Cisco Certified Network Associate

(CCNA)
•Cisco certifications are globally respected IT certification programs for Wide Area Networking
(Internetworking).
•Cisco has five levels of certification:
−CCENT (Cisco Certified Entry Networking Technician)
−CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)
−CCNP (Cisco Certified Network Professional)
−CCIE (Cisco Certified Inter networking Expert)
−CCAr (Cisco Certified Architect)
There are 2 tracks for CCNA examination :
•Two paper track
−ICND 1 (100-101) (On passing this exam the candidate is CCENT)
−ICND 2 (200-101) (On passing both exams the candidate is CCNA)

Cisco Certified Entry Networking Technician (CCENT)

Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices (ICND)

OR

•One paper track

−CCNA (200-120) (On passing this exam the candidate is CCNA)
•Cisco Certified Network Associate R&S exam is the associate level exam into Wide Area Networking.
Exam Number : 200-125 CCNA V3
Duration : 90 Minutes
Number of questions : 50-60 questions
Passing Mark : 825 / 1000
Available Languages : English
Exam Questions : Multiple-choice single answer
Multiple-choice multiple answer
Drag-and-drop
Simulations (Simlet)
Scenario Based (Testlet)
Basics of Networking
Network:
•Interconnection of two or more devices is called as a network.
•The communication between two or more interconnected devices is called networking.
•An internetwork is a connection of two or more networks.
•Internetworking means communication between different networks.
 Types of Networks

•LAN

Local Area Networks are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close geographic
area such as a floor of a building, a building itself or within a campus.

•MAN
Metropolitan Area Network are used to connect networking devices that may span around the
entire city.

•WAN
Wide Area Networks which connects two or more LANs present at different geographical locations.
LAN

HUB/Switch LAN
MAN

MAN

SWITCH
HUB

LAN
LAN
 WAN

Hyderabad
US
www.yahoo.com

WAN

Router

SWITCH
 Basic requirements to form a network

•NIC (Network interface card) also called as LAN card

•Media
•Networking devices ( Hub, Switch, Router etc. )
•Protocols
•Logical Address ( IP address )
 NIC(Network Interface Card)

•NIC is the interface between the computer and the network

•It is also known as the Lan card or Ethernet card
•Ethernet cards have a unique 48 bit address called as MAC (Media access control) address
−MAC address is also called as Physical address or hardware address
−The 48 bit MAC address is represented as 12 Hexa-decimal digits
−Example: 0016.D3FC.603F
•Network cards are available in different speeds
−Ethernet (10 Mbps)
−Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
−Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps)
 Media
•The purpose of the media is to transport bits from one machine to another.

Media

Guided Unguided

Co-axial Twisted pair Fiber Infrared RF

UTP STP
Media

Co-axial cable

UTP Cable

Fiber optic
Types of Twisted Pair cables

Category DTR Purpose Connector

CAT 1 1 Mbps Telephone Lines RJ 11

CAT 2 4 Mbps RJ 11

CAT 3 10 Mbps Ethernet RJ 45

CAT 4 16 Mbps RJ 45
CAT 5 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet RJ 45

CAT 5e 500 Mbps RJ 45

CAT 6 1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet RJ 45
Topology
Topology is a physical layout of the systems connected in a network.
Different types of topology are:
•Bus
•Ring
•Mesh
•Star
Bus Topology

•In bus topology all devices are connected to a single cable or backbone.
•It supports half duplex communication.
•A break at any point along the backbone will result in total network failure.
 Ring Topology
•In ring topology each computer or device is connected to its neighbor forming a loop.
•Failure of a single device or a break anywhere in the cable causes the full network to
stop communicating
Mesh Topology
•In mesh topology each device is directly connected to all other devices
•The disadvantage is the number of NIC’s required on each device and the complex
cabling.
Star Topology
•The most commonly used topology
•It consist of one centralized device which can be either a switch or a hub.
•The devices connect to the various ports on the centralized devices.

HUB/SWITCH
Networking devices
The various types of networking devices are:

•Hub
•Switch
•Router
•Firewalls
•Access Points
•Wireless Controllers
•Load Balancers
 Hub / Repeater

•It is not an Intelligent Device.

•It works with bits.
•Uses broadcast for communication.
•Bandwidth is shared.
•Half-duplex communication.
Switch

•It is an Intelligent device.

•It maintains MAC address table (hardware address).

•Each port of the switch has fixed bandwidth.

•It works with Flooding and Unicast.

•Supports full duplex communication

 MAC ADDRESS
Functions of Switch TABLE

PORT MAC-ADDRESS
Source MAC
001C.C01A.0002
Destination MAC
DATA Fa0/1
001C.C01A.0004
Fa0/2 001C-C01A-0002
1
2 8
3 7 Fa0/3
4 5 6
Fa0/4
Fa0/5
Fa0/6
001C-C01A-0002
Fa0/7

Fa0/8

001C-C01A-0004
 Functions of Switch

PORT MAC-ADDRESS
Source MAC
001C.C01A.0002 Fa0/1
DATA
Destination MAC
001C.C01A.0004 Fa0/2 001C-C01A-0002
1 Fa0/3
2 8
3 7
4 5 6 Fa0/4 001C-C01A-0004
Fa0/5
Fa0/6
001C-C01A-0002 Fa0/7
Fa0/8

001C-C01A-0004
MAC Address Table in Switch
 Router

•It is an Intelligent device

•It works with Logical Addressing (i.e. IP, IPX, AppleTalk)
•It works with Fixed bandwidth

Symbolic Representation:
Router
 Cables used to Connect
Straight Cable: Usually use straight cable to connect different type of devices.

Cross Cable: usually used to connect same type of devices

PC HUB Bridge Switch Router

PC Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable

HUB Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Straight

Bridge Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable

Switch Straight Cross Straight Cross Cable Straight

Router Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable Straight Cross Cable
Colour Code for Straight & Cross Cables
Open System Interconnect(OSI)
•OSI was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and introduced in 1984.
•It is a layered architecture (consists of seven layers).
•Each layer defines a set of functions which takes part in data communication.
OSI Model Layers

Layer - 7 Application
User support Layers
Layer - 6 Presentation or
Software Layers
Layer - 5 Session

Layer - 4 Transport Core layer of the OSI

Layer - 3 Network
Networksupport Layers
Layer - 2 Data Link or
Hardware Layers
Layer - 1 Physical
Application Layer

Application
Application Layer : is responsible for providing an
interface for the users to interact with application services or
Networking Services .
Presentation
Ex: Web browser(HTTP), Telnet etc.
Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Examples of Networking Services

Service Port No.

HTTP 80
FTP 21
SMTP 25
TELNET 23
TFTP 69
Data flow from Application Layer

Application Data

80 21 25 53 67 69

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Presentation Layer

Presentation Layer : It is responsible for defining a

Application
standard format to the data.
It deals with data presentation.
Presentation
The major functions described at this layer are..
Encoding – Decoding
Session
Ex : ASCII, EBCDIC (Text)
JPEG,GIF,TIFF (Graphics)
Transport
MIDI,WAV (Voice)
MPEG,DAT,AVI (Video)
Network Encryption – Decryption
Compression – Decompression
Data Link

Physical
Data flow from Presentation
Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Session Layer

Session Layer : It is responsible for establishing,

Application
maintaining and terminating the sessions.
Session ID is used to identify a session or
Presentation
interaction.
Ex :
Session
RPC Remote Procedural Call
SQL Structured Query Language
Transport ASP AppleTalk Session protocol

Network

Data Link

Physical
Data flow from Session
Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Transport
Layer
Transport Layer : It provides data delivery mechanism
Application
between the applications in the network.
The major functions described at the Transport Layer are.
Presentation
•Identifying Service
Session •Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
•Segmentation
Transport •Sequencing & Reassembling
•Error Correction
Network •Flow Control

Data Link

Physical
Identifying a Service

•Identification of Services is done using port Numbers.

•Port is a logical communication Channel

Total No. Ports 0 – 65535

Reserved Ports 1 - 49151
Open Ports 49152 – 65535
 Multiplexing & De-multiplexing

Multiplexing and De-multiplexing are the two very important functions

Application that are performed by Transport Layer.

Presentation Transport layer at the sender side receives data from different
Applications , encapsulates every packet with a Transport Layer
Session header and pass it on to the underlying Network Layer. This job of
transport layer is known as Multiplexing.

At the receiver's side, the transport layer will do De-Multiplexing

Transport
TCP -6 Eg: Suppose you are sitting in front of your computer, and you are
UDP -17
downloading web pages while running one FTP session and two
Telnet sessions.
Network
You therefore have four network application processes running – two
Telnet processes, one FTP process, and one HTTP process. When
Data Link the transport layer in your computer receives data from the network
layer below, it needs to direct the received data to one of these four
Physical processes. Let’s now examine how this is done
Transport Layer Protocols
•The protocols which takes care of Data Transportation at Transport layer are TCP and UDP

TCP UDP

Transmission Control Protocol

User Datagram Protocol
Connection Oriented
Connection Less
Supports Acknowledgements
No support for Acknowledgements
Reliable communication
Unreliable communication
Slower data Transportation
Faster data Transportation
Protocol No is 6
Protocol No is 17
Ex: HTTP, FTP, SMTP
Ex: DNS, DHCP, TFTP
Segmentation , Sequencing & Reassembling
Segmentation and Reassembling : A message is divided into segments; each segment
contains sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling the message. Message
is reassembled correctly upon arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were lost
in transmission.

HELLO!
HOW HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?
ARE YOU?

Data
 HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?
1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

Data
HOW ? ARE HELLO! YOU
2/5 5/5 3/5 1/5 4/5
 HELLO! HOW ARE YOU ?
1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

Data
Data flow from Transport Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport TH Segment
Data

Network

Data Link

Physical
Network Layer

Network Layer : It provides Logical addressing & Path

Application
determination (Routing)
The protocols that work in this layer are:
Presentation
Routed Protocols :
IP, IPX, AppleTalk.. Etc
Session Routed protocols used to carry user data between hosts.
Routing Protocols :
Transport RIP, OSPF.. Etc
Routing protocols performs Path determination (Routing).
Network

Data Link

Physical
Data flow from Network Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Device that works at Transport TH Segment

Data
Network Layer is Router
Network NH Packet
Segment

Data Link

Physical
Datalink Layer

Datalink Layer
Application
It has 2 sub layers
Presentation •MAC (Media Access Control) It provides reliable transit of

Session data across a physical link.

It also provides ERROR DETECTION using CRC (Cyclic
Transport
Redundancy Check)
Network Ex: Ethernet, Token ring…etc
•LLC (Logical Link Control)
Data Link
It provides communication with Network layer.
Physical
Data flow from Data link
Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport TH Segment
Data
Devices that work at
Data link layer is Switch Network NH Packet
Segment

Data Link DT Frame

Packet DH

Physical
Physical Layer

Application Physical Layer : It defines the electrical, Mechanical & functional

specifications for communication between the Network devices.
Presentation
The functions described at this layer are
Session Encoding/decoding:
It is the process of converting the binary data into signals based
Transport
on the type of the media.
Network Copper media : Electrical signals of different voltages

Data Link Fiber media: Light pulses of different wavelengths

Wireless media: Radio frequency waves
Physical
Data flow from Physical Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport TH Segment
Data

Network NH Packet
Segment
Devices that work at
physical layer are Hub , Repeater Data Link Frame
DT Packet DH
etc.
Physical Bits
Comparison between OSI & TCP/IP Model

Application

Presentation Application

Session

Transport Host to Host

Network Internet

Data Link
Network Access
Physical
LAN Setup
IP Addressing
 IP Address

•IP Address is a Logical Address

•It is a Network Layer address (Layer 3)
•Two Versions of IP:
−IP version 4 is a 32 bit address
−IP version 6 is a 128 bit address
IP version 4
•Bit is represent by 0 or 1 (i.e. Binary)
•IP address in binary form (32 bits):
01010101000001011011111100000001
•32 bits are divided into 4 Octets:
First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Forth Octet

01010101. 00000101. 10111111. 00000001

•IP address in decimal form:
85.5.191.1
IPv4 address range

Taking Example for First Octet :

Total 8 bits, Value will be 0’s and 1’s
i.e. 2⁸ = 256 combination
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4 Total IP Address Range
0.0.0.0
to
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255 255.255.255.255
Binary to Decimal

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Answer
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 192

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 10
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 168

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 172

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 16
Decimal to Binary

Decimal 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

18 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

152 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

200 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

15 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

240 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
IP Address Classification

IP address are divided into 5 Classes

•CLASS A

•CLASS B Used in LAN & WAN

•CLASS C

•CLASS D Reserved for Multicasting

•CLASS E Reserved for Research & Development

Priority Bit

•Priority Bit is used for IP Address classification.

•Most significant bit(s) from the first octet are selected for Priority Bit(s).
•Class A priority bit is 0
•Class B priority bits are 10
•Class C priority bits are 110
•Class D priority bits are 1110
•Class E priority bits are 1111
Class A Range

•In Class A : First bit of the first octet is reserved as priority bit, bit value is zero.
•0xxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx

27 26 25 24 23 22 2 1 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4 Class A Range
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
127 . 255 . 255 .255

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 127
Class B Range

•In Class B : First two bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit value as 10.
•10xxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 129
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 130
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 131
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 132
Class B Range
128 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 191 191 . 255 . 255 .255
Class C Range

•In Class C : First three bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit value as 110.
•110xxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 2 3 22 21 20
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 193
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 194
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 195
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 196
Class C Range
192 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 = 223 223 . 255 . 255 .255
Class D Range

•In Class D : First four bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit value as 1110.
•1110xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 224
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 = 225
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 226
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 = 227
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 228
Class D Range
224 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 = 239 239 . 255 . 255 .255
Class E Range

•In Class E : First four bits of the first octet are reserved as priority bits, bit value as 1111.
•1111xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 2 3 22 21 20
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 240
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 = 241
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 242
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 243
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 = 244
Class E Range
240 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255 255 . 255 . 255 .255
Ranges

Class A Range Class B Range Class C Range

0 . 0 . 0 . 0 to 128 . 0 . 0 . 0 to 192 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
127.255.255.255 191.255.255.255 223 . 255 . 255 .255

Class D Range Class E Range

224 . 0 . 0 . 0 to 240 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
239 . 255 . 255 .255 255 . 255 . 255 .255
Identifying Class

IP Address Class

10.1.100.1 A

150.17.2.200 B

192.1.1.1 C

224.0.0.10 D

120.200.1.1 A
Octet Format

•IP address is divided into Network & Host Portion

−CLASS A is written as N.H.H.H

−CLASS B is written as N.N.H.H

−CLASS C is written as N.N.N.H

CLASS A – No. Networks & Hosts

•Class A Octet Format is N.H.H.H

Network bits : 8 Host bits : 24
•No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 28-1 (-1 is Priority Bit for Class A)
= 27
= 128 – 2 (-2 is for 0 & 127 Network)
= 126 Networks

•No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 224 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 16777216 - 2
= 16777214 Hosts/Network
CLASS B – No. Networks & Hosts

•Class B Octet Format is N.N.H.H

Network bits : 16 Host bits : 16
•No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 216-2 (-2 is Priority Bit for Class B)
= 214
= 16384 Networks

•No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 216 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 65536 - 2
= 65534 Hosts/Network
CLASS C – No. Networks & Hosts

•Class C Octet Format is N.N.N.H

Network bits : 24 Host bits : 8
•No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits– Priority bit
= 224-3 (-3 is Priority Bit for Class C)
= 221
= 2097152 Networks

•No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 28 – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 256 - 2
= 254 Hosts/Network
Network & Broadcast Address

•Network address: This is the address that identifies the subnet of a host.
•Broadcast address: An IP Address that allows information to be sent to all machines on a given
subnet rather than a specific machine.
•Valid IP Addresses lie between the Network Address and the Broadcast Address.
•Only Valid IP Addresses are assigned to hosts/clients
Example - Class A

•Class A : N.H.H.H
−Network Address :
0xxxxxxx.00000000.00000000.00000000
−Broadcast Address :
0xxxxxxx.11111111.11111111.11111111

Class A Network Address

10.0.0.0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3 Valid IP Addresses

10.255.255.254
10.255.255.255 Broadcast Address
Example - Class B

•Class B : N.N.H.H
−Network Address :
10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000.00000000
−Broadcast Address :
10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.11111111.11111111

Class B
172.16.0.0 Network Address
172.16.0.1
172.16.0.2
172.16.0.3
Valid IP Addresses

172.16.255.254
172.16.255.255 Broadcast Address
Example - Class C

•Class C : N.N.N.H
−Network Address :
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000
−Broadcast Address :
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.11111111

Class C
192.168.1.0 Network Address
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2
192.168.1.3
Valid IP Addresses

192.168.1.254
192.168.1.255 Broadcast Address
Private IP Address

•There are certain addresses in each class of IP address that are reserved for Private
Networks. These addresses are called private addresses.
•These addresses are not Routable (or) valid on Internet.

Class A
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

Class B
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

Class C
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Subnet Mask

•Subnet Mask differentiates the Network and Host portions of an IP address

•Represented with all 1’s in the network portion and with all 0’s in the host portion.

Default Subnet Mask

•Class A : N.H.H.H
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class A is 255.0.0.0

•Class B : N.N.H.H
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0

•Class C : N.N.N.H
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0
Default subnet mask

IP Address Default subnet mask

17.1.1.1 255.0.0.0

202.1.0.18 255.255.255.0

190.10.1.1 255.255.0.0

102.10.1.10 255.0.0.0

192.0.0.1 255.255.255.0
How Subnet Mask Works ?

IP Address : 192.168.1.1
Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0
ANDING PROCESS :
192.168.1.1 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
==================================================
192.168.1.0 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
==================================================
The output of an AND table is 1 if both its inputs are 1.
For all other possible inputs the output is 0.
Subnetting
Subnetting

•Creating Multiple independent Networks from a single Network

•Converting Host bits into Network bits
(i.e. converting 0’s into 1’s )
•Subnetting can be performed in two ways
•FLSM ( Fixed Length Subnet Mask )
•VLSM ( Variable Length Subnet Mask )
•Subnetting can be done based on requirement
•Number of Networks Required?
•Number of Hosts Required?
Note:- It is very Useful for Internet Service Providers (ISP), Large Organizations
/Companies etc.,
Requirement of Networks

•A corporate network has 200 PC’s

•Which class of IP Address is preferred for the network ?
Answer : class C
•There are 4 departments with 50 pc’s each

Marketing 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.50

Sales 192.168.1.51 to 192.168.1.100
Finance 192.168.1.101 to 192.168.1.150
IT 192.168.1.151 to 192.168.1.200
•Administrators requirement :
•Inter-department communication should not be there
Solution :
•Allocate different Networks to each Department

i.e.,

Marketing 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.50

Sales 192.168.2.1 to 192.168.2.50
Finance 192.168.3.1 to 192.168.3.50
IT 192.168.4.1 to 192.168.4.50
Main Aim of Subnetting

•Problem with the previous scenario is

•Wastage of IP addresses, if it is Public IP addresses (Approx. 800 )
•To reduce the wastage of IP addresses, we have Subnetting
― Requirement of Networks
Requirement of Subnets – 4 no's ?

Class C : 192.168.1.0
255.255.255.0
Subnets required : 4 no's
= 2n ≥ Req. of Subnet
= 2n ≥ 4
= 22 ≥ 4
= 4 subnets
Customized subnet mask =
255. 255. 255. 0

11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 00000000

. 11000000
255. 255. 255. 192
Calculation of Hosts / subnet
= 2h – 2 ( -2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID )
= 26 – 2
= 64 – 2
= 62 Hosts/subnet

Subnet Range

Network ID Broadcast ID

192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 to 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192 to 192.168.1.255
FLSM

VLSM

VLSM; IT; 0.25; 25%

Marketing
VLSM; Marketing; 0.25; 25%
Sales
Finance
VLSM; Finance; 0.25; 25% IT
VLSM; Sales; 0.25; 25%
VLSM

•Subnetting a subnet is called as Variable Length Subnet Mask

•VLSMs provide the capability to include more than one subnet mask within a major
network
Requirement of Hosts
•In corporate network there are 4 departments and their requirement as follows,
Marketing 10
Sales 50
Finance 25
IT 100

Arrange them in Descending Order

IT 100
Sales 50
Finance 25
Marketing 10
Requirement of Hosts

Class C : 192.168.1.0
255.255.255.0
Hosts required : 100 , 50 , 25 and 10
First , we calculate for IT = 100 Hosts
2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Hosts
= 2h – 2 ≥ 100
= 27 – 2 ≥ 100
= 128 – 2 = 126 hosts/subnet
Customized subnet mask =
255. 255. 255. 0
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 00000000
. 10000000
255. 255. 255. 128
Calculation of subnets
= 2n
= 21
= 2
= 2 Hosts/subnet

Subnet Range

Network ID Broadcast ID

192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.127 IT
192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.255
Now , Available network is 192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.255
Next, we calculate for Sales = 50 Hosts
2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Hosts
= 2h – 2 ≥ 50
= 26 – 2 ≥ 50
= 64 – 2 = 62 hosts/subnet

Customized subnet mask =

255. 255. 255. 128

11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 10000000

. 11000000
255. 255. 255. 192
Calculation of subnets
= 2n
= 21
= 2
= 2 Hosts/subnet

Subnet Range

Network ID Broadcast ID

192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.191 SALES

192.168.1.192 to 192.168.1.255
•Similarly, we can calculate for Finance = 25 Hosts
Using 192.168.1.192 to 192.168.1.255
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.192
2h – 2 ≥ Req. of Hosts
= 2h – 2 ≥ 25
= 25 – 2 ≥ 25
= 32 – 2 = 30 hosts/subnet

Customized subnet mask =

255. 255. 255. 192
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11000000
. 11100000
255. 255. 255. 224
 Subnet Range

Network ID Broadcast ID

192.168.1.192 to 192.168.1.223 FINANCE

192.168.1.224 to 192.168.1.255
•For Marketing = 10 Hosts
Using 192.168.1.224 to 192.168.1.255 with Subnetmask 255.255.255.224

•If we calculate, then we will get customized subnet mask 255.255.255.240 and Range as
follows

Subnet Range

Network ID Broadcast ID

192.168.1.224 to 192.168.1.239 MARKETING

192.168.1.240 to 192.168.1.255
VLSM

VLSM
VLSM;
Marketing;
14; 6%

VLSM; Finance; 30;

13%

IT
Sales
Finance
VLSM; IT; 126; 54%
VLSM; Sales; 62; 27% Marketing
Power table

287654321 = 256
2
4
8
16
32
64
128 9 =
10
11
216
12
13
14
15 = 65536
1024
2048
512
4096
8192
16384
32768
POWER TABLE
17 = 16777216
18
19
224
20
21
22
23 131072
262144
524288
1048576
2097152
4194304
8388608 25 = 4294967296
26
27
232
28
29
30
31 33554432
67108864
134217728
268435456
536870912
1073741824
2147483648
Some Important Values

VALUES IN SUBNET MASK

Bit Value Mask
1 128 10000000
2 192 11000000
3 224 11100000
4 240 11110000
5 248 11111000
6 252 11111100
7 254 11111110
8 255 11111111
Slash notation

Slash notation subnet mask

/8 255.0.0.0

/12 255.240.0.0

/16 255.255.0.0

/22 255.255.252.0

/24 255.255.255.0
Different Network
Communication
LAN - Different Network
Communication
LAN - Different Network Communication
LAN - Different Network Communication

http://192.168.2.4

HOME PAGE
Introduction to Routers
Router

•Router is an internetworking device.

•It enables communication between two or more different logical networks.
•It is a Network Layer (layer 3) device.
•It comes from the word “ROUTE”. Hence it is also a device that finds the best route
(path) for networks.
•The IP of Router is the default gateway for all devices in LAN.
Type of Routers

There are two type of Routers

•Hardware Routers:
−Cisco, Juniper, Multicom, HP, Dlink, Maipu and many more…
•Software Routers:
−Microsoft Server, Linux Server
Functions of a Router

•Inter-network Communication
•Best Path Selection S0/0/1 S0/0/0
•Packet Switching R2
•Packet forwarding
S0/1
S0/0

R1 S0/0 R3
S0/1
F0/0
E0/0

Source IP & Port

DATA
191.0.0.10 - 80
Source IP & Port http
DATA Destination IP & Port
61.0.0.10 - 3000 DATA reply
http 61.0.0.10 - 3000
Destination IP & Port
request
191.0.0.10 - 80
Internet User www.yahoo.com
61.0.0.10 191.0.0.10
External Components of a
Router
Types of Hardware Routers

•Fixed Router
•Modular Router
Fixed Router
Modular Router

Cisco 1700 Modular Router

WIC – Wan Interface Card

Cisco 2600 Modular Router

2800 Series
Attachment Unit Interface

•Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) is used to connect the Router to the LAN.
•It is also called as the Ethernet interface.
•AUI is an DB 15 pin female interface.
•Transceiver is used to connect AUI port to LAN HUB / Switch.
•Transceiver converts DB-15 signal to RJ-45.

Transceiver
Other LAN Interfaces - RJ-45 ports

• Routers have RJ-45 ports to connect the Router to the LAN.

•The speed of the RJ-45 ports can be
−10 Mbps Ethernet
−10/100 Mbps Fast Ethernet
−10/100/1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
LAN Connectivity

An IP address has to be assigned to this interface. It should be in the same network as that of the
LAN. This IP address is the default gateway address for all LAN systems.

R1
E0
Straight Cable 192.168.1.1/24

Switch
Straight Cable

LAN - 192.168.1.0/24
LAN Connectivity

R1
E0
192.168.1.1/24

Cross Cable
To connect the router’s Ethernet interface
directly to a PC LAN card a cross cable is used.

LAN - 192.168.1.0/24
Serial Port

•Serial port is used for WAN Connectivity.

•Serial port are available as
− 60 pin female connectors.
−Smart Serial 26 pin female connectors.
•V.35 cable is used to connect the serial port of the router to the leased line modem
(CSU/DSU).
HWIC

Gigabit Ethernet High-Speed WAN Interface Card (HWIC) brings Gigabit Ethernet
connectivity to Cisco Integrated Services Routers routers to accelerate applications such
as Metro Ethernet access, inter-VLAN routing, and high-speed connectivity to LAN
switches
Console Port

•It is a local administrative port.

•It is a RJ-45 Port.
•It is used for initial configuration and advance troubleshooting.
•Note : It is the most important and sensitive port on the Router.

DB-9 Convertor Console cable

Console Connectivity

RJ-45
Connector
Console Port

Rollover RJ-45 to DB-9 Computer

Cable Converter
Auxiliary Port

•It is a remote administrative port.

•Used for remote administration / configuration.
•Its an RJ-45 port.
•A console / rollover cable is used to connect the auxiliary port to a dial-up modem.
Roll over Cable

One End Other End

Orange-white Brown
Orange Brown-white
Green-white Green
Blue Blue-white
Blue-white Blue
Green Green-white
Brown-white Orange
Brown Orange-white
Auxiliary Connectivity
Interfaces of a Router

•LAN Interface
−Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) 10 Mbps
−RJ 45 Ethernet / FastEthernet / GigabitEthernet
•WAN Interface
−Normal Serial Interface
−Smart Serial Interface
•Administrative Interface
−Console
−Auxiliary
Internal Components of a Router
Internal Components of Router

•ROM (Read only Memory)

−It contains a bootstrap program which searches and loads the operating system.
−It is similar to the BIOS of a PC.
−It also contains a ROMMON for advance troubleshooting.

•Flash memory
−The Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is stored here.
−IOS is a Cisco proprietary operating system.
Internal Components of Router

•NVRAM (Non Volatile Random Access Memory)

−NVRAM is similar to a hard disk.
−It is also known as permanent storage.
−The startup configuration is stored here.

•RAM (Random Access Memory)

−It is also called as the main memory.
−It is a temporary storage.
−The running configuration is stored here.
Internal Components of Router
BOOT Sequence

Power On Self Test – checks the hardware POST

ROM loads Bootstrap program and searches for the IOS ROM

IOS from Flash is loaded FLASH

The startup configuration is loaded from the NVRAM NVRAM

Boot process is completed as everything is loaded into the

RAM
RAM
Initial Configuration
Console Connectivity

RJ-45
Connector
Console Port

Rollover RJ-45 to DB-9 Computer

Cable Converter
Console Connectivity

•Cisco Routers & Switches does not have any default IP address or Configuration, hence
require to use the Console port for Initial Configuration.
•Require physical connection between the Cisco Router/Switch and PC via console cable.
Emulation Software

WINDOWS
•Hyper-terminal / Putty / Teraterm

LINUX
•Minicom -s
Initial Configuration

Con 0
R1
E0

Switch
Accessing Router

Console
R1
E0
10.0.0.1/8

Switch

Computer IP Address
10.0.0.10
•Accessing router via console from Microsoft Windows Computer
• Start a terminal emulator application, such as PUTTY.exe
•Select Serial option and set speed to 9600
•Click Open
WAN Technologies
Types of WAN Technologies
•Dedicated service
−Leased Line
•MLLN (Managed Leased Line Networks)
•Circuit switching
−PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Networks)
−ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Networks)
•Packet Switching
−Frame-relay
−MPLS (Multi Protocol Label Switching)
−ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
•Broadband
−DSL
−Cable Internet
•VSAT
•MOBILE - 3G/4G
WAN Connectivity
Wan Connectivity

Hyderabad Bangalore

Hyderabad Bangalore
MUX MUX
Fiber Optic

V.35 Cable TELCO V.35 Cable

R1 R2
E0 Pair of E0
192.168.2.1/24 Copper wire 10.0.0.0/8

Switch CSU / DSU CSU / DSU Switch

LAN – 192.168.2.0/24 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

Wan Connectivity Representation
Device Classification

DCE DTE

lData Communication Equipment lData Termination Equipment

lGenerate clocking lAccept clocking
(i.e. Speed) (i.e. Speed)
lMaster lSlave
lExample of DCE:- CSU/DSU lExample of DTE:- Router
Serial - back to back cable

•When the distance between two Routers is short, a special V.35 Back to Back Cable is
used to replace the copper wire, CSU/DSU and MUX.
•For data communication using back to back Serial cable, one end has to be a DCE and
the other has to be a DTE.

ROUTER 1

DCE DTE

ROUTER 2
Encapsulation

•Encapsulation is the process of adding a new Header or Trailer to data.

•The header and trailer contains information which is needed for proper transportation
of the data.
•There are different types of WAN Encapsulation:
−PPP
−HDLC
−Frame Relay
Wan Encapsulation

PPP HDLC

lPoint to Point Protocol lHigh level Data link Control

lOpen Standard Protocol lVendor proprietary Protocol
lSupports Authentication lNo Support for Authentication
lSupports Compression lNo Support for Compression
Wan Interface Configuration
S0/1 S0/0

R1 R3
E0/0 S0/0 S0/1 F0/0

Switch Switch

S0/0/1 S0/0/0
R2
G0/0

Switch
Interface IP Address / Mask Interface IP Address / Mask

E0/0 192.168.2.1/24 F0/0 192.168.3.1/24

S0/0 172.16.0.1/16 S0/0 172.18.0.1/16

S0/1 172.18.0.2/16 S0/1 172.17.0.2/16

Interface IP Address / Mask

G0/0 10.0.0.1/8
Serial Interface Configuration

To check DCE/DTE
•Router# Show controllers Serial < no. >

Serial Interface Configuration

•Router(config)# interface Serial <no.>
•Router(config-if)# ip address < ip > < Subnet mask >
•Router(config-if)# no shutdown
•Router(config-if)# clock rate < bandwidth >
•Router(config-if)# encapsulation < HDLC/PPP >

Verification
•Router# Show interface Serial <no. >
 WAN Interface Configuration

The first step to establish the WAN connection is to configure the Serial (WAN) interface.

By default the serial interface on the Router does not have IP address, encapsulation is HDLC and the
interface is in shutdown state.

Check for DTE or DCE interface, so that the clock rate can be configured on the DCE interface.

Syntax: Router# show controllers serial

Output:
KEY# show controllers serial 0/0

Interface Serial0/0
Hardware is PowerQUICC MPC860
DTE V.35 TX and RX clocks detected
idb at 0x8096C8CC, driver data structure at 0x80971DD0
SCC Registers:
General [GSMR]=0x2:0x00000030, Protocol-specific [PSMR]=0x8
Events [SCCE]=0x0000, Mask [SCCM]=0x001F, Status [SCCS]=0x06
Transmit on Demand [TODR]=0x0, Data Sync [DSR]=0x7E7E
---More ---
The following are the commands to assign IP, encapsulation & enable the serial port:

Syntax:

Router(config)# interface serial <no>

Router(config-if)# ip address <ip> <mask>

Router(config-if)# encapsulation <ppp> or <hdlc>

Router(config-if)# clockrate <clockrate vlaue> ---- Clock rate has to be given in DCE routers

Router(config-if)# no shutdown
 Check the serial interface connectivity

Syntax:
Router# show interface serial <no>
Output:
Router# show interface serial 0/0
Serial0/0 is up, line protocol is up

Hardware is PowerQUICC Serial

Internet address is 192.168.1.1/24
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 1544 Kbit, DLY 20000 usec, rely 255/255, load 1/255
Encapsulation HDLC, loopback not set, keepalive set (10 sec)
Last input 00:00:02, output 00:00:01, output hang never
Last clearing of "show interface" counters never
Input queue: 0/75/0 (size/max/drops); Total output drops: 0
Queueing strategy: weighted fair
Output queue: 0/1000/64/0 (size/max total/threshold/drops)
Conversations 0/2/256 (active/max active/max total)
Reserved Conversations 0/0 (allocated/max allocated)
5 minute input rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
5 minute output rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
1047 packets input, 68589 bytes, 0 no buffer
Received 584 broadcasts, 0 runts, 0 giants, 0 throttles
0 input errors, 0 CRC, 0 frame, 0 overrun, 0 ignored, 0 abort
1021 packets output, 69756 bytes, 0 underruns
0 output errors, 0 collisions, 13 interface resets
0 output buffer failures, 0 output buffers swapped out
28 carrier transitions
DCD=up DSR=up DTR=up RTS=up CTS=up
 From the output, the first line indicates the status of the Serial interface,
there are 4 different states:

1. Serial 0/0 is up , line protocol is up

(Layer 1 & Layer 2 Connectivity and configuration is fine)

2. Serial 0/0 is administratively down, line protocol is down

(‘No Shutdown’ has to be given on the local Router’s Serial interface)

3. Serial 0/0 is up, line protocol is down

(Encapsulation mismatch or clock rate has not been given on the DCE interface or Lease Line problem )

4. Serial 0/0 is down, line protocol is down

(Problem with the v.35 cable, CSU/DSU or ‘no shutdown’ has not been given on the remote Router)

Note: Unless both serial & line protocol is up Interface will not work(transfer the data)
Router# show flash
System flash directory:
File Length Name/status
1 3420472 c2600-i-mz_120-9.bin
[3420536 bytes used, 4968072 available, 8388608 total]
8192K bytes of processor board System flash (Read/Write)

Router# show version

Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software
IOS (tm) C2600 Software (C2600-I-M), Version 12.0(9), RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Copyright (c) 1986-2000 by cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Mon 24-Jan-00 22:33 by bettyl
Image text-base: 0x80008088, data-base: 0x805FF878
ROM: System Bootstrap, Version 11.3(2)XA4, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Router uptime is 46 minutes
System restarted by reload
System image file is "flash:c2600-i-mz_120-9.bin"
Cisco 2610 (MPC860) processor (revision 0x203) with 28672K/4096K bytes of memory.
Processor board ID JAD041806FJ (1957657516)
M860 processor: part number 0, mask 49
Bridging software.
X.25 software, Version 3.0.0.
1 Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 interface(s)
2 Serial(sync/async) network interface(s)
32K bytes of non-volatile configuration memory.
Using IOS context sensitive help (?)

The “?” provides context sensitive help, it provides the command syntax or the commands
supported in the various IOS modes.

Example 1:

Router>?
Exec commands:

<1-99> Session number to resume

access-enable Create a temporary Access-List entry
access-profile Apply user-profile to interface
clear Reset functions
connect Open a terminal connection
disable Turn off privileged commands
disconnect Disconnect an existing network connection
enable Turn on privileged commands
exit Exit from the EXEC
help Description of the interactive help system
lock Lock the terminal
ping Send echo messages
ppp Start IETF Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Example 2:
Router(config)# interface ?
Async Async interface
BVI Bridge-Group Virtual Interface
Dialer Dialer interface
Ethernet IEEE 802.3
Group-Async Async Group interface
Loopback Loopback interface
Multilink Multilink-group interface
Null Null interface
Serial Serial
Tunnel Tunnel interface

Similarly the context sensitive help can be used in all IOS modes and commands.
Command line editing:

Tab -> for command completion

Ctrl + a -> to beginning of the command
Ctrl + e -> to end of the command
Esc + b -> back by one word
Wrong command notification:
Router# comfigure terminal
^
% Invalid input detected at '^' marker.

Router#

Command line errors occur primarily from typing

mistakes.
 IP
Routing
IP Routing

•Routing is the process of moving IP packets from one network to another network.
•Routing involves two basic activities:
−Determining best paths.
−Forwarding packets through these paths.
IP Routing

S0/0/1 S0/0/0
R2

S0/1
S0/0
DATA
R1 S0/0 R3
S0/1
F0/0
E0/0

DATA

Source IP & Port Source IP & Port

DATA DATA
61.0.0.10
61.0.0.10 - 3000 191.0.0.10 - 80
http http
Destination IP & Port Destination IP & Port
request reply
191.0.0.10 61.0.0.10 - 3000
191.0.0.10 - 80
Internet User www.yahoo.com
61.0.0.10 191.0.0.10
Routing Network Diagram

Branch Office Head Office

S0/0
S0/0/1
R1 R2
E0/0 G0/0

Switch Switch

Interface IP Address / Mask Interface IP Address / Mask

E0/0 192.168.2.1/24 G0/0 10.0.0.1/8
S0/0 172.16.0.1/16 S0/0/1 172.16.0.2/16
Conditions for Routing

•The Head office router’s Ethernet interface should be in the same network as the Head
office LAN and similarly on Branch office side, the router’s Ethernet interface should
belong to the same network as the branch office LAN.
•The serial interface between the head office and the branch office should be in same
network.
•Head office LAN and Branch office LAN should be in different network.
•All interfaces of a Router should be in different network.
Types of Routing

•Static Routing
•Default Routing
•Dynamic Routing
 Static
Routing
Static Routing

•Static routes are configured, maintained and updated by network administrator

manually.
•Administrator should know the destination IP network for configuration.
•Administrative distance for Static Route is 1.

Administrative Distance (AD) is the “reliability” of the routing

protocol. AD range is 0-255, lesser the administrative
distance, higher the priority
Routing Network Diagram

S0/0 S0/0/0
S0/0/0 R3
R1 R2 R3
E0/0 Fa0/0 Fa0/0

Switch Switch

Interface IP Address / Mask

Interface IP Address / Mask Interface IP Address / Mask
E0/0 192.168.1.1/24
fa0/0 192.168.2.1/24 fa0/0 192.168.3.1/24
S0/0 10.0.0.1/30
S0/0/0 10.0.0.2/30 S0/0 11.0.0.2/30

S0/0​/1 11.0.0.1/30
Static Route Configuration

Static Route configuration

•Router(config)# ip route < Destination network ID > < Destination

Subnet mask > < Exit Interface type > < Exit interface no. >

Or

•Router(config)# ip route < Destination network ID > < Destination

Subnet mask > < Next Hop IP address >

Verification
•Router# Show ip route
Advantages and Disadvantages of Static routing

Advantages Disadvantages

Secured No Automatic Updates

Reliable Need of Destination network ID for the

configuration
Faster Administrative work is more

No wastage of bandwidth Used in Small networks

To verify the routing table:

Output:
IND# show ip route

Default gateway is not set

Host Gateway Last Use Total Uses Interface

ICMP redirect cache is empty

The above output implies that IP Routing process is disabled. To enable IP Routing use the
following
command in Global Configuration Mode:

Command:

Router(config)# ip routing
To verify the routing table after routing is enabled.

Output:

IND# show ip route

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B – BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
U - per-user static route, o - ODR

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0/1
C 10.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Ethernet0/1

Once routing is enabled the directly connected networks are automatically added into the routing table.
“C" represents directly connected networks. The IP Network was learnt through the local Interface of the
router.
To configure static routing use the following syntax:

Syntax:

Router(config)# ip route <Destination Network ID> <Destination subnet

mask>
<Next hop IP-address>

OR

Router(config)# ip route <Destination Network ID> <Destination subnet

mask>
<Exit Interface type> <Interface No.>

Dest N/W ID = Network ID (of remote network)

Dest subnet mask = Subnet mask (of remote network)
Next hop ip address = IP Address of the Next Router(directly connected)
Exit interface type & Number = outgoing interface type and number
Routing Network Diagram

S0/0 S0/0/0
S0/0/0 R3
R1 R2 R3
E0/0 Fa0/0 Fa0/0

Switch Switch

Interface IP Address / Mask

Interface IP Address / Mask Interface IP Address / Mask
E0/0 192.168.1.1/24
fa0/0 192.168.2.1/24 fa0/0 192.168.3.1/24
S0/0 10.0.0.1/30
S0/0/0 10.0.0.2/30 S0/0 11.0.0.2/30

S0/0​/1 11.0.0.1/30
To view the routing table for verification of Static Route

Syntax:
Router# show ip route

Output:
Router# show ip route

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B – BGP

D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
U - per-user static route, o - ODR

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, fastEthernet0/0
C 11.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
C 10.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
S 192.168.1.0/24 [1/0] via 10.0.0.1
S 192.168.3.0/24 [1/0] via 11.0.0.2

“S” represents Static route. The IP Network was defined through the Static routing command.
Syntax:
Router# ping <IP of destination PC>

Output:
Router# ping 192.168.1.10
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 192.168.1.10, timeout is 2 seconds:
.!!!!
Success rate is 80 percent (4/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 72/79/91 ms

To enable the log messages on Telnet session, give the following command. (By default log messages can
be
seen only on Console connectivity - Hyper-terminal/Putty)

Router# terminal monitor

To view log messages for any changes in the routing table, use the following command:
Router# debug ip routing

To view the source and destination of the packet, use the following command:
Router# debug ip packet
Dynamic Routing
Advantages of Dynamic routing

•Changes in the network topology are updated dynamically

•Only the directly connected network information is required for the configuration
•Administrative work is reduced
•Used for medium and large Networks
Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols

•Distance vector
−RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
−IGRP (Interior gateway routing protocol)

•Advanced distance vector

−EIGRP(Enhanced Interior gateway routing protocol)

•Link-state
−OSPF (open shortest path first)
−IS-IS (intermediate system to intermediate system)
RIP
Routing Information Protocol

•Distance vector protocol

•It is open standard protocol
•Uses Bellmen-ford Algorithm
•Classfull routing protocol
•Updates are periodically broadcasted using IP address 255.255.255.255
•Complete routing table sent as an update
•Each Update can contain maximum of 25 routes
•Administrative Distance is 120
•Metric is Hop count
•Maximum hop count supported is 15
•Load balancing on 4 equal paths by default (maximum 16 equal paths )
•Also known as “Routing by Rumor”
RIP Timers

•Update Timer : 30 sec

Time between two consecutive updates
•Invalid Timer : 180 sec
Time a router waits to hear an update from the neighbor
The route is marked as unreachable if there is no update for this time period
•Flush Timer : 240 sec
Time after which the invalid route is removed from the routing table
Disadvantages of RIP

•More Bandwidth is utilized for sending the updates.

•Does not consider the bandwidth in metric calculations, uses only hop count
•Slow convergence
•Formation of routing loops
Routing loops

•Routing loops are formed due to the default behavior of RIP

•Complete routing tables are exchanged
•Slow convergence
•No verification of updates received
Routing loop avoidance
Built in Mechanisms to avoid switching loops
•Split Horizon
A route learnt through an interface is never advertised back out of that same interface
•Route poisoning
The route is marked as 16 hops
It is a mechanism to inform regarding unreachable route to neighbor
•Poison reverse
Violating split horizon rule, sending the update through an interface from where it is
being received, only in a case when network is unreachable (16hops)
•Hold down timer : 180 sec
The router does not accept any update for the invalid route for this time period
•Flash update ( Triggered update )
Change in the network typologies causes the router to send the update immediately
without waiting for the update timer to get over
Comparison between RIPv1 and RIPv2

RIP v1 RIP v2

lClassfull routing protocol lClassless routing protocol

lDoes not advertise subnet mask l Advertises the subnet mask
information in routing update information in routing update
lIt works with broadcasting lIt works with multicasting
( 255.255.255.255 ) ( 224.0.0.9 )
•It does not support Authentication •It supports Authentication
RIP configuration

RIP configuration
Router(config)# ip routing
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)# network < Network ID >

Verification
Router# Show ip route

To check the logs

Router# debug ip rip
Router# terminal monitor
EIGRP
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

•Advance Distance vector routing protocol

•It is open standard protocol, was Cisco proprietary
•Uses DUAL (Diffusion Update Algorithm)
•Classless routing protocol
•Updates are sent through Multicast IP address (224.0.0.10 )
•Incremental Updates and Triggered updates
•Administrative distance is 90
•Metric : Composite Metric
−Bandwidth, delay, load, reliability and MTU
−Bandwidth and delay is used by default
EIGRP

•Maximum hop count supported is 255 (Default is 100)

•Hello packets are sent every 5 seconds
•Supports multiple Routed Protocols - IP, IPX and Apple Talk protocols
•Support equal and unequal cost load balancing (default 4 paths and maximum 16 equal
or unequal path)
•Fast Convergence to topology changes
EIGRP Tables

•Neighbor Table
−Contains information about directly connected neighbors.

•Topology Table
−Contains entries for all destinations, along with the feasible distance and the
advertised distance.
−Contains the successors.
−Contains feasible successor if any.

•Routing Table
−Entries with the best path for each destination from the Topology table are moved
into the Routing Table
EIGRP Terminology

•Feasible Distance FD :
−Feasible distance (FD) is the metric of the best route to a destination, including the
local link distance.
−Feasible distance = advertised distance + local link distance (of the best path)

•Advertised Distance AD:

−The distance of a route as advertised by the neighbor. It does not include the local
link distance.

•Successor :
−The neighbor with best distance to the destination.

•Feasible Successor :
−The neighbor with second best distance to the destination, which meets this
criteria: advertised distance should be less than the feasible distance (AD <FD)
EIGRP - Neighbor Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Neighbor Interface
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
S0

Hello S1 Hello
S0
B 15 E
S2 S1 S2

20

10
S0 S1 S1

Hello
10 Hello
A S2 D
S0
EIGRP - Topology Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Update
Neighbor Interface
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
TOPOLOGY TABLE (Router A)
Network Neighbor TD AD FD S0
10.0.0.0/8 via B 30 30 S 10
via E 35 FS 25 Update S1 Update
via D 45 35 S0
B 15 E
S2 S1 S2

20

10
S0 S1 S1

10 Update
A S2 D
S0
EIGRP - Routing Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Neighbor Interface
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
TOPOLOGY TABLE (Router A)
Network Neighbor TD AD FD S0
10.0.0.0/8 via B 30 30 S 10
via E 35 FS 25 S1
via D 45 35 S0
B 15 E
S2 S1 S2
ROUTING TABLE (Router A)

20
D 10.0.0.0/8 [90/30] via B, 01:36, Serial0

10
S0 S1 S1

10
A S2 D
S0
Autonomous System

•An autonomous system is a collection of networks or routers under a common

administrative policy
•Autonomous systems are identified using numbers
•Autonomous system number ranges from 0 - 65535
−Public : 1 – 64511
−Private : 64512 – 65535
Eigrp configuration and Verification Syntax

EIGRP configuration
•Router(config)# ip routing
•Router(config)# router eigrp <As no. >
•Router(config-router)# network < Network ID >

Verification
To check Routing Table
•Router # show ip route
To check Neighbor Table
•Router # show ip eigrp neighbor
To check Topology Table
•Router # show ip eigrp topology
To configure EIGRP routing protocol

Use the following command to enable EIGRP and advertise directly connected networks.

Syntax:
Router(config)# router eigrp <autonomous system no>
(The Autonomous system number is between 1 – 65535)

Router(config-router)# network <network ID>

To verify, the following commands can be give on Routers

Show commands:

Jammu#show ip route
Jammu#show ip protocols

Jammu#show ip eigrp neighbor

Jammu#show ip eigrp topology
Jammu#show ip eigrp neighbor detail
Neighbor Table: As its name suggests this table consists of information of neighbor routers whose
information is collected using Hellos. It consists of all directed neighbors. (Neighbors should be in same
AS). The show ip eigrp neighbor command lists the information about neighbors.
H: Handle: Order in which neighbor adjacency is formed. The first router will have
‘0’ the following one will have ‘1’ and so on.
Address: IP address of the neighbor
Interface: Interface of the neighbor connected
Hold Time: Timer how long to hold a neighbor if a hello is not received. By default it
is 15 seconds.
Uptime: Since when the neighbor is up
SRTT: Smooth Round Trip Time: Time taken for a packet to reach the neighbor
and get an acknowledgment back. This time is in milliseconds.
RTO: Retransmission Timeout: Time taken to wait before router retransmits a
packet to the neighbor
Q Cnt: Queue Count: Number of packets that are waiting to be transmitted
(Update, Reply, Query). Any number greater than 0, signifies some congestion in
the network.
Seq Number: Sequence Number: It is the sequence number of the last packet
received from neighbor.
Topology Table: This table contain a lot of information i.e. All the paths to destination
learnt by the EIGRP neighbors. The command “show ip eigrp topology” shows the
topology table.

FD: Feasible Distance: metric to a destination

2172416 / 28160: In the output 2172416 is the feasible distance and 28160 is the advertised distance.

Advertised distance is the distance from your neighbor to destination.

Feasible distance is the total distance from you till the destination.
P: Passive: means the router is not looking for the route actively, thus it means it is in
good situation.

The status of ‘Active’ means some instability in network.

Routing Table: This is the table that has the best possible route to a destination. The command
“show ip route” shows all routes. To specifically see the EIGRP route in routing table “show ip route
eigrp” command is used.

D: Shows this is an EIGRP learnt route

90/ 2172416: Here 90, is the Administrative Distance of EIGRP.
2172416 is the metric
.
Via 20.0.0.1: the neighbor that advertised the route

00:38:04: Time since the route was learnt

Serial 0/0: The outbound interface going towards the destination.

Routing Protocol Classification

IGP EGP

lInterior Gateway Protocol lExterior Gateway Protocol

lRouting protocols used within an lRouting protocol used between different
Autonomous system Autonomous systems
lEx: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS lEx: Border Gateway Protocol is
extensively used as EGP
IGP and EGP
RIP, OSPF,IGP
IGRP, EIGRP
RIP, OSPF,IGP
IGRP, EIGRP

EGP
BGP

Data

Data Data Data

ABC - AS 100
−IGPs operate within an autonomous system
XYZ - AS 200
−EGPs connect different autonomous systems
Summarization

•Route summarization takes a set of contiguous networks or subnets and groups them
together using a shorter subnet mask.
•The advantages of summarization are that it reduces the number of entries in the route
table.
EIGRP summarization

• EIGRP supports summarization at any location in the internetwork.

• By default EIGRP has auto-summarization enabled.
• Summarize the routes that are advertised through classfull network boundaries.

To disable auto-summarization
Router(config)# router eigrp <As. no.>
Router(config-router)# no auto-summary
EIGRP Passive interface

•The interface can be configured as passive , for stopping the hellos and Updates.
•The passive interface cannot send any hellos over the interface , but it can receive
hellos.

To configure passive interface

Router(config)# router eigrp <As. no.>
Router(config-router)# passive-interface <interface type> <no.>
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First

•Link State Protocol

•Open standard
•Classless routing protocol
•Uses Dijkstra (Shortest Path First (SPF)) Algorithm
•Updates are sent through Multicast IP address 224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6
•Supports Triggered Updates and incremental updates
•Administrative distance is 110
•Metric = Cost = 108/Bandwidth in bps (CISCO)
OSPF (contd..)

•Hello packets are sent every 10 seconds, Dead interval 40 sec

•OSPF sends updates (LSAs) when there is a change to one of its links
•LSAs are additionally refreshed every 30 minutes.
•Unlimited Hop Count
•Designed to scale and support large / Enterprise networks
•Hierarchical network design using Areas
•One area has to be designated as Area 0
•Area 0 is called the Backbone Area
Router ID

•Router ID is used to identify the Router.

•The highest IP assigned to an active physical interface is the Router ID.
•If logical interface is configured then the highest IP assigned to a logical interface
(loopback) is the Router ID.
OSPF Neighbor States
The neighbor formation process in OSPF occurs in 7 stages:
1. DOWN State: After OSPF is configured, Router A will send HELLO Packets and as Router A does not know about any other routers it is in DOWN
State
2. INIT State: Router B receives the HELLO and adds it to its neighbor table and is not in INIT state.
3. 2-WAY State: Router B, will send a unicast as response to Router A. As Router A receives the
packet, it sees its name in the HELLO packet as a neighbor and here we are in 2-WAY State.
4. Exstart State: In case of multi-access network, a DR (Designated Router) and BDR (Backup Designated Router) need to be
elected by OSPF. In Exstart State DBs are Synced and Master and Slave role is decided. Higher Router ID becomes Master and
Starts Exchange.
5. Exchange State: In this the LSDBs are synchronized and exchanged. The Master sends it first and both populate the
networks that they don’t know.
6. Loading State: Here LSAcks are sent for acknowledging the DBDs. While comparing if a neighbor has newer information it is
requested using LSR. While LSR is being sent the device is in LOADING State. The other routers send the info in LSU.
7. Full State: When the requested info is provided using LSU and when the LSAck is received to Finish. We are
considered to be in FULL State.
OSPF Terminology

•Neighbor
−Routers that share a common link become neighbors.
−Neighbors are discovered by Hello Packets.
−To become neighbors the following should match
•Area ID
•Network ID and Subnet Mask
•Hello and Dead Intervals
•Authentication

•Adjacencies
−Adjacencies are formed once neighbor relation is established.
−In Adjacencies the database details are exchanged.
OSPF Tables

•It maintains three tables :

•Neighbor Table
−Neighbor table contains information about the directly connected OSPF neighbors
forming adjacency.
•Database Table
−Database table contains information about the entire view of the topology with
respect to each router.
•Routing Table
−Routing table contains information about the best path calculated by the shortest
path first algorithm in the database table.
OSPF - Neighbor Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Neighbor Interface
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
S0

Hello S1 Hello
S0
B 15 E
S2 S1 S2

20

10
S0 S1 S1

Hello
10 Hello
A S2 D
S0
OSPF - Database Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Update
Neighbor Interface
Router C
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
DATABASE TABLE (Router A)

C S0
S0 Update
LAN – 10.0.0.0/8 Update
Update S1 Router E
S0 Router B S0
Router B
S1 S0
B
Router C
15 E
Router C
B E S2 S1 S2
S2 S1 S2

20
S0

10
S1 S1

AA S2
S0 D S0 S1 S1
Update
Router D
10 Router E
A S2 D
Router B
S0 Router C
OSPF - Database Table

NEIGHBOR TABLE (Router A)

Neighbor Interface
B S0 C
D S2
E S1
S0 LAN – 10.0.0.0/8

10
DATABASE TABLE (Router A)

C S0
S0
LAN – 10.0.0.0/8 S1
S0
S0
S1 S0
B 15 E
B E S2 S1 S2
S2 S1 S2

20
S0

10
S1 S1

AA S2
S0 D S0 S1 S1

ROUTING TABLE (Router A) 10

O 10.0.0.0/8 [110/30] via B, 01:36, Serial0
A S2 D
S0
Wild Card Mask

•A wild card mask can be calculated using the formula :

Global Subnet Mask
– Subnet Mask
----------------------------------
Wild Card Mask

E.g.
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255
– 255.255.255. 0 – 255.255.255.240
------------------------ ------------------------
0. 0. 0.255 0. 0. 0. 15
OSPF Single Area

S0/1
S0/0
R1 R3
E0/0 S0/0 S0/1 F0/0

AREA 0
Switch Switch

S0/0/1 S0/0/0
R2
fa0/0

Switch
OSPF configuration and Verification syntax

OSPF configuration
•Router(config)# ip routing
•Router(config)# router ospf < Process ID >
•Router(config-router)# network < Network ID > <Wildcard mask >
area <area ID >

Verification
To check Routing Table
•Router # show ip route
To check Neighbor Table
•Router # show ip ospf neighbor
To check Database Table
•Router # show ip ospf database
Multi Area

S0/1 S0/0

R1 R3
E0/0 S0/0 AREA 0 S0/1 F0/0

Switch Switch
AREA 1
S0/0/1 S0/0/0
R2 AREA 2
G0/0

Switch
OSPF in LAN

R2
R3
R1 G0/0 10.0.0.2
F0/0 10.0.0.3
R1 E0/0 10.0.0.1

SW1

E0/0 10.0.0.4 F0/0 10.0.0.5

R4 R4
DR and BDR

•Designated Router (DR)

−Designated Router is elected when ever OSPF routers are connected to the same
multi-access networks.
−This is done to reduce the number of adjacencies formed.
−If there is a change in topology the initial router will only update the DR and BDR
and no other router. The DR in turn will update the remaining routers.
•Backup Designated Router (BDR)
−This is a backup to the DR and will only receive updates but will not update the
other routers.
−If the DR goes down then the BDR will act as the DR.
DR and BDR Elections

•DR and BDR Election is done by the Hello Packets

•The router with the highest OSPF priority will become the DR and the router with the
second highest priority will become BDR
•On all routers the default priority is 1
•In that case, the router with the highest Router ID will become the DR and the Router
with the second highest ID will become the BDR
•Multicast address used for updating
−Other routers to DR  224.0.0.6
−DR to other routers  224.0.0.5
DR and BDR

To check DR/BDR status

To check DR/BDR Status
•Router # show ip ospf neighbor
To check the self status
•Router # show ip ospf interface ethernet < no. >
To change the priority
•Router(config) # interface ethernet < no. >
•Router(config-if) # ip ospf priority < priority >

For Election process

•Router # clear ip ospf process
OSPF Multi Area

My SPF Algorithm Is
Running Too many times!!!
I’m Receiving too many
LSA!!!

Area 0

I’m Running out of memory

because my routing table is
to big!!
Issue of Maintaining of large OSPF network

Area 0
ABR ABR

Area 1 Area 2
ABR and ASBR

•ABR (Area Border Router)

An OSPF Router with interfaces connected to the backbone area and to other area
•ASBR (Autonomous System Border Router )
A router that exchanges routing information with routers belonging
other AS (Autonomous System)
Types of LSAs

LSA Types Name

1 Router LSAs

2 Network LSAs

3 Summary LSAs
LSA Type - 1

•One Router LSA (type 1) for every router in an area

−Includes list of directly attached links
−Each link identified by IP prefix and link type
•Identified by the router ID of the originating router
•Floods within its area only; does not cross the ABR
LSA Type - 1

Area 10 Area 0
LSA1
Router ID - A
A
11.0.0.0/8 B C D
11.0.0.1/8
LSA Type - 2

•One Network (type 2) LSA for each transit broadcast or NBMA network in an area
Includes Network ID, subnet mask and list of attached routers on that transit link
•Advertised by the DR of the transit network
•Floods within its area only; does not cross ABR
LSA Type - 2

Area 0
Area 10
B D F

A
LSA2
Router ID - E
E
11.0.0.0/8
DR C
LSA Type - 3

•Type 3 LSAs are used to flood network information to areas outside the originating area
(inter-area)
contains network ID and subnet mask
•Advertised by the ABR of originating area
•Regenerated by subsequent ABRs to flood throughout the autonomous system.
•By default, routes are not summarized and there is one type 3 LSA for every subnet
LSA Type - 3

Area 0
Area 10 Area 20
LSA1 LSA3 LSA3
Router ID - A Router ID - B Router ID - D
A
11.0.0.0/8 11.0.0.0/8
B C D
11.0.0.0/8
E
11.0.0.1/8
Disadvantages of OSPF

•Consumes More Memory and CPU processing time

•Complex configuration