Mohammad Saiful Islam

Phd (Japan) Post doc (Australia)

Dept. of Anatomy, Histology & Physiology
SYSTEMATIC OSTEOLOGY Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka

Bones of the Thoracic Limb: Consists of four chief segments: Shoulder girdle, arm, forearm and manus.

Shoulder Girdle: When fully developed consists of three bones: Scapula (Shoulder blade), coracoids
(In bird) and clavicle (In bird). In domesticated mammals only the scapula is well developed and small
coracoids is fused with scapula as coracoids process. The clavicle is absent or rudimentary.

Scapula/Shoulder blade

• Flat bone
• Triangular in outline
• Linked to muscles without any articulation/joint.
• Has 3 border (Dorsal border, cranial border and caudal border), 3 angle (Cranial angle, caudal angle
and ventral or glenoid angle ) and 2 surface (lateral and medial surface)
• Laterally-spine of the scapula divided lateral surface into 2 part: cranially supraspinous fossa and
caudally infraspinous fossa. Medial/costal surface- presents subscapular fossa
• Cranially-supraglenoid tubercle
• Caudally-glenoid cavity and glenoid notch

Facies serrata
Cranial angle
Dorsal border
Infraspinous
Supraspinous fossa fossa
Caudal angle
Cranial border

Spine
Caudal border Subscapular
fossa

Acromion
Supraglenoid Process Coracoid process
tubercle
Ventral Angle Supraglenoid
tubercle
Glenoid cavity
A
B
Fig. Left Scapula of Dog; Lateral surface(A) and Medial Surface (B)
Fig. The left bovine scapula: medial and lateral views * Supraglenoid tubercle.

Fig. Left bovine radius and ulna: lateral, cranial, and caudal views.
Humerus (Long bone)
Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle

Intertubercular
groove Head
Tuberosity
for teres minor

Tuberosity
for teres major
Deltoid
tuberosity

Musculospiral
groove
A B

Radial
fossa Supratrochlear
Condyle foramen

Lateral
epicondyle
Fig. Humerus of horse. Lateral view and Medial view
Trochlea Capitulum
Fig: Left humerus of dog, cranial lateral aspect.

Divided into three basic segments/parts: 2 extremities (Proximal and distal extremity) and Shaft

• Proximal extremity- bears the head and the tubercles (Greater/lateral

and lesser/medial )
• Shaft of humerus-is the middle part of the humerus. There is a broad
musculo-spiral groove spiral laterally. Bears the deltoid tuberosity
laterally.
• Distal extremity- bears the humeral condyle (lateral condyle or
capitulum and medial condyle is called called trochlea)
• In dog, there is a foramen in the centre of the condyle is called the
supratrochlear foramen. In cat, there is supracondylar foramen
instead of supratrochlear foramen
• Just proximal to condyle there is a fossa called the olecranon fossa
(laterally) and radial fossa (medially)
Radius-ulna/Antebrachium: 2 bones fused together (fusion of radius and
ulna varies among species)

Radius: It has three main segments/parts:

• Proximal extremity- presents head & radial articular facet.
• Shaft of the radius
• Distal extremity bears the radial trochlea.
Fig. Radius-ulna of Dog
 • In the ox, the distal part of the ulna is completely fused with the radius, in the horse the distal part of
the ulna is incorporated within the radius to become the lateral styloid process of ulna.

Ulna: The ulna consists of three main segments: proximal extremity, distal extremity and Shaft

• Proximal extremity:
 presents olecranon and olecranon process/tuber
 Olecranon process forms point of the elbow.
 At the base of the olecranon there is semilunar notch/ trochlear notch.
 Cranial to the trochlear notch there is a beak-shaped process which is called
anconeal process.
• Shaft of the ulna-
 Generally smaller than radius and fused.
 Between the shafts of the two bones there are one or more interosseous spaces
(depends on species).
• Distal extremity-presents lateral styloid process.

Manus (Carpal, metacarpal, phalanges)

Carpal bones: Typically 8

• Arranged in two rows. Proximal and distal row
• Proximal rows (medial to lateral): radial, intermediate, ulnar and accessory carpal
• Distal row (medial to lateral): First, second, third and fourth carpal
• In horse: 3/4; Ox: 4/2; In dog: 3/4

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I 1 2 3 4 12 3 4 23 4 1 2 3 4
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II IV L
I II III IV V III III IV II III IV V
V

Car eq bo su

Metacarpal/metatarsal bones: Typically 5 in number.

• In dog: 5 in numbers. All are developed except McI (first). McI is smaller than others (McII-V) and
it is non-weight bearing.
• In horse 3rd one (McIII) is well developed and carries the digit. McII and McIV are called splint
bones or small metacarpal bone.
• In ox- Fused 3rd and 4th (Mc.IV and IV) are well developed. Fusion of two (3rd and 4th) metacarpal
bones are well marked by a groove. The distal end is divided into two parts by a sagittal notch and
each carries a digit.
Fig. Bovine left manus (carpus, metacarpals, and digits): dorsal view. The image on the left shows
articulation of the large metacarpal bone with the carpus proximally, and digits III and IV distally. The
image on the right shows an isolated bovine large metacarpal bone. Each digit has a proximal (P1),
middle (P2), and distal phalanx (P3).

Fig. The left bovine digits: (a) palmar and (b) lateral views.
 1 2

• In horse and ox, McIII also called cannon bone.

• In horse; proximal phalanx is called-long pastern,
middle phalanx is called-short pastern and 3

distal phalanx is called-coffin bone. 4

 Sesamoid bones: generally 2 proximal sesamoid and 1 distal A 5
I
6
sesamoid in each digit. 2 proximal sesamoid bones
are present at the proximal end of the first phalanx (called V
proximal sesamoid) and one sesamoid in between 2nd and 3rd 1
IV 1 2
phalanx (called distal sesamoid). II III
9
In horse and ox, distal sesamoid bone also called navicular bone. 7
• Difference between metacarpal and metatarsal: 10 8

− Body of metacarpal is flattened but metatarsal is

cylindrical proximally and flattened distally.
− Metatarsal is 1/3 longer than metacarpal
11
Manus: Carpus, metacarpus and digit are collectively called manus. II V

Pes: tarsus, metatarsus and digit are collectively called pes.

B C
nd rd III III IV
Digit (1st+2 +3 Phalanx):
Fig. Right manus; palmar views. A. human hand B.
The digit is the collective name of the first Phalanx horse and C ruminant The Roman numerals number the
• (Proximal), second phalanx (middle) & third phalanx
rays. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, metacarpal; 4, 5, 6, proximal,
middle, and distal phalanges; 7, carpal bones; 8,
(distal). rudimentary metacarpal V; 9, accessory carpal bone; 10,
rudimentary meta-carpals II and IV (medial and lateral
• In horse, only one digit is well developed (i.e. 3rd one). splint bones)

• In ruminants, four digits are present. Among them, the 3rd and 4th are well developed while
5th are small and form dew claws at the back of the pastern.
• In dog there are 5 digits. Each digit has three phalanges, except digit I (which form the dew claw)
has only two phalanges. The distal phalanx ends has ungual process which forms part of the claw.
Skull (Cranial part)
Cranium (braincase): cranium is formed by the following bones in all domestic mammals:
• Floor of the cranium is formed by-occipital and sphenoid
• Lateral wall of the cranium is formed by the– temporal bone
• Roof of the cranium is formed by-frontal, parietal and interparietal bone
• Nasal wall of the cranium is formed by- the ethmoid bone.

Occipital bone
• The occipital bone forms the nuchal wall of the skull
• Important features: Foramen magnum, occipital condyle, jugular process.
• Foramen magnum is the largest foramen of the skull through which the spinal cord passes.
• On either side of the foramen magnum there is a pair of bony prominences, the occipital condyles
which articulate with the atlas.
• At the side of the occipital condyles there are jugular processes

Sphenoid bone
• The sphenoid bone forms the rostral part of the base of the cranium.
 • Consists of two similar segments, the presphenoid rostrally and the basisphenoid caudally.

Temporal bone

Temporal bone consists of mainly 2 parts:

• Squamous part/lateral part-called squamous temporal
• Petrous part/ventral part- called petrous temporal

Features: Tympanic bulla: It is a rounded ventral projection that forms the middle part of the ear. There is an
opening in the tympanic bulla called the external acoustic meatus which is closed by the tympanic
membrane.

Frontal bone:

• Forms the front aspect of the cranium or ‘forehead’.

• Contains an air-filled cavity called the frontal sinus which connects to the nasal chamber
• In horned ruminants, the caudal end of the frontal bone forms the cornual process which support
the horn.

Parietal bone: The parietal forms most of the dorsolateral part of the cranial wall.

Ethmoid bone

• The ethmoid bone is form nasal wall of the cranium.

• cribriform plate of ethmoid bone forms the boundary between cranial cavity and nasal cavity.
• The cribriform plate is a sieve-like area perforated by numerous foramina through which olfactory
nerve pass from the nasal mucosa to the brain.

Skull (facial part)

 The facial bones of the skull form the walls of the nasal cavities and roof of the oral cavity. The floor
and the lateral walls of the oral cavity are completed by the lower jaw (mandible) and supported by the
hyoid bone ventrally.

Nasal bone: The nasal bone forms the roof of the nasal cavity and has a concave external surface.

The lacrimal bone

• Lacrimal bone is a small bone situated near the medial canthus of the eye
• Form parts of the orbit and the lateral wall of the face.
• The lateral surface of the lacrimal bone can be divided into an orbital part and a facial part.

Zygomatic bone/Malar
• The zygomatic bone lies ventrolateral to the lacrimal bone
• Forms parts of the bony orbit and the zygomatic arch.
• The zygomatic arch is formed by the union of the temporal process of the zygomatic bone and the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone.

Maxilla
• Form the major part of the facial part of the skull;
• Form the lateral walls of the face, the nasal and oral cavities and the hard palate.
• Largest bone of the face and articulates with all of the facial bones.
• It can be divided into several portions:
− Alveolar process
− Palatine process
− Frontal process and
− Zygomatic process

• The body of the maxilla encloses an air-filled cavity (except in carnivores) which forms the
maxillary sinus in horse and ox.
• The lateral wall of the maxillary body forms the external surface of the face.
− It is characterized by a horizontal ridge, the facial crest which is especially prominent in the
horse. In ruminants the facial tuber is present instead of facial crest.
− The prominent infraorbital foramen. This is the external opening of the infraorbital canal,
which passes from the maxillary foramen.

Incisive bone/Premaxilla
− The paired incisive bones consist of the body, nasal, palatine and alveolar processes.
− The incisive bones form the rostral portion of the facial part of the skull
− Form part of the opening to the nasal cavity and the roof of the hard palate.

Palatine bone
− The paired palatine bones are located between the maxilla, the sphenoid and the pterygoid bones
− Divided into a horizontal plate (forms part of the hard palate) and a perpendicular plate,

Vomer: Vomer is a median bone which form the ventral part of the nasal septum

Pterygoid bone
• Pterygoid bone is a thin bony plate surrounded by the sphenoid and palatine bone.
• It forms part of the dorsal and lateral walls of the nasopharyngeal cavity.
 Fig. Lateral (A) and medial (B) views of the left half of the canine
Its free margin forms mandible. 1, Coronoid process; 2, vertical part (ramus); 3, condylar
process; 4, angular process; 5, horizontal part (body); 6, mental
• a small hook-shaped process, foramina; 7, mandibular foramen; 8, sym-physial surface. 1
hamulus of the pterygoid.
Mandible 2

Consist of 2 parts. Each half divided into:

3
• horizontal part : called body of the
mandible
• Vertical part: called ramus of the 5 4
mandible A
6
Body
− The body of the mandible contains
the mandibular canal, through which
the mandibular artery and vein and
the mandibulo-alveolar nerve pass.
− The mandibular canal form by
mandibular foramen and mental foramen

− The mental foramen: one in number in ruminants B

7 8
and horse; 2/3 in number in carnivores.
− Facial notch: The ventral border of the mandibular body is marked by a smooth indentation
called the facial notch, where the facial vessels and the parotid duct curve around the bone. In the
horse the pulse is commonly palpated at this site
Ramus (“Ramus” means branch)
− The ramus of the mandible is a vertical bone plate.
− Its lateral surface is characterized by the masseteric fossa, which is the site of attachment of the
masseteric muscle,
− Its medial surface is characterized by pterygoid fossa, which is the site of attachment of the
medial pterygoideus muscle.
− The caudoventral part of the mandibular ramus forms the angle of the mandible
− In dog/cat there is a hook-like process called angular process.
− The free end of the ramus consists of the condylar process and coronoid process. These two
processes are separated by the mandibular notch.

Hyoid bone/hyoid apparatus

− The hyoid bones are situated
between the rami of the
mandible; at the root of the
tongue
− Act as a suspensory mechanism
for the tongue and larynx. It is
attached with the styloid
process of temporal bone.
− Hyoid consists of number of
fine bones and cartilages joined
together looks like trapeze. It is
divided into
• Basihyoid or body
• Thyrohyoid and
• Ceratohyoid
 Vertebral column
Cervical vertebrae
In general- cervical vertebrae are quadriangular, massive
and longer than other vertebrae. The first (C1; Atlas) and
second (C2: Axis) cervical vertebrae are highly modified
vertebrae.

Atlas (C1)

• Named after the mythical man who held up the Fig. 1 Atlas of dog; dorsal view; 1: arch, 3: Ventral
world (just like the atlas helps support the skull) tubercle 4,4’ intervertebral foramina, 5,5’ wings, 6,6’
alar notches, 7,7’ transverse foramina
• Body and spinous processes are absent.
• It has two curve plate/wings
• The wings are wide, flattened and almost horizontal
• Wing has 2 foramina-Cranially: Alar foramen and
Caudally: transverse foramen

Axis (Longest Cervical Vertebra)

• The cranial extremity presents dens (odontoid process).
• Arch presents elongated and expanded spinous process.

3rd, 5th, 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae: Typical

vertebrae

Thoracic vertebrae Fig. 2 Axis of Dog; 1: Dens; 6: Transverse Process; 7,

intervertebral foramen; 9: Spinous process
In general, all thoracic vertebrae share the following common features:

• Costal facets are present for articulation with rib (for the rib heads and
tubercles).
• Short bodies with flattened extremities
• Short articular processes
• Very long spinous processes

Lumbar vertebrae
In general-

• The transverse processes are long, flattened and project far laterally.
.

Sacrum Fig. 3 Thoracic vertebra of Dog. 1: body, 2,2'

costal facets for the body, 6: facet for tubercle of
rib, 7: mammillary process, 8: spinous process
• The sacral vertebrae are fused to form single bone called sacrum
• Ventrally it has distinct groove for median sacral artery
• The spinous processes are fused to form a median sacral crest.
Fig. Articulated bovine thorax.
Caudal vertebrae
• Gradually reduce in size from first to last.
• The cranial members of the caudal vertebrae are typical vertebrae but the caudal ones are gradually
reduced to simple rods (atypical).

Spinous process

Vertebral foramen Lamina

Caudal
Pedicle

Transverse process

Caudal costal fovea

Body
Fig. Seventh cervical vertebra (C7), caudal aspect. Fig. Sacrum of OX; Dorsal View
Table 1 Foramen/openings of the skull and transmitted structures

Name of the foramen Bones involved Transmitted structures/Contents

1. Foramen magnum Occipital Medulla oblongata, spinal cord with its

coverings
2. Foramen lacerum (Jugular Basioccipital, Temporal, Vagus nerve, internal carotid artery,
foramen in ruminants) Basisphenoid glossopharyngeal nerve, spinal accessory and
ventral cerebral foramen
3. Maxillary foramen Maxilla Infra-orbital nerve and vessels
4. Sphenopalatine foramen Maxilla Sphenopalatine nerve, caudal nasal artey and
vein
5. Caudal palatine foramen Maxilla Palatine foramen
6. Ethmoid foramen Frontal Ethmoid vessels and nerves
7. Optic foramen/canal Presphenoid Optic nerve
8. Orbito-rotundum Presphenoid Ophthalmic, maxillary, oculomotor and
(ruminants) abducent nerve
9. Foramen rotundum Presphenoid Maxillary nerve
10. Hypoglossal foramen/canal Occipital Hypoglossal nerve
11. Supraorbital foramen Frontal Supraorbital artey and vein
12. Infra-orbital foramen Maxilla Infra-orbital artery and vein
13. Mental foramen Mandible Mental artey and nerve
14. Foramen Incisive Greater palatine artery
incisivum/incisive canal
15. Alar foramen (absent in Basisphenoid Deep temporal artery
ruminants)
16. Foramen ovale (in Basisphenoid Mandibular nerve and artery
ruminants)
17. Stylomastoid foramen Petrous and temoral part of Facial nerve
temporal
18. Mandibular foramen Mandible Mandibular vessels and nerves
19. Mastoid foramen Mastoid Caudal meningeal artey and vein
20. Cribriform foramina Ethmoid Approximately 300 in numbers in dog. They
transmit olfactory nerve filaments from the
nasal mucosa to the olfactory bulb of the brain
21. Major palatine foramen Palatine Greater palatine nerve and vessels
22. Spinous foramen Basisphenoid Trochlear nerve and middle meningeal artery
23. Carotid canal basisphenoid Internal carotid artery and nerve
Fig. Bovine skull showing caudal parts of the occipital bone: caudal view.

Fig. The bovine skull: ventral view.

Pelvic Limb/Hind limb:
Pelvic girdle:
Consists of two ossa coxarum or hip
bones. They are firmly attached ventrally by
pelvic symphysis. Each os-coxae consists of
following three bones:
Ilium It is the largest and most cranial
• pelvic bones. 2 parts: (Wing and body)
2 surfaces: gluteal and pelvic surface
• irregularly triangular in shape
• the medial angle is called tuber
sacrale which is close to sacro-iliac
joint
• the lateral angle is called tuber coxae
and form the point of the hip (known
as hookbone)
• The area between tuber coxae and
tuber sacrale is called wing of of the ilium and dorsal margin is called iliac crest.

Ischium
• projects backward from the
acetabulum
• Has large roughened caudal
projection called ischial tuber
(commonly called pin bone in
cattle).
Pubis

• smallest pelvic bone

• L-shaped
• form cranial part of the floor of
the pelvic cavity
 Table 1 Sexual differences of the pelvic girdle
POINTS STALLION MARE
1. Conjugated diameter (sacro- Smaller 18.75 cm Larger 24 cm
pubic)
2. Pelvic inlet & outlet Comparatively smaller Comparatively larger

3. Ischial arch Comparatively less wider About 1/3 wider than horse

4. Pubic floor Pubic floor is thick and convex Comparatively thin and concave

5. Obturator foramen Comparatively smaller Comparatively larger

6. Pelvic cavity Less roomy than mare More roomy

Femur (Thigh bone)

• Largest long bones.
• It presents
 Shaft
 Two extremities-proximal and distal.
 The shaft/body-cylindrical in shape
Proximal extremity-
• Presents the head
• head articulate with the acetabulum
 • Head presents a notch called fovea capitis.
• Fovea capitis is the site of attachment of intracapsular ligament
• Head is separated from the body by neck
• Lateral to head-there is a large process called greater trochanter
• The greater trochanter and the neck of the femur are separated by the trochanteric fossa: divided
into cranial and caudal part
• lesser trochanter is present on the medial side
• In the horse, additional process third trochanter/trochanter tertius, is located laterally.
Distal extremity carries-
− Medial and lateral condyles caudally and a trochlea cranially.
− Intercondylar fossa (A deep fossa between the medial and lateral condyle)
Kneecap (patella)
• Largest sesamoid bone
• Located in the tendon of the quadriceps
muscle of the thigh.
• Its articular surface faces caudally towards
the femur;
• Free surface faces cranially
• Palpable under the skin.

Tibia-Fibula: Fused together and form the true

leg or crus

Tibia
• The tibia can be divided into three
segments:
 proximal extremity- presents the
articular surface of the
femorotibial joint,
 shaft and
 distal extremity-presents cochlea
for the articulation with the talus
• Proximal extremity
 three-sided and carries two
condyles (Lateral and medial)
 The spine or intercondyloid
eminence central prominence. It
consists of a high medial part and
a lower lateral part
 Intercondyloid fossa or groove in
which cranial cruciate ligament
and the menisci are attached
 Condyles are separated caudally
by the popliteal notch

• Distal extremity carries the cochlea

• Cochlea consists of two grooves separated
by an intermediate ridge.
• The medial side of the cochlea presents the
medial malleolus and the lateral side of
the cochlea presents lateral malleous
(formed by the fusion of the distal end of
the fibula to the tibia)

Fibula
• Highly variable among species. Fig. Tibia-fibula of horse; Caudal view. 1 lateral condyle, 2: lateral condyle 3:
• Developed in horse, dog and pig. spine, 4: intercondyloid fossa or groove 5: Popliteal notch; 9: interosseous
space 10: shaft of fibula 11: muscular line 12: Tubercle 13: Nutrient foramen
• Rudimentary in ruminants and fused with 14: medial malleolus 16: lateral malleolus
tibia.
• divided into body and 2 extremities
- Proximal extremity- presents head and neck and a distal extremity presents lateral malleolus.
- In ruminants: no shaft and proximal extremity presents a small prominence below the lateral condyle
of the tibia.
- Distal extremity presents lateral malleous (formed by the fusion of the distal end of the fibula to the
tibia)
 • The fibula is separated from the tibia by interosseous space.

Tarsus (forms the tarsal or hock region)

• Consists of tarsal bones.

• Tarsal bones are arranged in three rows: the proximal, middle and distal.
• Proximal or crural row (in mediolateral sequence):
 Tibial tarsal bone or talus-large bone
 Fibular tarsal bone or calcaneus- large bone
 middle or intertarsal row and
 central tarsal bone (os tarsi centrale) and
 Distal or metatarsal row (in mediolateral sequence):
 first tarsal bone (os tarsale primum),
 second tarsal bone (os tarsale secundum),
 third tarsal bone (os tarsale tertium) and
 fourth tarsal bone (os tarsale quartum)
 In carnivores and pigs-seven tarsal bones
 In ruminants-five tarsal bones.
 In horse- six tarsal bones.

Talus
 Tibial tarsal
 Medial large bone of the proximal row of the tarsus.
 divided into body, trochlea and a cylindrical head

Calcaneus
 Fibular tarsal bone
 Lies lateral and plantar to the talus
 Form point of the hock.
 Presents the calcaneal tuberosity/tuber.