, or by individual (5) _______ or members of the House of Lords. The
stages of examining Bills are the (6) _______ in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, but the
rules and the way each House works during these stages are (7) _______.
Each House can make changes to the contents of a Bill but any changes that are made must be agreed
to by both (8) _______ before it can become law. In certain cases a Bill may be passed without the approval of
the Lords, if the Commons passes the same Bill in two successive years, or if the Bill is about taxes or public
expenditure.
An Act of Parliament is known as (9) _______ legislation. Acts often establish the main principles of a
new law while allowing government ministers to set out the finer detail in (10) _______ or delegated
legislation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=69&v=Wuk3L3tknwg&feature=emb_logo

CASE STUDY – COMPARISON: A common heritage

Read the text and answer the questions:

1. Do you think a unitary form of government would work in the United States? Why or why not?
2. What advantages do you see to having a government in which both the legislative and executive branches
are of the same party?

Although Great Britain and the United States have a common political heritage each established a
different form of government. Great Britain has a unitary government and practices parliamentary
democracy. In this kind of democracy, the executive branch is responsible to the legislative and the
legislative to the voters. As a unitary government, Parliament is the final authority, with local governments
5 its administrative arm. The United States, on the other hand, has a federal government and practices

22
 presidential democracy. Yet, even with this difference, their common political heritage is apparent when
looking at the ways which limits the power of its leaders.
The Framers of the Constitution were well aware of the struggles to limit the monarch’s power that
had gone on in Great Britain from before the Magna Charta was signed in 1215 through the time the Bill of
10 Rights was adopted in 1689. There was no question that Britain offered a powerful example of how a
monarch’s absolute power could be diminished.
The Framers, however, fearful that a strong executive could too strongly influence an aristocratic
legislature, chose not to follow the British form of government. Instead they turned to a federal form of
government headed by a president who was not a part of the legislative branch.
15 In the American system the Constitution delegates certain powers to the national governments and
reserves others to state governments. It also delegates specific powers to the executive branch
represented by the President and others to the legislative branch represented by Congress. Although each
is elected separately, both are responsible directly to the voters. Congress has two houses – the Senate
and the House of Representatives. Although both major political parties, the Democratic and the
20 Republican, try to gain control of both houses and the executive, it really is not necessary that Congress
and the presidency be held by the same party.
In the British system, the present monarch, Queen Elisabeth II, has powers that are strictly limited by
custom. For the most parts, her role is ceremonial and the actual governmental authority rests with the
two houses of Parliament: the upper house, known as the House of Lords, and the lower house, known as
25 the House of Commons. Membership in the House of Lords is either hereditary or by appointment, while
members of the House of Commons are elected by the voters.
Two major political parties, Conservative and Labour, compete in the House of Commons to control a
majority of seats. The party that gains the majority names a prime minister to head the executive branch.
The prime minister then forms a cabinet and chooses an administration from members of that party.
30 When the other party gains the majority, it repeats the process and forms its government.
adapted from Turner, M.J.; Switzer, K. & Redden, C. (1996) – American Government. Principles and Practices

WRITING: Contrast and Comparison Report

The Romanian Parliament consists of two legislative bodies, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. There
are many similarities between these institutions. Deputies and Senators are directly elected by the public.
Passing legislation requires the agreement of both the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. The activities of the
two houses take place at the Palace of Parliament. Given these commonalities, are there really differences
between the Chamber of Deputies and Senate?

Following the structure suggested below, write a 300-word report pointing to the differences between the
two houses of the Romanian Parliament.

SUGGESTED STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION – State the purpose of your report and explain how you intend to achieve it

DISCUSSION – The facts you have gathered should be analysed and discussed with specific reference to the
given issue. Your points should be grouped and arranged in an order that is logical and easy to follow.

CONCLUSION – You should show the overall significance of what has been covered. You may want to remind
the reader of the most important points that have been made in the report or highlight what you consider to
be the most central issues or findings.

23
VOCABULARY BUILDER

Complete these sentences with the most appropriate word or phrase from A, B or C.

(a) The two machines ________ considerably. One has an electric motor, the other runs on oil.
A. differ B. differentiate C. differential

(b) The ________ in weather between the north and the south of the country is very noticeable.
A. comparison B. contrast C. compare

(c) Many people cannot ________ between lemon juice and lime juice.
A. differ B. differentiate C. contrast

(d) Children must be taught to ________ between right and wrong .

A. differ B. contrast C. distinguish

(e) There is a ________ between being interested in politics and joining a political party.
A. distinguish B. distinctive C. distinction

(f) Can you tell the ________ between a good boss and a bad one?
A. difference B. differentiate C. contrast

(g) The management must not ________ between male and female applicants.
A. differ B. contrast C. discriminate

(h) Asia covers a huge area. ________ Europe is very small.

A. By way of contrast B. By ways of comparing C. By similar means

(i) The new model of car is very ________ to the old one.
A. same B. similar C. common

(j) Her political opinions are ________ to mine.

A. same B. exactly C. identical

(k) Some political parties have such similar manifestoes that they are difficult to ________.
A. tell apart B. say apart C. speak apart

(l) M y friends and I enjoy doing many of the same things. In that respect, we have a lot ________.
A. in similar B. in particular C. in common

(m) There seems to be a large ________ between the number of people employed in service industries, and
those employed in the primary sector.
A. discriminate B. discretion C. discrepancy

(n) The nation's economy is largely based on its industry, ________ a few hundred years ago it was an agrarian
country.
A. while B. whereas C. whereby

(o) British and Australian people share the same language, but in other respects they are as different as _____.
A. cats and dogs B. chalk and cheese C. salt and pepper

24
QUIZ – Check your knowledge

Complete the following sentence pairs with the appropriate word.

(1) control / inspect

(a) New teachers often find it difficult to .................... their classes.
(b) Environmental health inspectors regularly .................... commercial kitchens for cleanliness, especially those
in restaurants.

(2) criticism / objection

(a) I have no .................... to people using their mobile phones on buses or trains.
(b) Plans for the new stadium have attracted fierce .................... from local people.

(3) damage / harm / injury

(a) He suffered a serious.................... which needed immediate hospital treatment.
(b) The low levels of dangerous chemicals in the river were enough to cause....................to aquatic life.
(c) A lot of .................... was caused to buildings along the coast during the storm.

(4) during / for / while

(a) The college closes .................... two weeks at the end of December.
(b) He died .................... trying to cross the desert alone.
(c) Many creatures stay underground .................. daylight hours.

(5) however / moreover

(a) The plan was good in theory. ...................... in practice it was extremely difficult to implement.
(b) The plan was excellent ....................... it was clear from the beginning that it was going to attract a lot of
interest.

(6) injured / wounded

(a) I believe that we should do more to help and support soldiers who have been .................... in combat.
(b) Several workers were .................... when the drilling platform collapsed.

(7) job / work

(a) Everybody has the right to a decent .................... with good pay.
(b) During the economic recession, a lot of people found themselves out of .......................

(8) lay / lie

(a) If you’re suffering from dehydration, you should drink plenty of water and sit or .................... down for a
while.
(b) Before you begin the experiment, you should .................... a large plastic sheet on the ground.

(9) look at / watch

(a) We need to .................... the situation carefully over the next few weeks and see how things develop.
(b) We need to .................... the problem carefully and decide if there is anything w e can do about it.

(10) loose / lose

(a) Some people are very competitive and hate to ................................. a game or competition.
(b) The surface is mainly composed of .................... soil and small stones.

25
 UNIT 6 EU LAW
SECTION I: THE LEGAL ORDER OF THE EU

STARTING UP

1. Answer the questions:

 What is the EU?

 How many member states are there in the EU at present?

 The following years represent moments when new members joined the EU: 1973; 1981; 1984; 1995;
2004; 2007; 2013. Can you name the country/ countries which became member/s at those times?

 Which are the candidate countries at the moment? Do you think that there is any chance for them to
become EU members in the next five years?

2. Here are some of the English abbreviations most commonly used in relation with the European Union. Can
you guess their meaning?

(1) EEC (4) EBRD (7) EMU

(2) EURATOM (5) EFTA (8) ECJ
(3) GATT (6) EIB (9) CAP

READING

1. Before reading the text, put down the answers to these questions:

 Why isn’t there a EU constitution in the traditional sense/form?

 Could the EU be considered a ‘federal state’? Why or why not?

2. The following fragments have been taken from the text. Read the text carefully and place them in the
right place:

(a) by the law of the Union

(b) earlier attempts to unite Europe
(c) in the European Treaties or in the legal instruments produced
(d) it is created by law and is a community based on law
(e) obligations on both the Member States and their citizens
(f) of recourse to and the enforcement of Union law
(g) than in other international organizations
(h) the EU ‘constitution’ is still not laid down in a comprehensive constitutional document
(i) the rule of law and democracy
(j) the Treaties that created the European Union

Consider your answers to questions in exercise 1 above. Compare them with the information given in the
text. Were your answers similar or different?

26
 In the Member States the body politic is 50 and what distinguishes it from (7) ____. It works
shaped by two overriding principles: (1) ____. not by means of force or subjugation but simply
All the activities of the Union, if they are to be by means of law. Law is intended to achieve
true to the fundamental requirements of law what ‘blood and iron’ have for centuries failed
5 and democracy, must therefore have both legal to bring about. For only unity based on a freely
and democratic legitimacy: the elements on 55 made decision can be expected to last: unity
which it is founded, its structure, its powers, the founded on the fundamental values such as
way it operates, the position of the Member freedom and equality, and protected and
States and their institutions, and the position of translated into reality by law. That is the insight
10 the citizen. underlying (8) ____.
Following the failure of the Treaty 60 However, the EU is not merely a creation
establishing a Constitution for Europe of 29 of law but also pursues its objectives purely by
October 2004, (2) ____, as it is in most of the means of law. It is a community based on law.
constitutions of its Member States, but arises The common economic and social life of the
15 from the totality of rules and fundamental peoples of the Member States is governed not
values by which those in authority perceive 65 by the threat of force but (9) ____. This is the
themselves to be bound. These rules are to be basis of the institutional system. It lays down
found partly (3) ____ by the Union institutions, the procedure for decision-making by the Union
but they also rest partly on custom. institutions and regulates their relationship to
20 The constitution of the EU described each other. It provides the institutions with the
above, and particularly the fundamental values 70 means — in the shape of regulations, directives
it embodies, can be brought to life and given and decisions — of enacting legal instruments
substance only through Union law. This makes binding on the Member States and their
the EU a legal reality in two different senses: (4) citizens. Thus the individuals themselves
25 ____. become a main focus of the Union. Its legal
The elements which together typically 75 order directly affects their daily life to an ever-
characterise the special legal nature of the EU increasing extent. It accords them rights and
are: imposes obligations on them, so that as citizens
 the institutional set-up, which ensures that both of their State and of the Union they are
30 action by the EU is also characterised by the governed by a hierarchy of legal orders — a
overall European interest, i.e. is reflected in or 80 phenomenon familiar from federal
influenced by the Union interest as laid down constitutions. Like any legal order, that of the
in the objectives; EU provides a self-contained system of legal
 the transfer of powers to the Union protection for the purpose (10) ____. Union law
35 institutions to a greater degree (5) ____, and also defines the relationship between the EU
extending to areas in which States normally 85 and the Member States.
retain their sovereign rights; The Member States must take all
 the establishment of its own legal order which appropriate measures to ensure fulfillment of
is independent of the Member States’ legal the obligations arising from the Treaties or
40 orders; resulting from action taken by the institutions
 the direct applicability of Union law, which 90 of the Union. They must facilitate the
makes provisions of Union lawfully and achievement of the EU’s tasks and abstain from
uniformly applicable in all Member States, any measure that could jeopardise the attain-
and bestows rights and imposes (6) ____; ment of the objectives of the Treaties. The
45  the primacy of Union law, which ensures that Member States are answerable to the citizens
Union law may not be revoked or amended by 95 of the EU for any harm caused through
national law and that it takes precedence over violations of Union law.
national law if the two conflict.
This is what is entirely new about the EU,
adapted from Borchardt, K.D. (2010) The ABC of European Union Law

27
3. Reread the text and decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F):

1. Any activity of the EU must be legitimate both legally and democratically.

2. The European Treaties, the legal instruments and custom make up the EU ‘Constitution’.
3. Regulations, directives and decisions are the legal instruments binding on the Member States and their
citizens.

4. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right:

(a) the body politic (1) to decide not to use your vote
(b) overriding (2) to grant or give especially as appropriate, due, or earned
(c) comprehensive (3) the act of resorting to a person, course of action, etc, in difficulty or danger
(d) bestow (4) a clear understanding of the inner nature of some specific thing
(e) primacy (5) to expose to danger or risk
(f) insight (6) the people of a nation or the nation itself considered as a political entity; the state
(g) accord (7) chief, principle
(h) recourse (8) to present (a gift) or confer (an award or honour)
(i) abstain (9) the state of being first in time, order, rank, etc.
(j) jeopardize (10)covering completely or broadly

5. Use the words above (a-j) to fill in the sentences below:

(1) She knew that by failing her finals she could _________ her whole future.
(2) The government insists on the _________ of citizens' rights.
(3) The government's _________ concern is to reduce inflation.
(4) Ten members voted for the proposal, six members voted against it, and two _________ed.
(5) The article examines the language politicians use to appeal to _________.
(6) The list of cabinet committees, released yesterday, provides an _________ into the priorities of the
new government and where power lies.
(7) It is essential that a _________ policy is put in place as quickly as possible.
(8) A spokesman said: ‘We will now consider the further legal _________ that is available to us.’
(9) Encouraged by politicians, many adults indulge the infantile fantasy that the Government can
_________ gifts on us while imposing costs on no one.
(10)The massed crowds of supporters _________ed him a hero's welcome.

6. Match these words as they occur together in the text.

1. member (a) applicable

2. legal (b) system
3. take (c) law
4. uniformly (d) rights
5. bestow (e) objectives
6. impose (f) tasks
7. institutional (g) measures
8. national (h) precedence
9. pursue (i) obligations
10. appropriate (j) harm
11. achieve (k) states
12. cause (l) instruments

28
7. Use the words given in capital at the end of each sentence to form a new word that fits in the context.

(a) Mother Theresa was often regarded as the __________ of selfless devotion to others. BODY
(b) This volume is like cotton candy, a pleasant but __________ treat. SUBSTANCE
(c) I simply have to say that, the decision having been made, it is __________. REVOKE
(d) The jury heard __________ evidence from three different witnesses. CONFLICT
(e) The union is on strike in __________ of a ten percent pay increase. PURSUE
(f) As to how long this war will last, it's an __________ question. ANSWER
(g) He referred to "the __________ ideas of marriage and family on which our society is based." FOUND
(h) The state's __________ of subsidies has helped many small business owners. BESTOW

WATCHING A VIDEO – The decision-making process in the Council of the EU

Based on your knowledge about the Council of the EU, decide whether the following statements are true or
false.

1. The Council is one of the three main institutions of the EU.

2. Only some EU member states are represented in the Council of the EU.
3. The Council and the Parliament consider, amend, negotiate and adopt EU legislation.
4. Legislation can be proposed by the Commission.
5. Under the ordinary legislative procedure, the Parliament is subordinate to the Council.
6. Legislation can be adopted at the first or second reading.
7. Once adopted, certain types of EU legislation have to be incorporated into national law.

Watch the video and check your answers.

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/decision-making/

CASE FILE: Your Influence as a European Citizen

Read the text below and answer the following questions:

1. Have you exerted your influence in any of the ways described in the text? If yes, discuss.
2. How would you define ‘stakeholders’? Are you a stakeholder as far as EU is concerned?

As a European citizen, you can influence EU policies in several ways:

 Firstly, by voting in your country’s general election: as a rule, the winning party then forms your
government. Ministers from this government represent your country in the Council of the European
Union, which plays an important role in EU lawmaking.
5  Secondly, by voting in the European Parliament elections: the European Parliament plays an equally
important role in EU lawmaking and your vote will help determine the European Parliament’s position
on proposed laws. The largest political group in the European Parliament will normally decide who the
President of the European Commission is, so your vote will help determine that as well.
 Thirdly, as a European citizen, you can make your own voice heard by taking part in online public
10 consultations. Before making proposals for new EU laws and throughout the whole decision-making
process, the European Commission seeks the opinions of citizens and stakeholders.
 Fourthly, you can have your say about what is happening in the European Union during the many
citizens’ dialogues that take place across the EU. These give you the chance to discuss European issues
with commissioners and other high-level representatives. You can check whether a dialogue has
15 recently taken place in your area or whether there is one coming up soon at: europa.eu/!CM89Vn.
 Finally, EU citizens can launch or support a European citizens’ initiative: europa.eu/!JC69Xw. In

29
 practice this means that members of the public may invite the European Commission to propose
legislation on a specific issue for which the EU is responsible, such as the environment, agriculture or
transport. One million people, or just 0.2 % of the EU population, from at least seven EU countries are
20 needed to launch a European citizens’ initiative.

WRITING: Proposal – PRIORITIES FOR YOUR REPRESENTATIVE IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

Identify a main topic/ issue that you would like your representative to defend in the European Parliament
and write a 300-word proposal.

As an example, you can read about the Parliament’s resolution to reduce plastic bag use in Europe here:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-8-2016-0773_EN.html?redirect

SUGGESTED STRUCTURE

Your proposal could follow this structure:

 Introduction: stating the topic/issue; examples.
 Suggestions: what can be done to solve the problem
 Conclusion

VOCABULARY BUILDER

Match the sentences on the left with an appropriate sentence on the right.

1. The committee's emphasis on the word ‘recycling’ A. Some, however, are emphatic that more
was noticeable. research needs to be carried out.
2. Our guide accentuated the importance of remaining B. She emphasised the fact that panicking
calm if there was trouble. would only make matters worse.
3. Our teacher explained that it was crucially important C. The main speaker gave prominence in his
to pace ourselves while revising for the exam. speech to the need for better job opportunities.
4. At the conference, the accent was on D. We consider progress in this field to be
unemployment. extremely important.
5. Prominent scientists have stated that genetically E. He put great stress on the maxim that ‘All
modified food is probably perfectly safe. work and no play makes Jack a dull boy’.
6. It is of crucial importance that we make more use of F. They stressed again and again the importance
technology if we are to make progress. of reusing things as much as possible.

2. Complete these sentences with a word or phrase in bold from exercise 1. You may need to change the
form of the word or phrase. In some cases, more than one answer is possible.

1. Painting the building white did not make it look any better. In fact, it only ........................... its ugliness.
2. The rugged hills are a ........................... feature of the landscape
3. At the meeting of the Students' Council, the ........................... was on better standards of accommodation.
4. The Minister of Transport ........................... on the need for an integrated transport policy.
5. It is ........................... that we try to improve relations between our countries.
6. She banged the table for ........................... as she spoke.

30
QUIZ – Check your knowledge

Complete the following sentence pairs with the appropriate word.

(1) make / cause

(a) The noise from traffic outside the school can .................... it hard to hear what the teacher is saying.
(b) Hurricanes .................... widespread damage in urban areas.

(2) nature / countryside

(a) Thousands of .................... lovers head for the national parks every weekend.
(b) I’d rather live in the .................... than in a city.

(3) per cent / percentage

(a) It is a myth that only ten ....................... of Americans hold a passport.
(b) Only a small ............................... of land is privately owned.

(4) permission / permit

(a) I’m afraid we can't .................... photography in the museum.
(b) We received . .................... to attend the meeting, as long as we didn 't interrupt.

(5) personal / personnel

(a) My own .................... view is that professional football players are paid far too much.
(b) The company was in trouble until there was a change of .................... on the management team.

(6) possibility / chance

(a) We might go to Spain for our field trip. Another .................... is that we’ll go to Italy instead.
(b) If we act now, we have a good .................... of finding a cure for the disease.

(7) practice / practise

(a) It's important to .................... your English whenever possible.
(b) I think I need more .................... before I take the exam.

(8) priceless / worthless

(a) .................. paintings by artists like Van Gogh and Rembrandt should not be in the hands of private
collectors.
(b) As inflation spiralled out of control, paper money suddenly became almost .......................

(9) respectable / respectful

(a) We all listened in .................... silence as she outlined her plans for the museum’s future.
(b) Everybody wants to bring their children up in a .................... neighbourhood.

(10) tolerable / tolerant

(a) People need to be more .................... of their neighbours, and not complain every time they make too much
noise.
(b) The local authorities say that the noise from passing trains is ...................., but many living near the railway
lines disagree.

(11) treat / cure

(a) Many hospitals are so understaffed that they are refusing to ................patients with minor injuries.
(b) The new drug was unable to .................... the disease, and hundreds died as a result.

31
 UNIT 6 EU LAW
SECTION II: EU INSTITUTIONS AND THE LEGAL SOURCES OF UNION LAW

STARTING UP

Take the quiz below to see how much you know about the EU. Put a cross in the box against the
institution(s) that match(es) the description.

Council of the European

European European European
WHO …? European Court of
Parliament Council Commission
Union Justice
(1) Makes proposals for EU
laws
(2) Approves EU laws
(3) Consists of (only) one
representative/member
per EU country
(4) Is elected by EU citizens
(5) Executes the budget
(6) Represents the interests
of citizens
(7) Represents the interests
of EU countries/their
governments
(8) Decides on the
interpretation of EU
laws
(9) Defines the general
political direction of the
EU

READING – EU INSTITUTIONS

1. Name the EU institutions that you know.

2. Read the text and use these words to fill in the blanks:

(a) acts (g) chaired (m) internationally (s) people

(b) administrative (h) commissioners (n) interprets (t) policies
(c) audit (i) consistently (o) legislation (u) proposes
(d) authorise (j) disputes (p) oversees (v) rights
(e) budget (k) draft (q) panel (w) subject
(f) cases (l) eurozone (r) passing (x) tasks

There are 7 official EU institutions:

1. The European Commission has both executive and (1) _________ roles. There are 27 (2) _________; one for
each member country. The Commission focuses on the day-to-day (3) _________ of implementing EU laws and
managing EU finances. The Commission (4) _________ new laws to Parliament and the Council of the EU as

32
well as enforces laws. It also represents the EU (5) _________ by negotiating agreements between the EU and
other countries. Commission documents include proposed legislative texts and explanatory memoranda.
2. The European Council (6) _________ the EU's political policies and major initiatives but has no actual law-
making capabilities. This group meets approximately 4 times during the year and is (7) _________ by a
permanent president.
3. The Council of the European Union (referred to hereafter as the Council of the EU or EU Council),
representing the Member States, (8) _________ on Commission proposals and is the final legislative authority.
The Council of the EU may request that certain (9) _________ be proposed and may conduct any necessary
studies to help achieve treaties' goals. The EU Council also has treaty-making power.
4. The European Parliament is meant to represent the (10) _________ of the EU. Each member (MEP) is directly
elected by the populations of the member states. The European Parliament has three duties. First, it assists the
EU Council in debating and (11) _________ laws. Second, it scrutinizes other institutions, like the Commission,
to ensure that they are functioning in a democratic manner. Finally, it works with the Council of the EU to
adopt a (12) _________. The Parliament produces reports which detail its readings and recommendations of
Commission proposals as well as (13) _________ opinions.
5. The European Central Bank manages the Euro and safeguards price stability for the EU. It also acts to
implement EU monetary and economic (14) _________ by working with the central banks within each of the
member states. Only 17 of the 27 member countries have adopted the Euro and in these countries, known as
the (15) _________, the Central Bank works especially closely with the member countries' banks to (16)
_________ issuance of euro banknotes.
6. The European Court of Justice (17) _________ EU law to ensure that each member country is applying the
law (18) _________. It also settles disputes between member countries and EU institutions. Individuals may
also bring (19) _________ before this court if they feel that an EU institution has violated their (20) _________.
Judges on the ECJ (21) _________ represent each of the member countries. Eight advocates-general present
public and impartial opinions to the court regarding the cases before it. A general court, or court of first
instance, was created in 1989 to hear (22) _________ between civil servants and their institutions, companies,
and competition law.
7. The Court of Auditors is not a court and has no legal powers. It is an agency to (23) _________ EU finances.
Any person or organization that uses EU funds is (24) _________ to auditing on the spot. If the Court of
Auditors finds fraud or irregularities, it submits its findings to the European Anti-Fraud Office.
https://guides.ll.georgetown.edu/c.php?g=318932&p=2130498

2. Match these words as they occur together in the text.

(a) have (1) disputes

(b) focus on (2) findings
(c) oversee (3) issuance
(d) conduct (4) law
(e) authorise (5) policies
(f) interpret (6) a role
(g) hear (7) studies
(h) submit (8) tasks

Use some of the combinations to fill in these sentences:

(1) American judges are not afraid to ___________ no matter the case.
(2) Everyone here __________ to support our little community.
(3) It is not that easy to learn how __________ to improve productivity.
(4) When you want to ___________ make sure you will close follow the research guidelines.
(5) ‘We are here to ___________, not to quarrel’, said one of the jurors.

33
3. Fill in the table with the missing antonym:

Adjective Antonym Adjective Antonym

1. actual 1. 6. partial 6.
2. brief 2. 7. permanent 7.
3. close 3. 8. public 8.
4. direct 4. 9. regular 9.
5. official 5. 10. stable 10.

READING – Legal sources in the EU

1. Read the text and answer these questions:

(a) Which are the main legal sources of the EU?

(b) Which are the legal instruments listed under secondary legislation?
(c) What is a legislative act?
(d) What is a delegated act?
(e) What is an implementing act?
(f) Which are the Maghreb States? What about the Mashreq States?
(g) Are there any other sources of law which are not described in the text?

2. Read the text and choose the appropriate definition for the words/ phrases numbered 1-10.

(a) a particular way of speaking or using words, especially a way common to those with a particular job or
interest.
(b) an addition to a document or report
(c) a separate part at the end of a book or report that gives additional information
(d) a formal international agreement
(e) the time when a country officially joins a group of countries or signs an agreement
(f) a particular way of doing something
(g) to give an honor, official title, or ability to someone
(h) to improve the quality, amount, or strength of something
(i) to limit an activity, person, or problem in some way
(j) used to emphasize that something is not large or important

3. Use the words given in capitals at the end of each sentence to derive a new word which fits in the blank.

(1) The customs necessary for the _________ of the forests must remain in force. PRESERVE
(2) Solar energy for your home is expensive in the short term but it is more _________ in the long term.
ECONOMY
(3) We plan to take on an _________ ten employees over the next year. ADD
(4) On this occasion some _________ articles were added to the charter; these were intended to limit the
taxing power of the crown. SUPPLEMENT
(5) The _________ was simple and honest, and somehow it made her feel better. STATE
(6) The results of the investigation are getting _________ worse. PROGRESS
(7) The Identity Theft Penalty _________ Act, passed in July 2004, makes it a little bit easier since it outlines
mandatory sentencing for some identity theft cases. ENHANCE
(8) At a later period he was released from close _________ and allowed to settle in Mexico, where a pension
was given him. CONFINE
(9) It gave her a little bit of peace, knowing she wasn't _________ at the mercy of the outlaw. SOLE

34
 The term ‘legal source’ has two meanings: 50 Council lay down in advance the rules and
in its original meaning, it refers to the reason for general principles concerning the mechanisms
the emergence of a legal provision, i.e. the for control by Member States of the
motivation behind the creation of a legal Commission’s exercise of implementing powers.
5 construct. According to this definition, the ‘legal Finally, there is a whole set of ‘other legal acts’
source’ of Union law is the will to preserve peace 55 which the Union institutions can use to issue
and create a better Europe through closer non-binding measures and statements or which
economic ties, two cornerstones of the EC. In regulate the internal workings of the EU or its
legal parlance1, on the other hand, ‘legal source’ institutions, such as agreements or arrangements
10 refers to the origin and embodiment of the law. between the institutions, or internal rules of
The first source of Union law in this sense is 60 procedure.
the EU founding Treaties, with the various The creation of secondary Union legislation
annexes2, appendices3 and protocols4 attached to is a gradual process. Its emergence lends vitality
them, and later additions and amendments. to the primary legislation deriving from the
15 These founding Treaties and the instruments Union Treaties, and progressively generates and
amending and supplementing them (chiefly the 65 enhances8 the European legal order.
Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice and A third source of Union law is connected
Lisbon) and the various Accession5 Treaties with the EU’s role at the international level. As
contain the basic provisions on the EU’s one of the focal points of the world, Europe
20 objectives, organisation and modus operandi6, cannot confine9 itself to managing its own
and parts of its economic law. They thus set the 70 internal affairs; it has to concern itself with
constitutional framework for the life of the EU, economic, social and political relations with the
which is then fleshed out in the Union’s interest world outside. The EU therefore concludes
by legislative and administrative action by the agreements in international law with non-
25 Union institutions. The Treaties, being legal member countries (‘third countries’) and with
instruments created directly by the Member 75 other international organisations; these range
States, are known in legal circles as primary from treaties providing for extensive cooperation
Union law. in trade or in the industrial, technical and social
Law made by the Union institutions through fields, to agreements on trade in particular
30 exercising the powers conferred7 on them is products.
referred to as secondary legislation, the second 80 Tree kinds of agreement between the EU
important source of EU law. It consists of and non-member countries are particularly
legislative acts, delegated acts, implementing worth mentioning:
acts and other legal acts. ‘Legislative acts’ are (1) Association agreements go far beyond
35 legal acts adopted by ordinary or special the mere10 regulation of trade policy and involve
legislative procedure. ‘Delegated acts’ are non- 85 close economic cooperation and wide-ranging
legislative acts of general and binding application financial assistance from the EU for the country
to supplement or amend certain non-essential concerned. A distinction may be drawn between
elements of a legislative act. ‘Implementing acts’ three different types of association agreement.
40 are an exception to the principle whereby all the (2) Cooperation agreements are not as far-
measures required to implement binding EU legal 90 reaching as association agreements, being aimed
acts are taken by the Member States in solely at intensive economic cooperation. The EU
accordance with their own national provisions. has such agreements with the Maghreb States,
Where uniform conditions are needed for the Mashreq States and Israel, for instance.
45 implementing legally binding EU acts, this is done (3) Trade agreements are concluded with
by means of appropriate implementing acts, 95 individual non-member countries, with groupings
which are generally adopted by the Commission, of such countries or within international trade
and, in certain exceptional cases, by the Council. organisations relating to tariffs and trade policy.
However, the European Parliament and the
adapted from Borchardt, K.D. (2010) The ABC of European Union Law

35
3. Use the words given in capitals (1-13) to derive new words to fill in the blanks (1-13) in the text:

1 DEMOCRACY 6 INTEGRATE 10 ENSURE

2 PROSPEROUS 7 ANNUAL 11 INCREASE
3 SOVEREIGN 8 UNION 12 OPERATE
4 DEMOCRACY 9 DIVERSE 13 CURIOUS
5 HISTORY

Europeans united in diversity

The European Union (EU) is a family of 1__________European countries, committed to working

together for peace and 2 ___________.
It is not a State intended to replace existing states, but it is more than any other international
organisation. The EU is, in fact, unique. Its Member States have set up common institutions to which they
delegate some of their 3____________ so that decisions on specific matters of joint interest can be made
4____________ at European level.
The 5____________ roots of the European Union lie in the Second World War. The idea of European
6____________ was conceived to prevent such killing and destruction from ever happening again. It was first
proposed by the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman in a speech on 9 May 1950. This date, the “birthday”
of what is now the EU, is celebrated 7____________ as Europe Day.
In the early years, much of the co-operation between EU countries was about trade and the economy,
but now the EU also deals with many other subjects of direct importance for our everyday life.
Europe is a continent with many different traditions and languages, but also with shared values. The EU
defends these values. It fosters co-operation among the peoples of Europe, promoting 8____________ while
preserving 9____________ and 10____________ that decisions are taken as close as possible to the citizens. In
the 11____________ interdependent world of the 21st century, it will be even more necessary for every
European citizen to 12____________ with people from other countries in a spirit of 13____________,
tolerance and solidarity.

WATCHING A VIDEO – What has the Court of Justice done for me?

Read the text and fill in the missing words.

As citizens of the European Union we all have rights under EU law. These _______ are ultimately
interpreted and safeguarded by the Court of Justice of the European Union. In over 25,000 rulings to date, the
Court has given decisions on a wide variety of matters directly affecting our lives.
Example case one: air passenger rights. Thanks to court judgments, if your flight is delayed by more
than _______ hours, you can claim compensation. The Court has also ensured that airlines cannot cite
technical problems as an excuse to avoid _______.
Example case two: Google and the right to be _______. The Court of Justice has ruled that EU citizens
have a right to ask a search _______, such as Google, to remove entries relating to them from the list of search
results following a search on their name. This decision has given us greater control over our presence on the
web.
Example case three: medical treatment within the EU. In a series of cases, the Court of Justice declared
that if a _______ goes to another EU country in order to receive medical treatment, they should be reimbursed
by their national health insurance scheme under the same conditions as at home. If this treatment requires a
stay in hospital, the home country can insist that they give prior authorization before treatment takes place,
but the Court has ruled that this can’t be refused for standard procedures unless the same or equivalent
treatment can be provided at home within a reasonable time. This principle is rooted in ‘the _______ to

36
provide services’, which is enshrined in the EU treaty. One of the many treaty articles agreed upon for the
protection of EU citizens, and safeguarded by the Court of Justice of the European Union.

Watch this short video to check your answers.

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTfyrAlsJRZF1nGLLgnDiMA

WRITING: Argumentative Essay

FREE MOVEMENT OR PROTECTIONISM?

Consider this quotation: ‘By allowing people, goods, services and capital to move more freely, the single
market helps create growth and jobs.’

How far do you agree? Write a 300-word essay giving your opinion.

Use the structure given on page 12.

VOCABULARY BUILDER

1. The sentences below all contain a word or phrase in italics which is related to the idea of two or more
things joining together, sometimes with the result that they become part of something bigger. However, the
words and phrases have all been put into the wrong sentence. Put them into their correct sentence. In some
cases, more than one answer is possible. Write the correct verb at the end of each sentence.

1. His salary is merged to the cost of living, and increases on an annual basis. ___________
2. The International Book Association blended with Universal Press in 2010 to form the International Press.
___________
3. To get a better finish, he swallowed up the two paints together ___________
4. The firm integrated with its main competitor in the battle to win more customers. ___________
5. The suggestions from all the committees were took over into the main proposal. ___________
6. The immigrants faced hostility when they were first incorporated into the community. ___________
7. A lot of students had problems before they amalgamated into college life. ___________
8. When the large international college got together the smaller school, a lot of people lost their jobs.
___________
9. The students linked one evening and decided to protest about their situation. ___________
10. A large international company assimilated our firm last month and started making immediate changes.
___________

2. Look at sentences 1 - 1 0 and decide if the explanation which follows each one is true or false. Underline
the correct answer. Use the words and phrases in bold to help you decide.

1. During the exam, a pencil and eraser are required.

The people organizing the exam will provide you with a pencil and an eraser. True / False

2. Parents can be made liable for their children's debts.

Parents may be legally responsible for the money their children owe. True / False

3. He was obliged to pay back the money that he had won.

He had the choice whether or not to pay back the money that he had won. True / False

37
4. Students doing holiday jobs are exempt from paying income tax.
Students doing holiday jobs pay a smaller amount o f income tax than other people. True / False

5. The United Nations voted to impose mandatory sanctions on the country.

The United Nations imposed legally-binding sanctions which had to be obeyed by everyone, without exception.
True / False

6. Some companies force their employees to work long hours for low pay.
A lot of companies ask their employees to work long hours. True / False

7. It was an emergency and she pressed the red button; there was no alternative.
There was nothing else she could do; she had to set off the alarm by pressing the red button. True / False

8. Classes on Wednesday afternoons are optional.

It is necessary to attend classes on Wednesday afternoons. True / False

9. It is compulsory to w ear a crash helmet on a motorcycle.

It is your choice whether or not to wear a crash helmet when you ride a motorcycle. True / False

10. The museum is asking visitors for a voluntary donation of £2.

You don't need to pay £2 to visit the museum. True / False

QUIZ – Check your knowledge

Complete the following sentence pairs with the appropriate word.

(1) principal / principle

(a) Many people refuse to eat meat on .....................
(b) She was appointed University.................... in 2019.
(c) The country's.................... food products are coffee and sugar.
(d) I believe in the .................... that healthcare should be free for everyone.

(2) problem / trouble

(a) At night, the streets are full of people fighting and generally causing .......................
(b) I was wondering if you could help me with a little .................... I'm having.

(3) process / procession

(a) The highlight of the carnival is a huge .................... along the town's main street.
(b) In some cases, applying for a visa can be a long and frustrating .......................

(4) raise / rise

(a) As prices..................... demand usually drops.
(b) In response to the oil crisis, most airlines had to .................... their fares.

(5) remember / remind

(a) I can ........my first day at school really well.
(b) Language teachers often ..................... their students that the best w ay to remember new words is to use
them as much as possible.

38
POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS – a short guide
INTRODUCTION (‘Tell them what you’re going to tell them’)
- greet the audience (+introduce yourself)
- give the subject / title of your talk
- describe the structure of your talk
- refer to questions and /or discussion

THE MAIN BODY (‘Tell them’)

Sections Sub-sections
st
- 1 part a
b
c
nd
- 2 part a
b
c
- 3rd part a
b
c

THE CONCLUSION (‘Tell them what you’ve told them’)

- sum up the main points
-conclude
- invite questions from the audience and / or introduce discussion

OBSERVATION SHEET FOR ORAL PRESENTATION

Aspects Name of presenter Score

Points to consider 5 (min) 10 (max)
CONTENT - subject knowledge
- relevance
- evidence / support information
CLARITY - outline / organization
- coherence
- signalling /sequencing
- planning
DELIVERY - contact with audience
- persuasiveness
- timing
RANGE / USE OF EXPRESSION - appropriacy
- variety
- fluency
ACCURACY - grammar
- vocabulary
- pronunciation

39
 Part II: GRAMMAR
1. REPORTED SPEECH I
I. Explanations

A. What is REPORTED SPEECH?

We often tell people what other people have told us. This is called REPORTED or INDIRECT SPEECH. We usually
change tenses and references to people, places and times.

e.g. ‘I’ll talk to Mr. Jones tomorrow,’ said Mike.

Mike said that he would talk to Mr. Jones the following day.

B. REPORTED SPEECH – without tense changes

Statements are often repeated immediately, and the reported verb is in a present tense. In this case there are
no tense changes
e.g. ‘Jack is on the phone. He says he’s going to the cinema and do we want to go too?’

C. REPORTED SPEECH – tense changes after a past tense reporting verb

Statements are usually reported with a past tense verb and an optional that. All tenses that follow move back
into the past. This is sometimes called backshift.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Present Tense Simple Past Tense Simple
“I need some help” She said (that) she needed some help.
Present Tense Continuous Past Tense Continuous
“We are having our lunch.” She said (that) they are having their lunch.
Past Tense Simple Past Perfect Simple
“I wrote two letters to her.” He said (that) he had written two letters to her.
Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple
“I have lost my keys.” He said (that) he had lost his keys.
WILL WOULD
“I will be home at 6.00.” She said (that) she would be home at 6.00.
AM/IS/ARE GOING TO WAS/WERE GOING TO
“They are going to come back.” She said (that) they were going to come back.
MUST MUST
“I must finish this before I go.” He said (that) he must finish it before he went.

 Note that some verbs do not change:

WOULD  WOULD MIGHT  MIGHT OUGHT TO  OUGHT TO
COULD  COULD SHOULD  SHOULD

 Note that sentences in direct speech have speech marks (inverted commas) around the spoken words.
Indirect or reported speech does not use speech marks.

40
  Note that PAST PERFECT in REPORTED SPEECH can be a report of either Past Simple or Present Perfect.

‘I have lost my keys!, said Joe. Joe said (that) he had lost his keys.
‘I lost my keys yesterday,’ he said. He said (that) he had lost his keys the day before.

D. No changes after a past tense reporting verb

If the report is about something which is always true, it may not be necessary to backshift.

‘I like apples more than I like oranges.’ She said she likes apples more than she likes oranges.
‘Budapest is the capital of Hungary.’ He said that Budapest is the capital of Hungary.

Some speakers prefer to backshift in sentences of this kind.

E. Speakers in REPORTED SPEECH

Speakers can be mentioned at the beginning or at the end of the sentence in Direct Speech:

e.g. Jack said, ‘We’re going to miss the train.’

‘We’re going to miss the train,’ said Jack.

Speakers are mentioned at the beginning of the sentence in Reported Speech:

Jack said (that) they were going to miss the train.

F. OTHER CHANGES

In reported Speech, references to people, places and times often changes, because the point of view changes.

SPEAKER’S WORDS REPORTED STATEMENT

tomorrow the next day/ the following day
yesterday the day before
here there
this/these that/ those
today that day
tonight that night
next the next / the following
last previous/ before
the day after tomorrow in two days’ time
ago before / previously

G. VERBS EASILY CONFUSED: SAY , TELL, SPEAK

Speak describes the act of talking.

Simon spoke to me in the supermarket yesterday.
Say describes the words used. It is followed by optional that.
‘It’s warm today,’ she said.  She said (that) it was warm.
Tell describes giving information. It needs an object. It is followed by optional that.
‘You have won first prize,’ she said.  She told me (that) I had won first prize.

41
 II. Practice

1. Underline the errors in these sentences. Rewrite each sentence.

1. Sally told that she had lost her keys. Sally said that she had lost her keys.
2. Chris said me that he must leave early.
3. Maria and Tony said they shall see us tomorrow.
4. Tom said, I’m coming to your party.
5. Sue said that she had wrote a letter to Lisa.
6. Steve said us that he was arriving at 8.00.
7. ‘I had bought a new bike Pam told us.’
8. ‘What’s the matter? Ellen told.
9. Jim says that he had needed some help.
10. Joe said that he doesn’t feel well yesterday.

2. Rewrite each sentence in reported speech, ending as shown.

1. Anna told us that she had finished.

‘I have finished,’ Anna told us.
2. George said that he would be back at 6.00.
‘____________________________,’George said.
3. Helen said she was going to go shopping.
‘____________________________,’ said Helen.
4. Paul said he wanted to make a phone call.
‘____________________________,’ said Paul.
5. Tina told the teacher she had forgotten her homework.
‘____________________________,’ Tina told the teacher.
6. David said he had to be back by 3.30.
‘____________________________,’ David said.
7. Jan told me she would let me know.
‘____________________________,’ Jan told me.
8. Bill said he was going to be late.
‘____________________________,’ Bill said.

3. Match each sentence in direct speech with its summarised version in reported speech.

1. ‘Look, sorry about this, but I’m afraid I’m going to be a bit a. She said she would be back soon.
late.’ (c)
2. ‘Actually, I have no idea at all where I am!’ b. She said she had missed the bus.
3. ‘The thing is, I know it’s silly but I’ve missed the bus.’ c. She said she was going to be late.
4. ‘Anyway I’ll be back in next to no time.’ d. She said she had already rung.
5. ‘I did ring, you know, earlier in the evening.’ e. She said she didn’t know where she was.

4. Complete each sentence, using say, tell or speak in an appropriate form.

1. Jim told me that he was playing in the school basketball team.

2. I _______ to Helen and she _______ she would phone you.
3. ‘You’re lucky,’ _______ Steve. ‘I _______ you that you would win!’
4. A translator _______ the President what everyone was _______.

42
 5. ‘Look,’ I _______ her, ‘why don’t you _______ me what you mean?’
6. I_______ my teacher that I _______ Chinese, but she didn’t believe me.
7. ‘Please don’t _______ anything during the test,’ our teacher _______ us.
8. I _______ my friends about my party, and they _______ they would come.

5. Rewrite each sentence in reported speech, beginning as shown.

1. ‘I won’t be there because I’m having a party’ said Helen.

Helen told us that she wouldn’t be there because she was having a party.
2. ‘I’ve lost the map and I don’t know the way,’ said Jack.
Jack told me that he __________________________________________.
3. ‘When I finish the book, I’m going to watch television,’ said Carol.
Carol said that when __________________________________________.
4. ‘I’m doing some homework but I won’t be long,’ said Mike.
Mike said that he ____________________________________________.
5. ‘I like swimming but I don’t go very often,’ said Mary.
Mary told us that she _________________________________________.
6. ‘I got up late and I missed the bus,’ said Richard.
Richard said that he __________________________________________.
7. ‘I’m going to visit friends in Fiji but I’m not sure when,’ said Jill.
Jill told us that she ___________________________________________.
8. ‘I want to buy it, but I haven’t brought any money,’ said Tony.
Tony said that he ____________________________________________.

2. REPORTED SPEECH II
I. Explanations

A. COMMANDS AND REQUESTS

Commands are reported with tell and the infinitive.

‘Go away!’ He told me to go away.

Requests are reported with ask and the infinitive.

‘Please help me!’ He asked her to help him.

B. YES/NO QUESTIONS

Questions with the answers yes or no are reported with backshift and using if.

‘Does the London train stop here?’ she asked.  She asked me if the London train stopped there.

Note that the question form of the direct speech is not used in reported speech, as there is no longer a direct
question. There is no question mark.

43
WHETHER means if …or not. We use whether when we report questions linked with or. The question is
reported with backshift.

e.g. ‘Are you staying the night or are you going home?’, he asked.
He asked me whether I was staying the night or going home.

C. WH- QUESTIONS

Questions beginning with when, why, where, how, etc. are reported with backshift. The question forms of
direct speech are not used, so the subject in bold comes before the verb. There is no question mark.

‘Where is the bus station?’ she asked. She asked where the bus station was.
‘Where have you come from?’ he asked. He asked where I had come from.

D. INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Indirect or embedded questions are questions which have an introductory question before them. The indirect
question does not have a question form. Note that there is no change of tenses (backshift).

Introductory questions: Could you tell me…? Do you know …?

YES/NO QUESTIONS INDIRECT YES/NO QUESTIONS

Is this the right street? Do you know if this is the right street?

WH- QUESTIONS INDIRECT WH- QUESTIONS

Where is the post office? Could you tell me where the post office is?
When does the film start? Do you know when the film starts?

E. REPORTING VERBS

Reporting verbs include part of the meaning of the words reported. Here are some of the most common
reporting verbs:

advise ‘I wouldn’t buy that car, James, if I were you’

I advised James not to buy that car.
agree ‘Yes, Jill, I think you are right.’
Mike agreed with Jill.
apologize ‘I’m really sorry for being so late’, said Maria.
Maria apologized for being late.
ask ‘Do you think you could help me, Sue?’
I asked Sue to help me.
congratulate ‘Well done, Tina, you’ve passed the exam!’
I congratulated Tina on passing the exam.
decide ‘I’m going to become a doctor’, said Helen.
Helen decided to become a doctor.
invite ‘Would you like to come to the cinema on Saturday?’
I invited Pam to the cinema on Saturday.

44
offer ‘Shall I carry your case, Dawn?’ said Peter.
Peter offered to carry Dawn’s case.
promise ‘I’ll definitely be home by eight,’ said Ann.
Ann promised to be home by eight.
“I’ll wait for you, Helen,’ said Peter.
Peter promised Helen that he would wait for her.
refuse ‘No, I won’t open the door!’ said Carol.
Carol refused to open the door.
remind ‘Don’t forget to send your mother a birthday card, Joe.’
I reminded Joe to send his mother a birthday card.
suggest ‘How about spending the day at the beach?’ said Carlos.
Carlos suggested spending the day at the beach.

II. Practice

1. Put one suitable word in each space.

(a) Helen asked me if I ____ going to school or not.

(b) David asked his mother ____ she ____ be coming home.
(c) Peter asked us ____ we ____ ever been to Hungary.
(d) Costas asked me ____ I many photographs.
(e) Maria asked a policeman ____ the museum was.
(f) Dora asked her sister ____ she ____ fed the dog.

2. Complete each question in direct speech ending as shown.

1. Jack asked me whether I was having lunch or going out.

‘Are you having lunch or going out?’ Jack asked me.
2. Carol asked Ann what she had done the day before.
‘____________________________, Ann?’ asked Carol.
3. John asked us if we often went sailing.
‘____________________________?’ John asked us.
4. Kate asked me how many German books I had read.
‘____________________________?’ Kate asked me.
5. George asked Sue if she was going to change schools.
‘____________________________, Sue?’ asked George.
6. Alice asked me who I sat next to in class.
‘____________________________?’ Alice asked me.
7. My teacher asked me if I would be there the next day.
‘____________________________?’ my teacher asked me.
8. Mary asked me where exactly I lived.
‘____________________________ exactly?’ Mary asked me.

3. Rewrite each sentence in reported speech, beginning as shown.

1. ‘Are you staying here all summer?’ the little girl asked me.
The little girl asked me if/whether I was staying there all summer.
2. ‘What does ‘procrastinate’ mean?’ I asked my teacher.
I asked my teacher __________________.

45
3. ‘Have you done your homework, or not? My mother asked me.
My mother asked me __________________.
4. ‘When is your birthday?’ I asked Sue.
I asked Sue __________________.
5. ‘Did you remember to lock the door,’ my father asked me.
My father asked me __________________.
6. ‘Why have you turned off the television?’ Ellen asked me.
Ellen asked me __________________.
7. ‘Do you speak Italian?’ the tourist guide asked me.
The tourist guide asked me __________________.
8. ‘How much did you pay for your bike?’ I asked Steve.
I asked Steve __________________.

4. Rewrite each question beginning as shown.

1. What’ s the time?

Could you tell me what the time is?
2. What does this mean?
Do you know ________________?
3. How much does this cost?
Could you tell me ________________?
4. What time does the museum open?
Do you know ________________?
5. Am I in the right seat?
Could you tell me ________________?
6. Where’s Asham Street?
Do you know ________________?
7. Is this Trafalgar Square?
Could you tell me ________________?
8. When does this bus leave?
Do you know ________________?

5. Rewrite each sentence in reported speech, beginning as shown. Use a verb from the list.

advised apologised congratulated invited

offered promised refused suggested

1. ‘I’ll definitely be at your house before 8.00, Sue,’ said Mike.

Mike promised Sue that he would definitely be at her house before 8.00.
2. ‘Would you like to come to the cinema, Jean?’ asked Chris.
Chris ________________________________.
3. ‘I wouldn’t eat too much if I were you, Dave,’ said Patsy.
Patsy ________________________________.
4. ‘How about going for a walk?’ said George.
George ________________________________.
5. ‘I’m terribly sorry for breaking the window,’ said Carol.
Carol ________________________________.
6. ‘Shall I do the washing up?’ said Bill.
Bill ________________________________.

46
7. ‘Well done, you’ve passed your driving test,’ said Tina’s mother.
Tina’s mother _______ her ________________.
8. ‘No, I won’t go to the dentist’s!’ said Pat.
Pat ________________________________.

III. Consolidation

1. Choose the best verb underlined in the direct speech sentence:

1. Helen asked me if I liked visiting old buildings.

‘Do you like/ Did you like visiting old buildings?’ asked Helen.
2. Bill asked Mary if she had done anything the previous weekend.
‘Have you done anything/ Did you do anything last weekend?’
3. The policeman asked me if the car belonged to me.
‘Does this car belong/ Did this car belong to you?’ asked the policeman.
4. Fiona asked me if I had seen her umbrella anywhere.
‘Did you see/ Have you seen my umbrella anywhere?’ asked Fiona.
5. Joe asked Tina when she would get back.
‘When will you get/ have you got back?’ asked Joe.
6. Ed asked Steve who had been to the cinema with.
‘Who did you go/ had you been to the cinema with?’ asked Ed.
7. My parents asked me what time I had got home the night before.
‘What time did you get/ have you got home last night?’ my parents asked.
8. David asked a passer-by if it was the right road for Hastings.
‘Is this/ Was this the right road for Hastings?’

2. Rewrite each sentence as direct speech:

1. Graham told Ian he would see him the following day.

‘I’ll see you tomorrow, Ian’, said Graham.
2. Pauline told the children their swimming things were not there.
3. David told me my letter had arrived the day before.
4. Shirley told Larry she would see him that evening.
5. Bill told Steven he hadn’t been at home that morning.
6. Margaret told John to phone her on the following day.
7. Tim told Ron he was leaving that afternoon.
8. Christine told Michael she had lost her lighter the night before.

3. Rewrite each sentence as direct speech, beginning as shown:

1. ‘You can’t park here.’

The police officer told Jack that he could not park there..
2. ‘Ill see you in the morning, Helen.’
Peter told Helen ____________________________.
3. ‘I’m taking the 5.30 train tomorrow evening.’
Janet said ____________________________.
4. ‘The trousers have to be ready this afternoon.’
Paul told the dry-cleaners ____________________________.
5. ‘I left my umbrella here two days ago.’
Susan told them ____________________________.

47
6. ‘The parcel ought to be here by the end of next week.’
Brian said ____________________________.
7. ‘I like this hotel very much.’
Diana told me ____________________________.
8. ‘I think it is going to rain tonight.’
William said____________________________.
9. ‘What time does the film start, Peter?’
I asked Peter when the film started.
10. ‘Do you watch television every evening, Chris?’
The interviewer asked ____________________________.
11. ‘Why did you apply for this job?’ asked the sales manager.
The sales manager asked me _______________________.
12. ‘Are you taking much money with you to France?’
My bank manager wanted to know ________________________.
13. ‘When will I know the results of the examination?’
Maria asked the examiner ____________________________.
14. ‘Are you enjoying your flight?’
The stewardess asked me ____________________________.
15. ‘How does the photocopier work?’
I asked the salesman ____________________________.
16. ‘Have you ever been to Japan, Paul?’
Sue asked Paul ____________________________.

4. Continue reporting each sentence, using only the number of words stated.

1. ‘Do you think you could possibly tell me what the time is?’
David asked me to tell him the time. (5 words)
2. ‘Excuse me, but I wonder if you’d mind opening the window.’
The man sitting next to me asked me _____________________________________. (4 words)
3. ‘You go down this street, turn left, then take the second turning on the right. The cinema is just down the
street on the left.’
A passer-by told me how _____________________________________________ (5 words).
4. ‘I want to know how much this bike costs. Can you tell me?’
John asked how _____________________________________________________ (4 words).
5. ‘Look, don’t worry, I’ll help you if you like.’
Sue said she _____________________________________________________ (3 words).
6. ‘Alright, I tell you what, the car’s yours for, let’s say $500.’
The salesman said I could _____________________________________________ (5 words).
7. ‘I hope you don’t mind my saying this, but you’re being a bit silly, aren’t you?’
Peter told me I _________________________________________ (5 words).
8. ‘It doesn’t look as if I’ll be arriving until after 8, I’m afraid.’
Jane said she probably ________________________________________________ (6 words).

5. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the same.

1. What time does the next boat leave? Do you think you could tell me what time the next boat leaves?
2. Where can I change some money? Can you tell me ______________________?
3. Where is the toilet? Could you possibly tell me _________________________?
4. How much does this pullover cost? I’d like to know _____________________?
5. How do I get to Victoria Station? Can you explain ______________________?

48
 6. Does this train go to Gatwick Airport? Could you tell me _________________?
7. Where do you come from? Would you mind telling me ___________________?
8. What do you think of London? Do you think you could tell me _____________?

6. Put a form of say, tell or ask in each space.

1. I told you that you had to be on time. Why are you late?
2. When you ______ her if she’d work late, what did she _____?
3. I think that Alan _____ us a lie about his qualifications.
4. When I _____ him what he was doing there, he _____ me it was none of my business.
5. I _____ I would help you, so here I am.
6. Did you hear what Sheila _____ about her new job?
7. What did Carol _____ you about her holiday?
8. There, you see! I _____ you the bus would be on time.

7. Put a form of one of the verbs listed into the space in each sentence.

accuse agree decide insist refuse admit apologise deny

offer remind advise confess doubt promise suggest

1. ‘No, it’s not true, I didn’t steal the money!’ Jean denied stealing the money/ that he had stolen the
money.
2. ‘Why don’t we go the cinema this evening?’ Peter ________ going to the cinema/ that they went to the
cinema.
3. ‘Yes, of course, I’ll give you a lift, Helen.’ Liz ________ to give Helen a lift/ that she would give Helen a
lift.
4. ‘I’ve broken your pen. I’m awfully sorry, Jack.’ David ________ for breaking Jack’s pen.
5. ‘Don’t forget to post my letter, will you, Sue?’ Diana ________ Sue to post her letter.
6. ‘Let me carry your suitcase, John.’ Harry ________ to carry John’s suitcase.
7. ‘Alright, it’s true, I was nervous.’ The leading actor ________ to being nervous/ that he had been
nervous.
8. ‘I don’t think Liverpool will win.’ Vanessa ________ whether Liverpool would win.
9. ‘If I were you Bill, I’d buy a mountain bike.’ Stephen ________ Bill to buy a mountain bike.
10. ‘Don’t worry Martin, I’ll bring your book back.’ Leslie ________ to bring Martin’s book back/ martin he
would bring his book back.’
11. ‘You murdered Lord Digby, didn’t you Colin!’ The inspector ________ Colin of murdering Lord Digby.
12. ‘No, no, you really must have another drink!’ Dick ________ on my having another drink/ that I should
have another drink.
13. ‘It was me who stole the money,’ said Jim. Jim ________ to stealing the money.
14. ‘Right, I’ll take the brown pair.’ Andrew ________ to take the brown pair.’
15. ‘No, sorry, I don’t want to lend you my camera.’ Alex ________ to lend me his camera.

8. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.

1. ‘Sue, can you remember to buy some bread?’ Paul reminded Sue to buy some bread.
2. ‘I don’t really think it’ll snow tomorrow.’ I doubt ________.
3. ‘I’m sorry I didn’t phone you earlier.’ Jill apologised ________.
4. ‘I really think you should see a doctor, Chris.’ William advised ________.
5. ‘No, I’m sorry, I don’t work on Saturday. Definitely no!’ Catherine refused to ________.
6. ‘Let’s go out to the pub for lunch, shall we?’ Wendy suggested ________.

49
 7. ‘It’s not true! I have never been arrested.’ Larry denied ________.
8. ‘If you like, I’ll help you do the decorating, Bob.’ Ann offered ________.
9. ‘I’ll definitely take you to the park on Sunday, children.’ Tom promised the ________.
10. ‘Yes, all right, I’ll share the bill with you, Dave.’ Brenda agreed ________.

3. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
I. Explanations

TYPE IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE VALUE

Present Tense Simple Present Tense Simple
0 - true, real
If you press this button the machine starts.
Dacă apeşi pe buton maşina porneşte.

Present Tense Simple Future (will + Infinitive)

-possible,
1
If we walk so slowly, we will be late. achievable
Dacă vom merge aşa de încet vom întârzia.
Past Tense Simple Present Conditional (would +
Infinitive)
- imaginary,
2
hypothetical
If I had a helicopter I would fly to school.
Dacă aş avea un helicopter m-aş duce cu el la şcoală..
Past Perfect Simple
Past Conditional
(would + have + Past Participle - impossible
condition, past
3
If I had left home earlier hypothetical
I would not have lost the plane.
Dacă aş fi plecat de acasă mai
devreme, nu aş fi pierdut avionul.

A. TYPE 0 describes what always happens. When or if can introduce this sentence:

It’s a tropical country, and so if it rains hard, everyone stays indoors.

When it rains hard, everyone stays indoors.

B. TYPE 1 is sometimes called a real condition. It describes what someone thinks will happen in a
real situation.

Situation: You are at the supermarket with a friend. Your friend has put some eggs in one bag, and is trying to
pick up lots of other bags. You say:
If you carry too many bags, you will drop the eggs.
If you drop the eggs, they will break.

C. TYPE 2 is sometimes called an imaginary condition. It refers to things that might happen in the
future, or things that you can imagine happening. We do not know whether the action can be
accomplished or not, we only know that the first clause depends on the second.

50
Situation: You are watching the stars one night with a friend. You start talking about aliens. You say:
If some aliens landed on earth, I would make friends with them.
If they didn’t speak English, I would use sign language.

We usually were for all persons in CONDITIONAL 2 IF SENTENCES.

If I were an astronaut, I would enjoy being weightless!
If she were a famous actress, she would earn a lot of money.

D. TYPE 3 is sometimes called an impossible condition. It refers to things in the past and it is
impossible to change things that happened in the past. The action would have been possible at
a certain moment in the past, but the subject missed the opportunity, so it is not possible
anymore.

Situation: You went for a long walk, but you did not take your umbrella. It rained, and you got wet.
If I had taken an umbrella, I would not have got wet.
If I had heard the weather forecast, I would not have gone out.

E. NOTE

UNLESS means only if not. We use it to say that something will only happen in certain circumstances:
We will go out for a walk, unless it rains.
I wouldn’t ask you to help me unless you were my best friend.

Conditional sentences usually begin with IF. However, in everyday speech, we often use IMAGINE or
SUPPOSING.
Imagine you saw a snake, what would you do? (If you saw a snake, what would you do?)
Supposing you owned a helicopter, what would you use it for? (If you owned a helicopter, what would you use it
for?)

II. Practice

a. Conditionals 1 and 2

1. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each pair.

1. If we’re / we would be late for class, our teacher will be / was angry.
2. If we lived / would live on another planet, we’d see / we will see the Earth in the sky.
3. If we take / will take a taxi, we’ll arrive / we arrived sooner.
4. If we don’t hurry / won’t hurry, we’ll be / we would be late.
5. If we were / are birds, we would be able to / are able to fly.
6. If you don’t wear / wouldn’t wear your pull over, you’ll feel / you felt cold.
7. If I studied /will study harder, I would get / get better marks.
8. If I had / have a motorbike, I’d ride / I rode it to school.
9. If you lend / will lend me your bike, I’ll let / I let you borrow my skateboard.
10. If I had / would have lots of money, I’d give / I gave some to all my friends.

2. Complete the sentence for each situation using the verbs given.

1. You are standing very close to the edge of a swimming pool. You are wearing all your clothes, not a
swimming costume. A friend says: If you (fall in) fall in, your clothes (get) will get wet!

51
2. You are sitting in the classroom on a hot day. You are day-dreaming about going to the beach. You think: If
today (be) _______ a holiday, I (go) _______ to the beach.
3. You can’t answer a question in your English book. You ask a friend to help, but she doesn’t know the
answer. She says: If I (know) _______ the answer, I (tell) _______ you.
4. You are walking towards the bus-stop with a friend. Suddenly the bus arrives. The bus-stop is far away, but
you think there is a chance of catching the bus. You say: If we (run) _______, we (catch) _______ it!
5. You are planning to go to the beach tomorrow with some friends. You are not sure about the weather,
because it sometimes rains at this time of the year. You arrange to meet tomorrow afternoon and say: If it
(rain) _______, we (go) _______ to the cinema instead.
6. You are very busy, because you have lots of work to do, and you also play in two teams. a friend asks you to
join a computer club. You say: If I (have) _______ more free time, I (join) _______ the club. But it’s
impossible at the moment because I’m too busy!
7. You are discussing the idea of underwater cities. People are describing the advantaged and disadvantages
of living under the sea. You say: If we (live) _______ under the sea, we (eat) _______ fish all the time!
8. You are worried about a test next week. You ask your teacher for some advice. She says: If you (study)
_______ for one hour every day, you (pass) _______ the test.

3. Complete each sentence using if, unless or would.

1. If you had asked me to help you, I would.

2. John _______ win more races if he trained harder.
3. Come on! _______ we hurry, we’ll miss the plane!
4. _______ you like to see my stamp collection?
5. What _______ you do if you saw a snake?
6. We’ll have lunch outside in the garden, _______ it’s too cold.
7. The manager won’t be long. _______ you take a seat, please.
8. I’m sure that Carol _______ go to the cinema with you, if you asked her.
9. _______ you feel like a chat, phone me tonight.
10. I don’t feel happy _______ I swim every day.

4. Complete each sentence a) to j) with an ending from 1) to 10).

a) If you play the music too loud, 8 1. the alarm would go off.
b) If the North Pole melted, 2. I’ll buy a new bike.
c) If we don’t have enough ice-cream, 3. I’ll be in Paris a t 6.00.
d) If I found someone’s wallet, 4. you wouldn’t see me anymore.
e) If a burglar broke into this house, 5. you would feel better.
f) If my train isn’t late, 6. the water would flood many cities.
g) If you were famous, 7. I’ll buy it for you.
h) If my father lends me the money, 8. you’ll wake up the neighbours.
i) If you took more exercise, 9. we’ll get some more.
j) If you tell me what you want, 10. I’d take it to the police station.

5. Complete each sentence as either a Conditional 1 or a Conditional 2 sentence using the verb given.

1. If I (have) had arms five metres long, I (be able) would be able to reach the top of that shelf.
2. Don’t worry, you’ve just got a cold. If you (take) ______ an aspirin, you (feel) ______ much better.
3. Vegetarians believe that if nobody (eat) ______ meat, everyone (live) ______ longer.
4. If I (become) ______ a famous rock star, I (buy) ______ my parents an enormous house.
5. It says ‘No Parking’. If you (leave) ______ the car here, the police (give) ______ you a parking fine.

52
6. It’s not far. If you (follow) ______ this path, you (come) ______ to the station.
7. If people in cities (use) ______ bikes instead of cars, there (not be) ______ so much pollution.
8. Actually it’s a very friendly dog. If you (touch) ______ it, it (not bite)______ you.
9. If you (leave) ______ your books on the desk, I (give) ______ them back to you at the end of the lesson.
10. If you (own) ______ a pet tiger, your friends (not visit) ______ you!

b. Conditionals 2 and 3

1. Rewrite each comment beginning as shown.

1. Supposing you had wings, what would you do?

What would you do if you had wings?
2. Why don’t you leave now? That’s what I’d do.
If _____________________________
3. Imagine you lived on Mars. How would you feel?
How _____________________________
4. I think you should buy a bike. That’s what I’d do.
If _____________________________
5. Imagine you were rich. What would you do?
What _____________________________
6. Supposing Jim came with us, what would you say?
What _____________________________
7. Why don’t you take the bus? That’s what I’d do.
If _____________________________
8. Imagine you owned a robot. What would you do?
What _____________________________

2. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.

1. If you phoned / had phoned me yesterday, I had given / would have given you the news.
2. If you took / would have taken more exercise, you might feel / had felt better.
3. If Tim drove / had driven more carefully, he wouldn’t have crashed / didn’t crash.
4. If you had come / came to see the film, you would have enjoyed / had enjoyed it.
5. If I’d known / I would know it was your birthday, I would send / would have sent you a card.
6. If people helped / had helped one another more often, the world might be / was a better place.
7. If your team had scored / scored more goals, it had won / could have won.
8. If you would have worn / wore a coat, you wouldn’t get / didn’t get wet.

3. Complete the sentence for each situation.

1. Helen didn’t leave early, and so she missed the bus. If Helen had left earlier, she wouldn’t have missed the
bus.
2. I didn’t buy more milk, so I didn’t have enough for breakfast. If I ______________, I _______________
enough for breakfast.
3. We forgot to take a map, so we got lost in the mountains. If we _______________, we _______________ in
the mountains.
4. I didn’t go to bed early, so I didn’t wake up at 7.00. If I _______________ early, I _______________ at 7.00.
5. Mike didn’t make a shopping list, and he forgot to buy some coffee. If Mike _______________, he
_______________ some coffee.

53
6. I didn’t realise you were tired when I asked you to go for a walk. If I ___________, I _______________ for a
walk.
7. The Romans didn’t sail across the Atlantic, so they didn’t reach America. If the Romans _______________,
they _______________ America.
8. I didn’t turn left at the station , and I lost my way. If I _______________, I _______________ my way.

III. Consolidation

Conditionals 1, 2 and 3 and other cases

1. Choose the most suitable tense.

1. If the machine stops / will stop, you press / will press this button.
2. I can’t understand what he sees in her! If anyone treats / will treat / treated me like that, I am / will be /
would be extremely angry!
3. If you help me / helped me with this exercise, I will do / would do the same for you one day.
4. According to the timetable, if the train leaves / left on time, we will / would arrive at 5.30.
5. If it is / it will be fine tomorrow, we go / will go to the coast.
6. If we find / found a taxi, we will get / would get there before the play starts.
7. It’s quite simple really. If you take / will take / took these tablets every day, then you lose / will lose / lost /
would lose weight.
8. I don’t like this flat. I think I am / I will be I’d be happier if I live / will live / would live in a house in the
country.
9. I don’t know how to play basketball, but I’m sure that if I will / do / did, I play / will play / would play a lot
better than anyone in this awful team!
10. If I phone / will phone / phoned you tonight, are you / will you be / would you be in?

2. Choose the most suitable tense.

1. Why didn’t you tell me? If you told / had told me, I had helped / would have helped you.
2. If Bill didn’t steal / hadn’t stolen the car, he wasn’t / wouldn’t be / hadn’t be in prison now.
3. If Ann wasn’t driving / didn’t drive / hadn’t driven so fast, her car didn’t crash / wouldn’t crash / wouldn’t
have crashed into a tree.
4. Let me give you some advice. If you smoked / would smoke / had smoked less, you didn’t feel / wouldn’t
feel / wouldn’t have felt so tired.
5. What bad luck! If Alan didn’t fall / hadn’t fallen / wouldn’t fall over, he won / would win / would have won
the race.
6. If you invited / had invited me last week, I was able / had been able / would have been able to come.
7. I’m sure your letter hasn’t arrived yet. If it came / had come I’m sure I noticed / had noticed / would have
noticed it.
8. We have a suggestion to make. How do you feel / would you feel if we offered / would offer / had offered
you the job of assistant manager?
9. If you lent / had lent us the money, we paid / would pay / had paid you back next week.
10. Terry never catches anything when he goes fishing. And if he catches / caught / had caught a fish, he
throws / would throw it back.

54
3. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense.

1. Why didn’t you phone? If I (know) had known you were coming, I (meet) would have met you at the
airport.
2. It’s a pity you missed the party. If you (come) _________ you (meet) v my friends from Hungary.
3. If we (have) _________ some tools, we (be able) _________ to repair the car but we haven’t got any with
us.
4. Thank you for your help. If you (not help) _________ me, I (not pass) _________ the examination.
5. It’s a beautiful house, and I (buy) _________ it if I (have) _________ the money but I can’t afford it.
6. I can’t imagine what I (do) _________ with the money if I (win) _________ the football pools or a lottery.
7. Mark isn’t a serious athlete. If he (train) _________ harder he (be) _________ quite a good runner.
8. If Claire (listen) _________ to her mother, she (not marry) _________ David in the first place.
9. It rained every day on our holiday. If we (not take) _________ the television with us, we (not have)
_________ anything to do.
10. Jim is so untidy! If he (buy) some new clothes, he (not look) _________ so bad!

4. EXPRESSING WISHES
I. Explanations

A. WISHES about present states

These wishes use the past simple after the verb WISH. The time referred to is an imaginary or ‘unreal’ present.
I wish I knew the answer to this question.
(In this case, I do not know the answer.)
I wish I didn’t have so much work to do.

B. WISHES about past events

These wishes use the past perfect after the verb WISH. The time referred to is past time.
I wish I had gone to your party last week.
(In this case, I did not go.)

C. WISHES about future events: COULD

Wishes using COULD refer to ability or to future time.

I wish I could drive. (Ability)
I wish June could meet me next week. (Future time)

D. WISHES about future events: WOULD (annoying habits)

These wishes use WOULD after the verb WISH. They often take the form of a complaint about a bad habit.
I wish Peter wouldn’t chew gum all the time.

E. IF ONLY

1. If only is used instead of WISH to make emphatic wishes.

If only I knew the answer to this question!
If only I had gone to your party last week!

55
2. In speech, ONLY is often heavily stresses.

F. IT’S TIME

1. It’s time followed by a person is followed by an unreal past tense.

Sorry, but it’s time we went home.
This has a similar meaning to a Conditional 2 sentence:
If we went home, it would be better.

2. High can be added for extra emphasis.

It’s high time you learned to look after yourself!

3. It’s time can also be used with the infinitive + to.

It’s time you started work! (You’re being lazy)
It’s time to start work. (A statement of fact)

G. I’D RATHER

1. I’d rather followed by a person is followed by an unreal past tense.

I’d rather you didn’t tell John about this.
This has a similar meaning to a Conditional 2 sentence:
If you didn’t tell John about this, it would be better.

2. I’d sooner can be used in the same way and has the same meaning:
Actually, I’d sooner we left now.

II. Practice

1. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.

1. I am sunburnt. I wish I hadn’t sunbathed / didn’t sunbathe for so long.

2. I don’t feel well. I wish I could stay / stayed at home tomorrow.
3. I’m not a good swimmer, but I wish I could swim / would swim well.
4. I wish I had / have a lot of money!
5. I wish I could see / saw you tomorrow, but it’s impossible.
6. I wish Jim didn’t sit / doesn’t sit next to me. He’s so annoying!
7. If only we had / would have some money we could take the bus.
8. I hope you enjoyed / enjoy yourselves at the dance tomorrow.

2. Choose the correct continuation for each sentence.

1. I’ve got lots of work to do, and I’m tired, but I can’t stop,
A. I wish I had taken a rest. B. I wish I could take a rest.
2. I wasn’t paying attention in class, and now I can’t do my homework.
A. I wish I listened to my teacher. B. I wish I’d listened to my teacher
3. Sarah painted her room green, but she doesn’t like it.
A. She wishes she’d painted it blue. B. She wishes she painted it blue
4. This is a very puzzling moment!
A. I wish I’d known the answer. B. I wish I knew the answer.

56
 5. It’s really cold and miserable here in the winter.
A. I wish we lived in an warm place. B. I hope we live in a warm place.
6. I can’t repair my bike because I haven’t got any tools.
A. If only I would have a screwdriver. B. If only I had a screwdriver.
7. I’m worried about my basketball team. Perhaps they won’t win!
A. I wish they play well. B. I hope they play well.
8. You promised not to tell anyone my secrets but you did!
A. I wish I hadn’t told you. B. I wish I didn’t tell you.

3. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb given.

1. I’m soaked to the skin! If only I (bring) had brought an umbrella!

2. This pullover was really cheap. I wish I (buy) __________ two of them!
3. I like your university. I wish (go) __________ there too.
4. I must get in touch with Sue. If only I (know) __________ her phone number!
5. This bus is really slow! I wish we (take) __________ the train instead!
6. I’m disappointed in this camera. I wish I (not buy) v it.
7. I answered three questions well. If only I (finish) __________ the whole test!
8. I can’t understand anything Marie says! I wish I (speak) __________ French.

4. Complete each sentence in a suitable way.

1. I’m hungry. If only I had a sandwich in my pocket.

2. Enjoy your holiday. I hope __________ time.
3. This is a lovely place. I wish we __________ before.
4. It’s a pity you live so far away. If only you __________ in my street!
5. Ellen is a fantastic dancer. I wish I __________ as well as her.

III. Consolidation

1. Choose the most suitable tense.

1. I wish Peter doesn’t live / didn’t live / wouldn’t live so far away from the town centre. We’ll have to take a
taxi.
2. I feel rather cold. I wish I brought / had brought my pullover with me.
3. What a pity. I wish we don’t have to / didn’t have to / wouldn’t have to leave. I’ve just started to enjoy
myself.
4. I wish you tell / told / had told me about the test. I haven’t done any revision.
5. I wish the people next door hadn’t made / wouldn’t make / couldn’t make so much noise. I can’t hear
myself think!
6. Darling I love you so much! I wish we are / had been /would be / could be together always!
7. I’m sorry I missed your birthday party. I really wish I come / came / had come / would come.
8. I like my new boss but I wish she gave / would give / could give me some more responsibility.
9. Having a lovely time in Brighton. I wish you are / were / had been here. Love, Sheila.
10. This car was a complete waste of money. I wish I didn’t buy it / hadn’t bought it.

2. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense.

1. This train journey seems endless! I wish we (go) had gone by car.

57
 2. I wish I (have) _________ the money to buy some new clothes, but I can’t afford it at the moment.
3. I wish the government (do) __________ something about the pollution in this city.
4. I’m getting really soaked! I wish I (not forget) __________ my umbrella.
5. I wish you (not do) __________ that! It’s a really annoying habit.
6. That was a lovely meal, but I wish I (not eat) __________so much.
7. I wish I (study) __________ harder for my exams. I don’t think I’m going to pass.
8. I wish you (not leave) __________ your dirty shoes in your bedroom.
9. I’m afraid I have no idea where Diana has gone. I wish I (know) __________.
10. I really enjoyed our trip to the theatre. I wish we (go) __________ more often.

3. Choose the most suitable tense.

1. A card payment is all right but I’d rather you pay / paid me cash.
2. Imagine you live / lived in New York. How would you feel?
3. If only I have / had / would have a screwdriver with me.
4. If you want to catch the last train, it’s time you leave / left.
5. I’d rather you don’t tell / didn’t tell anyone about this conversation.
6. I’ve got a terrible hangover. If only I didn’t drink / hadn’t drunk that fourth bottle of wine.
7. If you don’t mind, I’d sooner you practised / had practised / would practise your violin somewhere else.
8. It’s high time you learn / learned to look after yourself.
9. Jean thinks that everyone likes her. If only she knows / knew what people say behind her back!
10. I’d rather we stay / stayed at home this Christmas for a change.

4. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense.

1. What can we do to get in touch with Robert? If only we (know) knew his phone number.
2. Come on children! It’s time you (be) __________ in bed.
3. Actually I’d rather you (not smoke) __________ in here.
4. Suppose you (see) __________ a ghost. What would you do?
5. I’m so annoyed about my car accident. If only I (be) __________ more careful !
6. It’s high time you (start) __________ working more seriously.
7. I’d rather you (not put) __________ your coffee on top of my book.
8. I’ve no idea where we are! If only we (have) __________ a map.
9. Your hair is rather long. Don’t you think it’s time you (have) __________ a haircut?
10. Visiting museums is interesting I suppose, but I’d sooner we (go) __________ swimming.

5. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given.
Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words.

1. It would be nice to be able to fly a could I wish I could fly a plane.

plane.
2. Please don’t eat in the classroom. you I’d rather _____________ classroom.
3. I think we should leave now. we I think it’s ________________ left.
4. What a pity we ate all the food. only If __________________ all the food!
5. It’s a shame we don’t have a video. wish I _____________________ a video.
6. Don’t shout all the time, it’s so wouldn’t I _____________________ shout all the time!
annoying!
7. I don’t want you to buy me a present. sooner I’d _____________________ buy me a present.
8. I don’t like being so tall. wish I _____________________ so tall.
9. We ought to start working now. started It’s _____________________ work.

58
10. I regret not going to university. had I __________________ to university.

6. Look carefully at each line. Some lines are correct, but some have a word which should not be there. Tick
each correct line. If a line has a word which should not be there, write the word in the space.

Losing your money

Imagine it that one day you woke up and it
discovered that you had completely lost your _______
memory. How would you have feel exactly? 1. ________
I have thought about this recently after I was 2. ________
involved in a traffic accident. I woke up in 3. ________
hospital, and said to myself ‘It’s the time I 4. ________
got up and have went to school!’ I soon realised 5. ________
my mistake. A nurse came in and asked to me 6. ________
what my name was. I thought about it for a 7. ________
moment and then said, ‘I would wish I knew!’ 8. ________
Then I tried to get up. ‘I’d rather prefer 9. ________
you didn’t do that,’ said the nurse. ‘Don’t worry, 10. ________
you’ll have it your memory back soon.’ 11. ________
‘I wish you hadn’t have said that,’ I replied. 12. ________
‘Now I am really worried!’ If I hadn’t looked 13. ________
in my wallet, I wouldn’t have known my 14. ________
own name! Unfortunately my memory soon came 15. ________
back, and I realised I had a maths test the next day!

REVISION EXERCISES

1. Answer “Yes” or “No” and circle (i) or (ii):

1. I wish I had a big car.

a. Do I have a big car? No.
b. Am I talking about
(i) the present?
(ii) the past?
2. I wish I had gone to university.
a. Did I go to university? ______
b. Am I talking about
(i) the present?
(ii) the past?
3. I wish she would take the new job.
a. Has she agreed to take the new job? ______
b. Am I talking about
(i) the present/future?
(ii) the past?
4. I wish they hadn’t phoned the police.
a. Did they phone the police? ______
b. Am I talking about
(i) the present/future?
(ii) the past?
5. I wish she spoke French.

59
 a. Can she speak French? ______.
b. Did she speak French? ______
c. Are we talking about
(i) the present?
(ii) the past?
6. I wish she would speak French.
a. Can she speak French? ______.
b. Is she speaking French? ______
c. Are we talking about
(i) the present/future?
(ii) the past?
7. I wish I could agree with you.
a. Do I agree with you? ______.
b. Am I going to change my mind? ______
c. Are we talking about
(i) the present?
(ii) the past?
8. If only he had agreed with us.
a. Did he agree with us? ______.
b. Are we talking about
(i) the present?
(ii) the past?

2. Underline the correct verb form in each sentence.

1. I wish it stopped/would stop raining.

2. I wish it hadn’t snowed / wouldn’t snow yesterday.
3. I wish I knew / I’d know the answer to your question.
4. I wish you wouldn’t be / aren’t so rude.
5. I wish they visited / they’d visited us when they were in town.
6. I wish I’d speak / I spoke better French.
7. I wish they hadn’t been / wouldn’t have been so unfriendly.
8. I wish I’ve refused / I’d refused when you suggested the idea.
9. I wish I had / I would have more time to do this job.
10. I wish she would / had come to work on time in the future.

5. PASSIVE VOICE I
I. Explanations

A. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE

Verbs which have objects are called transitive verbs. In this sentence milk is the object.

Diane drinks milk every morning.

Verbs which do not have objects are called intransitive verbs.

Diane walks to college.

60
Only transitive verbs can be made passive.

B. PASSIVE: FORMATION RULES

The passive is formed with the verb be and the past participle. The object of the verb becomes the subject in a
passive sentence.

TENSE
We build hundreds of houses every year.
Present Simple
Hundreds of houses are built every year
The authorities are questioning two men.
Present Continuous
Two men are being questioned.
The police arrested one protester.
Past Simple
One protester was arrested.
At this time yesterday they were repairing the road.
Past Continuous
At this time yesterday the road was being repaired.
We have chosen Helen as the new president.
Present Perfect Simple
Helen has been chosen as the new president.
They will play the match on Sunday evening.
Future Simple
The match will be played on Sunday evening.

C. CONTEXTS OF USE

 Putting emphasis on important information:

Hundreds of houses are built every year by the Government.

In this sentence, it was what it was done, the number of houses built, which is given emphasis. Emphasised
information usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. Compare:

The Government has built hundreds of houses this year.

In this sentence, more emphasis is given to who did it, the Government.

 Spoken and written

Passive tends to be used more in writing, and in formal speech.

D. WITH THE AGENT BY

Passive sentences often include information about who did it. This person, thing, organisation etc. is called the
AGENT.

Stones were thrown by angry football fans.

61
 E. WITH THE INSTRUMENT WITH

Passive sentences may include information about what was used to perform an action. This is called the
instrument and is introduced using with.

The windows were broken with a baseball bat.

F. WITHOUT THE AGENT

It is not always necessary to mention the agent. There are several reasons for this. The passive is often used
because who did it is not known or the speaker does not want us to know, it is obvious, or remains impersonal,
perhaps because an authority is involved.

 Not known
Brenda’s motorbike was stolen last night.
If we knew who had stolen it, we would mention the name of the person. It is not necessary to add by
someone.

 Obvious
One protester was arrested.
It is not necessary to add by the police, because we know that it is always the police who do this. However,
some people prefer to include this information.

 Impersonal
Sometimes a group of people is responsible for an action, and who did it is not mentioned.
Students are asked not to smoke.
We assume that the school authorities have made this decision.

II. Practice

1. Underline phrases which are not necessary in these sentences. Not all the sentences contain
unnecessary phrases.

1. My wallet has been stolen by someone.

2. We were taught by a different teacher yesterday.
3. Nick was operated on at the hospital by a doctor.
4. The meal was served by a waiter in a red coat.
5. We were shown round the museum by a guide.
6. Two letters were delivered this morning by the postman.
7. Three men have been arrested by the police.
8. Yesterday a window was broken by someone.

2. Complete each sentence with a passive verb.

1. The police questioned George.

George was questioned by the police.
2. Millions of people watch this programme.
This programme ______________ by millions of people.
3. They will finish our new house at the end of the month.
Our new house ______________ at the end of the month.

62
4. They have elected a new president.
A new president ______________.
5. They are rebuilding the damaged stadium.
The damaged stadium ______________.
6. They have closed the mountain road.
The mountain road ______________.
7. Students write most of this magazine.
Most of this magazine ______________ by students.
8. A burglar stole my television.
My television ______________ by a burglar.
9. Somebody will meet you at the bus station.
You ______________ at the bus station.
10. United won the cup last year.
Last year the cup ______________ by United.

3. Underline the errors in these sentences. Rewrite each sentence.

1. Many pet dogs are losing every year. Many pet dogs are lost every year.
2. The ill man was been taken to hospital. __________________________
3. A new bridge is be built across the river. __________________________
4. All the food at the party was ate. __________________________
5. Nothing will being decided before next Saturday. __________________________
6. The match is playing on Friday evening. __________________________
7. The robber unlocked the door by a false key. __________________________
8. This book was writing by Sam’s father. __________________________

4. Rewrite each sentence beginning with the words given.

1. Archaeologists have discovered a new tomb in the Valley of the Kings.

A new tomb has been discovered in the Valley of the Kings.
2. The President will open the new sports stadium on Saturday.
The new sports stadium ________________________________________.
3. One of the most famous painters in the world painted this portrait.
This portrait ________________________________________________.
4. They will announce the results of the competition tomorrow.
The results _________________________________________________.
5. They are redecorating our school during the summer holidays.
Our school _________________________________________________.
6. The police in New York have arrested three terrorists.
Three terrorists ______________________________________________.
7. Our company sells more than a thousand cars every week.
More than a thousand cars _____________________________________.
8. They are building a new museum in the city centre.
A new museum ______________________________________________.
9. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.
Penicillin ___________________________________________________.
10. Two million people use the London Underground system every day.
The London Underground system _______________________________.

63
 5. Rewrite each sentence with a passive verb so that the people’s names are not mentioned.

1. The authorities have closed the casino.

The casino has been closed.
2. Someone broke into the flat last week.
3. People all over the world speak English.
4. The authorities have opened the new swimming pool.
5. Someone left this purse in the classroom yesterday.
6. The city council has banned traffic from the city centre.
7. People have elected a new government.
8. The clubs have postponed the match.

6. PASSIVE VOICE II
I. Explanations

A. VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS

Some verbs can have two objects. These verbs include: buy, give, lend, offer, promise, sell, take, send.

Peter gave Karen a present.

Peter gave a present to Karen.

Sentences with these verbs can be made passive in two ways.

Karen was given a present by Peter.

A present was given to Karen by Peter.

B. PROBLEMS WITH PASSIVE

To be born is a passive form but does not have an obvious passive meaning.

I was born in Uruguay.

Some verbs may have a passive form in other languages, but are not translated into passive in English.

C. HAVE SOMETHING DONE

When a professional person, e.g. a mechanic, a plumber etc. does some work for us, we can use have
something done. HAVE can be used in any tense.

We had our house painted last year.

I am having my car serviced tomorrow.
I have had my room decorated.

We also use this for unpleasant happenings.

She had her house broken into.

Tim had his arm broken playing rugby.

64
 II. Practice

1. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.

1. I’m having my hair cutting / cut / to have cut tomorrow.

2. The children were took / taken / taking to the seaside for the day.
3. I was sending / sent / send here by the manager.
4. Kate is having her car services / servicing / serviced tomorrow.
5. Sue had her windows breaking / broken / broke by vandals.
6. David has been offer / offering / offered a new job in Brazil.
7. Where exactly were you born / did you born / did you bear?
8. I’ve just had my bike repaired / repair / repairing.

2. Rewrite each sentence beginning and ending as shown.

1. Someone stole Bob’s bike.

Bob had his bike stolen.
2. John lent me this book.
This book _____________________ John.
3. The dentist took one of my teeth yesterday.
Yesterday I _____________________ out.
4. Cairo is my place of birth.
I _____________________ in Cairo.
5. A rock concert ticket was sold to me by a friend.
I was _____________________ by a friend.
6. Someone broke into Tom’s house last week.
Tom had _____________________ last week.
7. When is your date of birth?
When exactly ___________________ born?
8. My parents gave me this ring.
I _____________________ parents.

3. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word given.

1. They are servicing my car tomorrow.

having
I am having my car serviced tomorrow.
2. Yesterday they stole my bike.
had
___________________________________
3. Last year they painted our house.
had
___________________________________
4. They are taking out my tooth tomorrow.
having
___________________________________
5. They have just cut my hair.
had
___________________________________
6. They are fitting our new carpet tomorrow.

65
 having
___________________________________
7. They have just painted Ann’s portrait.
had
___________________________________

III. Consolidation

1. Underline the verb forms which are not possible.

1. My car has being stolen.

2. Jack was borned on a Thursday.
3. Then I realised that none of the guests had been sent an invitation.
4. Mary’s car is being serviced today.
5. Your order will been sent as soon as possible.
6. The hole in the road was being repaired when I came home.
7. This swimming pool is used by over a thousand people each week.
8. When was this church built?
9. An address is writing on the back of the envelope.
10. Customers are request to ask for a receipt.

2. Choose the most suitable tense.

1. Their new house hasn’t been finished / wasn’t finished yet.

2. The robbers were arrested / have been arrested as soon as they left the bank.
3. Sue told us her baby is born / had been born two weeks earlier than expected.
4. If there is too much snow, the match has been cancelled / will be cancelled.
5. By the time we got there, the rain had stopped / had been stopped.
6. When were you told / have you been told about the new rules?
7. Most of the passengers were swimming / were swum easily to the shore.
8. The winning horse was ridden / was riding by Pat Murphy.
9. I looked again for the old man, but he was vanished / had vanished.
10. I don’t think that you will be asked / are being asked to show your passport.

3. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first, using the word given (two to
five words).

1. Last Thursday we appointed a new marketing manager.

was A new marketing manager was appointed last Thursday.
2. Smith Ltd. are supplying our company with furniture.
supplied Our company __________________________________ by Smith Ltd.
3. William the Conqueror built the castle in the 11th century.
by The castle __________________________________ William the Conqueror in the 11 th
century
4. No decision has yet been made.
decided Nothing ___________________________________________ yet.
5. People believe that someone murdered Jenkins.
was It _______________________________________________ murdered.
6. Your hair needs cutting.
get You ought ____________________________________________ cut

66
7. The police were following the suspects.
were The suspects _______________________________________ police.
8. No one has seen Peter since the day of the party.
been Peter ___________________________________the day of the party.
9. We put up a notice about the trip on the notice board yesterday.
was A notice ____________________ up on the notice board yesterday.
10. People think that an apple a day is good for you.
to An apple a day _____________________________________ for you.

4. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains a form of have something done. Do not include the agent.

1. A painter painted our house last month.

We had our house painted last month.
2. The hairdresser is cutting my hair this afternoon.
______________________________________________________
3. Someone has stolen my motorbike.
______________________________________________________
4. The dentist has taken out all of Ricky’s teeth.
______________________________________________________
5. I haven’t been to the car wash for a long time.
______________________________________________________
6. The men are coming to put in the new central heating on Saturday.
______________________________________________________
7. Someone broke Harry’s nose in a fight.
______________________________________________________
8. Isn’t it time someone fixed your television?
______________________________________________________
9. Helen’s publishers have just published her book.
______________________________________________________
10. The police towed away Nigel’s car.
______________________________________________________

67