UNIT 1 MODELS AND PROCESSES OF COMMUNICATION

Structure

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Communication
1.2.1 Definitions
1.2.2 Functions of Communication
1.3 Types of Communication
1.3.1 Intrapersonal Communication
1.3.2 Interpersonal Communication
1.3.3 Group Communication
1.3.4 Mass Communication
1.4 Models of Communication
1.5 Communication Process
1.6 Barriers in Communication
1.7 Strategies for Effective Communication
1.8 Summary
1.9 Unit End Activities
1.10 References and Suggested Reading
1.11 Clues to Check Your Progress

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Have you ever noticed how we express ourselves or interact with each other? Have
you ever wondered what communication is and what role it plays in our lives?
Communication generally means the exchange of messages with others but it can
also be with one’s own self where the self is the sender and receiver of messages. It
is an integral part of our lives and is intertwined with all the activities undertaken by
us. Human beings communicate right from the moment they are born till death and it
will not be an exaggeration to say that communication is indicative of life itself. Thus
communication can be equated with other basic needs of life such as food, clothes and
shelter as any person, group or community cannot survive without communication. We
may communicate with ourselves while thinking, dreaming, reading, watching something
or listening to something. We communicate face-to-face with another person or speak
with people in group situations. We can also communicate with people located in
widespread places, who may be from a heterogeneous group and be anonymous to each
other, with the help of technology.

You may ask, if communication is so omnipresent and integral to our lives, why study
communication at all? We need to study communication because it is a complex process
which consists of many elements and is also beset with a number of barriers. There is
a need to take these elements into consideration and try to remove the barriers so that
communication becomes complete and attains its desired goal, which in our case, is to
facilitate effective teaching and learning.

In this Unit we shall look at the concept, types, models, process of communication
and also deliberate upon the barriers in communication and finally on the strategies
for effective communication. We shall also explore the specific areas of education,
training and classroom teaching and the role of communication therein. In the last unit
of this block, we shall examine the element of interactivity in making the process of
communication effective.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

• explain the concept of communication;
• describe different types of communication;
• examine the various models of communication;
• delineate the process and elements of communication;
• identify various barriers which exist in the process of communication;
• suggest strategies for effective communication.

1.2 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

The word communication has it origin in the Latin word 'communis' that means 'to make
common'. Communication facilitates sharing of common experiences with others. It
involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information with others, which includes
thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so on. Thus the scope of communication
is very wide. Communication is part skill, part art and part science. It is a skill as it
involves certain fundamental techniques, it is an art as it involves creative challenges, and
it is science because certain verifiable principles are involved in making communication
more effective. All this makes communication a complex process.

To understand the concept of communication, let us examine the various definitions of

communication as given by different scholars.

1.2.1 Definitions

Different scholars have defined communication in various ways. Some of them describe
it as 'the transfer of meaning', 'transmission of stimuli', 'one mind affecting other'
or 'sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness'. Communication has also been
defined as a scientific study which involves the art of communication so that skilled
communication can be produced.

Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in nature
and vital for teaching and learning. It involves the usage of a channel. This channel could
be signs, symbols or verbal/written language. For communication to be complete and
effective it has to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the communicator. For
example, in a classroom situation, the teacher has to make special efforts to convey the
message to the learners. S/he has to clearly define the objectives of the lesson and the
message has to be conveyed with the help of appropriate oral and written signs, symbols
and body language. Only when the meaning has been understood by the learners and in
the same idiom as intended by the teacher, we can say that the communication has been
successful. Thus, communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of
ideas, information, knowledge, attitudes or feelings among two or more persons through
certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended by the communicator.
Even our behaviour can communicate messages. For instance warmth towards some one
or indifference can be conveyed even without speech or written messages just through
gestures, facial expressions and body language.

1.2.2 Functions of Communication

Communication performs many functions, such as informing and generating awareness,

educating, persuading, motivating, entertaining, etc. Let us examine some of these
functions:
Sharing of Information: Information is key to progress in any society. Communication
plays an important role in information dissemination related to any form of human
activity, such as social, political, economic, educational and developmental. Regular
exposure to information over a period of time generates awareness on a given issue,
problem or matter of concern. To illustrate, if you were not informed about global
warming or Pluto losing the status of a planet or the latest technology used in governance,
your awareness on these issues would not have been there. Communication provides
us with information about the environment we are placed in. It helps in moulding our
opinions, formulating decisions and in turn making 'informed choices' to safeguard our
interests as well those of the society.

Education and Training: Communication results in sharing of information, which in

turn makes people knowledgeable and thus productive members of the society. Right
from our childhood we are taught by our teachers in the school and elders at home and
we thus gain various new concepts and skills as we grow up. However, we do not cease
to learn when we grow up as we continue to learn throughout our lives. In the modern
educational scenario , training of personnel is an ongoing process and communication
plays an important role in orientation and training of teachers and learners. The degree
of learning depends to a great extent not only on the contents of training but also how
effectively the information and skills are shared. As we know, knowledge can be
constructed through interaction between learners and his/her peers and also with his/
her teachers/sources of information. Hence, effective communication results in effective
teaching and training. We will discuss this function in greater detail in Unit 3 of this
Block.
Socialization : For the well being of the society, nation and culture it is crucial that we
are exposed to different view points so that we understand and appreciate the need for
plurality of ideas and diversity of views. Communication fosters the feeling of oneness in
a society by exposing the various social groups to different views. It develops the need
to share and understand the feelings, emotions, hopes, aspirations and expectations of
varied groups in a social system.
Entertainment : To break the monotony of human life, we need to be exposed to
art, literature, music, films, dance, drama, sports and other modes of entertainment.
Communication provides us with this necessary diversion. Thus entertainment is an
equally important function of communication. However, of late, this element has
overtaken other functions especially in various mass communication media. Some
television news channels are found to be biased towards entertainment value rather than
informational content of a news item. . Similarly, cable and satellite television channels
are dishing out inane programmes in the name of entertainment. There is a need to strike
a judicious balance between the different needs of the audience enabling them to take
advantage of the wealth of information on various issues rather than succumbing to the
dictates of cheap entertainment.
Motivation: A motivated individual plays a useful and active role in a society.
Communication motivates and persuades individuals to meet the mutually agreed upon
goals. Sharing success stories of those who have overcome the odds in life and have been
able to achieve their goals can do this. This function of communication, although relevant
in all walks of life is more pronounced in business and industry where communication is
being increasingly used as a tool for motivation.
Persuasion: Yet another important function of communication is to persuade. This may
be to influence us towards a new idea, technique or a product and also to persuade us
to buy these products. The industrial and corporate houses and advertising agencies,
while taking messages of new products to potential consumers far and wide have
amply exploited this function. Different mass communication media are used for this
purpose. However, many a time unscrupulous advertisers tend to exploit the receiver of
communication for ulterior motives. In the wake of globalization and liberalization and
the growing competitive environment and consumerist culture, we need to take great care
to understand the motives of the source.
Preservation of culture: Communication helps to preserve the culture and heritage
of a nation and society. Through communication, stories from the epics, such as
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bible, Koran, etc. are shared with the younger generation.
The transmission of values from one generation to another has been taking place orally
as well as through written texts, over the ages. In the modern world different mass
communication media have taken up this function.

Check Your Progress: 1

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Define communication in the context of teaching –learning process.

2. What is the role of entertainment in mass communication?

1.3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication has been broadly categorized into the following four types:
• Intrapersonal communication
• Interpersonal communication
• Group communication
• Mass communication.

Let us discuss each of these types in brief.

1.3.1 Intrapersonal Communication

The word 'intra' denotes 'within'. When we communicate within ourselves, it is

intrapersonal communication. This can take the form of thinking, analyzing, dreaming
or introspecting. Day dreaming, self-talk and memories are all facets of intrapersonal
communication.

Intrapersonal communication is a kind of internal dialogue that takes place within an

individual while contemplating, conceptualizing and formulating our thoughts or ideas
before we actually express them. Due to individual differences, the levels of intrapersonal
communication may vary from one person to another. Writers, thinkers and philosophers
generally devote more time to intrapersonal communication.

1.3.2 Interpersonal Communication

When two persons communicate with each other, the communication is interpersonal.
Our everyday exchanges, formal or informal, which may take place anywhere come
under this type of communication. There is certain amount of proximity between the
sender and the receiver who may be able to see each other closely, watch the facial
expressions, postures, gestures, body language etc. or may make them out from the tone
and expressions when they communicate without seeing each other, for instance over
telephone. In interpersonal communication, the roles of the sender and receiver become
interchangeable. There are many sensory channels used and feedback is immediate. It
allows you to clarify your views, persuade or motivate another person more effectively
than any other mode of communication.
Interpersonal communication has been analysed from two perspectives: contextual and
developmental. The contextual view does not take into account the relationship between
those who interact whereas the developmental one defines it as communication that
occurs between persons who have known each other for some time. It argues that our
interaction with a salesperson is different from our interaction with friends and family
members.

1.3.3 Group Communication

As the name suggests, when people communicate in group situations, this is known as
group communication. This is an extension of interpersonal communication where more
than two individuals are involved in the process of communication. The groups can be
both formal as well as informal depending on the type and objectives of communication
but generally they have common interests and goals. The group dynamics can be different
as well as complex. For example, the composition, nature, role and objectives of a group
that assembles to exercise every morning in a park would be different from the one that
gathers to participate in a national seminar of social/educational/political nature or the
one which assembles to discuss the problems of shareholders. Sometimes the group can
turn into a mob. For example, a peaceful demonstration of students may turn unruly due
to break down of the communication process with the management of the school.

The communication process in a group depends on its size, nature, objectives and
dynamics. For example, communication in a small group with members at the same
place will be close to interpersonal communication as the receiver can see the sender of
the message closely and follow his/her facial expressions, body language etc. S/he can
pose questions and get the doubts clarified and thus obtain feedback. However, when
the size of the group increases, there is less scope for understanding and deciphering the
movements, body language and other such things about the speaker. The sender may not
follow the response of the individual receiver and thus the feedback is reduced.
Group communication is useful in taking collective decision on a problem, an issue or
a matter of common interest. Depending on the quality of group members and leaders,
effective decisions can be made incorporating divergent point of views. However, this is
not free from limitations. All members of a group may not be able to freely participate
in deliberations, as some may be dominant speakers while others too shy or reluctant to
express themselves thus affecting a free flow of communication. All these factors have
greater implications in group communication. Classroom communication also falls under
group communication in which these factors play an important role. We will discuss
these in greater detail in Unit 3 of this block.

1.3.4 Mass Communication

This type of communication is different from all the three types discussed so far. In
mass communication, the communicator is separated from the audience in terms of time
and place. Communication takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic
device, in which an institution is involved. These electronic devices are known as mass
media such as print, radio, television, the Internet, etc. The audience is 'mass' i.e. it has
a heterogeneous profile, are unknown to each other and located in widespread locations.
Feedback in mass communication is considered to be weak and delayed as compared
to group and interpersonal communication. Today with developments in the field of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), communication through electronic
media may be interactive and feedback may not be delayed. Even now print medium for
instance, newspapers, journals, news broadcast, etc., engaged in mass communication do
not generate as much feedback as the other types of communication.

Due to advancements in the field of ICT and widening accessibility to it, interpersonal
and group communication today do not necessitate the physical presence of the
communicators. We spend long durations while communicating through telephone,
sending and checking e- mails , conferencing, etc.
Check Your Progress: 2
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Explain the importance of intrapersonal communication in our life.
2. List out some differences between interpersonal and group communication.

_______________________________________________________-

1.4 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

So far we have discussed the concept and different types of communication. Now let us
examine some popular models of communication which help us in understanding the
process of communication. Like the nature and concept of communication, models of
communication have also been the subject of a vast amount of research. No single theory
or model has found a general acceptance.

Before discussing the models of communication, let us first understand what the
term 'model' means. A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a
variable works. It is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show
the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept. A model of communication
offers a convenient way to think about it by providing a graphical checklist of its
various elements. Some of the important models discussed in this section highlight the
complexities of the process of communication.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle looked at communication from the rhetorical perspective
i.e. speaking to the masses to influence them and thus persuade them. Aristotle
constructed a model with three elements: Speaker-Speech-Audience in which the
basic function of communication was to persuade the other party. This is accepted by
many as the first model of communication. Thereafter in the twentieth century many
more models came up. In the latter part of the century, the concept of communication
changed due to the advent of various mass communication media such as newspapers,
radio, and television. During the First and Second World Wars, communication was also
used for propaganda and it was perceived as a magic bullet that transferred ideas and
knowledge automatically from one mind to another. However, this was later found to
be a very simplistic model which showed communication as a linear one-way flow of
communication. Sociologists, political scientists and psychologists who joined the debate
around this time argued that communication was a complex process which was dynamic
and two-way in nature.

Some important models of communication are Lasswell Model, Shanon and Weaver
Model, Osgoods Model and Schramm Model. Let us now discuss these models.

Lasswell Model (1948) : One of the early models of communication was developed by
the political scientist Harold D. Lasswell who looked at communication in the form of a
question:
Who
Says What
In Which Channel
To Whom
With What Effect

This verbal model focussed attention on the essential elements of communication

and identified the areas of communication research. 'Who' raises the question of
identification of the source of the message. 'Says what ' is the subject of analysis of
the message. Communication channel is the medium through which the message has
traveled. 'To whom’ deals with the characteristics of the receivers and audience and 'what
effect' can be seen as evaluation of the effect of the message. These essentially comprise
the basic components of communication. This model implied that more than one channel
could carry a message. It was considered an oversimplified model which implied the
presence of a communicator and a purposive message.

Shannon and Weaver Model (1949): This model (Figure 1) of Claude Shannon
and Warren Weaver has been considered as one of the most important models of
communication and it has led to the development of many other models. It is referred
to as the transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission for
communication.

Infor Transmitter Receiver Destination

Message Channel Received
Tr Transmitted signal Message
mation
Source Signal

Noise
Source

Figure1 Shannon and Weaver Model

In this model, the information source produces a message to be communicated out of

a set of possible messages. The message may consist of spoken or written word. The
transmitter converts the message into a signal suitable for the channel to be used. The
channel is the medium that transmits the signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The
receiver performs the inverse operation of the transmitter by reconstructing the message
from the signal. The destination is the person or thing for whom/which the message is
intended.
This model introduced the concepts like 'noise' i.e. disturbances or errors in
transmission, problems in accepting the signal (message), etc. and the need for
maintaining necessary balance between 'entropy', which means the degree of uncertainty
and 'redundancy', which refers to the uniqueness of the information. This implied that
for effective communication the greater the noise in communication, the greater is the
need for building redundancy i.e. repetition of the message which reduces the relative
entropy or in other words, the uncertainty about the message. This model was criticised
for being based on the hardware aspect developed for engineering problems and not for
human communication. Another criticism was that it did not take the element of feedback
into account.

Charles Osgood's Model (1954)

Osgood in his model (Figure 2) showed communication, as a dynamic process in which

there is an interactive relationship between the source and the receiver of the message
(M). An individual engaged in the communication process sends as well as receives
messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets messages through a number of
feedback mechanisms.

Encoder

Interprete M Decoder
r
Source e Receiver
Interprete
r
Decoder

Encoder
M-message

Figure 2 Charles Osgood's Model

Osgood stressed the social nature of communication. This model was found more
applicable in interpersonal communication in which the source and receiver were
physically present. For example when a teacher teaches, the learners interact by raising
queries, answering questions, etc. The role of interpretation of the message has also been
highlighted in this model for decoding a message .
Schramm Model (1954): Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communication expert did
not make a sharp distinction between technical and non-technical communication. But
drawing upon the ideas of Shannon and Osgoods, Schramm proceeded from a simple
human communication model to a more complicated one (Figure 3). His first model has a
lot of similarity with Shannon and Weaver Model.

Source Encoder Decoder

Signa Destination
l
Figure 3 Schramm Model

In the second model (Figure, 4, Schramm visualized the process of communication as a

process of sharing of experience and commonality of experience of those communicating.
It introduced the concept of shared orientation between sender and receiver.
The circles in this model indicate the accumulated experience of two individuals
engaged in communication. The source can encode and the destination can decode in
terms of the experience
 Field of experience Field of experience

Source Destination
Signal
Encoder Decoder

Figure 4 Schramm Model

In this model the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged .in communication
is emphasized unlike in the linear models discussed earlier in which interaction, feedback
and sharing of experiences find no place. . The source can encode and the destination can
decode in terms of the experience/s each has had. Communication becomes easy as both
the participants have a common field of experience. If the circles do not meet there is an
absence of such common experience which makes the process of communication difficult.

Schramm further elaborated his model by highlighting the frames of reference of the
persons engaged in communication. He took into account the wider social situations and
the relationships of both source and destination. He maintained that when both have the
same kind of situations, the message is selected, received, and interpreted according to
the frames of references in which noise and feedback play important roles. He also
included the idea of feedback by expressing that communication is reciprocal, two-way,
even though the feedback may be delayed. The weakness of this model is that it is a less
linear model, but it still holds good for bilateral communication. The complex, multiple
levels of communication among several sources that may take place simultaneously, say
in a group discussion, is not accounted for.

The linear models of communication held that a message flows only from the sources
to the recipient as for instance from a radio to a listener. Later on the interactive model
was developed which takes into account bilateral communication. Then the transactional
model of communication was developed. It includes the components of linear model
as well as the interactive ones. It emphasizes both the content, i.e. what is being
communicated and also includes the component of relationship of the source and the
recipient.
Example: A teacher and learners will interact more if the content taught is based
upon the experience of the learners and also if the teacher is friendly and has a good
relationship with the learners, there will be more interactions.

Check Your Progress 3

Fill in the blanks.
1. A model is a …………………………………………………………………………
2. The verbal model of Lasswell identified the areas of………………………………..
3. ………………………………….model introduced the concept of 'Noise'.
4. Osgoods model was found more applicable in……………………………………..
5. The second model of Wilbur Schramm introduced the concept of…………………

1.5 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

___________________________________________________________________

From the preceding discussion, you would have observed that the process of
communication is dynamic, ongoing and ever changing. We also used some terms such
as sender, message, channel, receiver, noise and feedback. These are known as Elements
of Communication that makes it a continuous process. Now let us examine these
elements in some detail and understand the type of interrelationship that exists among
them.

Source: The source of communication is the sender who has a message to impart. The
sender has to decide how to communicate a message, which channel is to be selected for
the message and what type of strategies should be planned so that the message makes
the desired response. The sender provides verbal or non-verbal cues that can be received,
interpreted and responded to by the receiver.

Message: Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source to create
meanings for the receiver. Simply put, message is the content which is shared between
the participants in the communication process. To make the message effective, the
sender has to understand the nature and profile of the receiver of the message, his/her
needs and expectations and possible response to the message. This is important in both
face-to-face as well as mediated situations.

Channel: Channel is the medium used to communicate a message from the sender to
receiver. The channel could be spoken word, printed word, electronic media, or even
non-verbal cues such as signs, gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. In modern
communication parlance, the word 'channel' mostly refers to mass communication media
such as newspapers, radio, television, telephone, computers, internet etc. The selection of
an appropriate channel is crucial for the success of communication.

Receiver: Communication cannot take place without a receiver for whom the message is
meant. We receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it. You have already
studied that for successful communication, the receiver should receive the message in
the same way it was meant by the sender. In interpersonal communication, the receiver
shares a close relationship with the sender which gradually gets diluted in group and mass
communication.

Noise: Noise is distortion in a message which affects the flow of communication.

Noise could be due to internal as well as external sources. Noise creates barriers in
communication and it could be of many types. There are various types of noises which
have implication in the process of communication and how these can be overcome for
facilitating effective communication are discussed in the next section.

Feedback: The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is known as
feedback. Communication being a two-way process, without the element of feedback any
discussion on the process of communication is incomplete. You have read in subsection
1.3.2 that interpersonal communication allows greater scope for feedback as both sender
and receiver can decipher the facial expressions, body movements and cross question
each other to remove their doubts/queries. In fact, their roles are intertwined and cannot
be distinguished. The element of feedback gets gradually diluted when the number of
participants in communication activity increases.

1.6 BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION

We have referred to the term 'Noise' while discussing the models and elements of
communication in the previous sections. Barrier or Noise is a term used to express any
interference in communication between source and receiver. A successful communication
is the one in which the message is conveyed undiminished with least distortion. However,
it is not always possible as a number of barriers make the process of communication
complex. Some of these barriers could be physical, psychological, cultural, linguistic
(semantic), technical or due to information overload. Let us try to understand these
barriers and how these can be minimized for effective communication.

Physical barriers: If the source is not visible to the receiver and s/he is not comfortable
in the environment, it may create barriers in communication. Geographical distance
may also create barriers, as people may like to communicate with one another but due
to physical distances may not be able to do so. For example, people may be interested
to communicate with an expert in a particular area who is not available in other areas/
regions as there is physical barrier.

Psychological barriers: Due to individual differences, attitudes, interest and motivation

levels, we perceive things and situations differently. Apart from this, the varied
levels of anxiety, inherent prejudices and previous experiences also create barriers in
communication. Studies have revealed that due to the process of selective perception,
selective recall and selective retention, we perceive, retain as well as recall a message
selectively thus creating barriers in communication.

Socio-cultural barriers: In communication process, socio-cultural barriers also operate.

To illustrate, in the Indian context, some women may not like to discuss their health
related problem with a male health worker. Similarly, some issues may be perceived as
personal and not fit for discussion outside the realm of family, thus creating barriers.
Some societies are less vocal which may affect their level of communication with those
from other cultures who are more vocal or aggressive in behaviour.

Linguistic barriers: During the process of communication, faulty expressions, poor

translation, verbosity, ambiguous words and inappropriate vocabulary create barriers.
Moreover, words and symbols used to communicate facts and information may mean
different things to different persons. This is due to the fact that meanings are in the
minds of people who perceive and interpret meanings in different ways according to their
individual frame of mind.

Technical barriers: While using technology, technical barriers also make the process
of communication complex. When audio quality is poor or video signals are weak, the
message may not clearly reach the target group. Erratic power supply also creates barriers
in communication.

Barriers due to information load: At times too much information is imparted which
we may not able to comprehend and assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication.
To illustrate, in a meeting when a speaker provides information at a fast pace for
considerable period of time many of the issues and concepts may get lost at the end.
While using media, this type of barrier can greatly affect the level of comprehension and
utilisation of the message. Hence, great care needs to be taken while deciding the amount
of information in a communication transaction.

Check Your Progress 4

Match the following situations with different types of barriers:
1. Rural women may not like to discuss
their problems with males a) Linguistic
2. Failure of satellite link b) Socio-cultural
3. Too many concepts in a lesson c) Physical
4. Individual differences d) Content load
5. Weak and faulty expressions e) Technical
6. Poor seating arrangements f) Psychological

1.7 STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

We have discussed in detail the various types of barriers that affect the process of
communication and it may not always be possible to completely remove all these
barriers. However, with proper planning and special efforts these can be minimised to a
great extent. Some of the ways of facilitating effective communication could be: clarity
of message, reinforcement of ideas, selection of appropriate channel, motivation, proper
environment and feedback. Let us elaborate each of these ways.

Clarity of message: In any type of communication, it is important that the objective

of communication is well defined, the level of language is kept simple, brief and clear.
It has been found that most of the complex ideas can be presented simply. Short and
simple sentences can express an idea completely, coherently and cogently. Too many
conjunctions make a sentence complex and difficult to understand. Proper phrasing,
punctuation, emphasis, voice modulation facilitates clarity of message and increases the
impact of communication.
Reinforcement of ideas: For clarity of the message, an element of redundancy needs to
be introduced. Difficult or technical words and expressions need to be substituted with
simpler expressions and words of everyday usage. However, care needs to be taken to see
that the message does not become repetitive and boring. The level of audience needs to
be constantly kept in mind.
Appropriate channel: Depending upon the type and objective of communication,
selection of appropriate channel is crucial for the success of communication. The use
of technology also helps to overcome geographical barriers. However, for selecting
a particular channel, especially the more expensive one, some questions need to be
constantly asked such as why this channel? Is there any specific need? Will it help to
meet the objective of communication? Is it possible to avoid unnecessary investment?
and so on. Many a time, a simple channel may convey a message more effectively as
compared to the more glamorous ones.
Motivation: Motivation also helps to remove some of the barriers, especially
psychological and socio-cultural barriers. The receivers in the communication process
need to be encouraged to express their views, opinions and doubts. They need to be
drawn into the interactive process by persuading them to pose questions. Appreciation of
their (receivers) views increases their self-esteem and builds confidence.
Proper environment: Proper seating arrangements, visibility of the source and relatively
comfortable environment facilitate communication. This is especially conducive in
overcoming some of the physical barriers discussed above.
Feedback: Feedback is an integral component of any communication activity. Regular
feedback at appropriate levels facilitates understanding of the needs and views of
the receiver/s. It helps to bridge the gaps, if any, in the communication approach and
improves the process of communication.

1.8 SUMMARY

In this Unit, you were introduced to the concept of communication and its importance
in our lives. You were also exposed to different types of communication which included
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and mass communication. The various models, such
as Lasswell model, Shannon and Weaver model, Osgoods model and Wilbur Schramm
and the transactional models highlighted the complexities of the communication process.
The dynamics of communication were discussed by delineating the various elements such
as the source, message, channel, noise, receiver and feedback. The element of noise was
further elaborated upon and various barriers which affect the communication process
were thoroughly analysed. How effective communication strategies can be planned
with clear unambiguous message, selection of appropriate channel, reinforcement of
ideas, motivation and feedback were examined in some detail. We hope that this analysis
will help you to apply the principles of communication in your day-to-day interaction
in general and for education and training in particular, which will come up for detailed
discussion in the next unit.

_____________________________________________________________________--
1.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES
________________________________________________________________________

1. Watch closely two persons communicating with each other. Note the various signs
and symbols used for interaction. Analyze how their roles as sender and receiver
interchange while interacting. Examine if there is any noise or barrier existing in
their communication. If yes, observe the effect of the noise on the communication
process.
Chose another situation where noise/barrier is affecting communication. Analyze the
causes leading to noise/barriers and the steps tat can be taken to remove them.
2. Plan an effective communication strategy to communicate your views on any topic
to a group of 20 adults.
 3. Interview a teacher and find out about the barriers in communication in his/her
classroom that restrict proper communication with some of the students. Discuss with
him/her the steps that could be taken to lessen them.

1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

You may visit websites on topics discussed in this Unit, like the following:
http://www.answers.com/topic/communication Retrieved on 18.4.06
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model Retrieved on 18.4.06
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/schro1.html Retrieved
on 18.4.06
http://www.nvcc.edu/home/aeldridge/communication/nature/models.htm Retrieved on
19.4.06

Clues to Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress 1

1. Communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of ideas,

information, knowledge, attitudes or feelings among two or more persons through
certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended by the
communicator.
2. Although communication is being used for information dissemination, training and
education, entertainment has become predominant lately. One of the reasons for this
is the emphasis placed on entertainment by satellite and cable TV which in turn has
affected other mass communication media.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Intrapersonal communication helps us in thinking, analyzing and introspecting. It is a

kind of internal dialogue that takes place within an individual while conceptualizing
and formulating our thoughts or ideas before we actually express them.
2. Interpersonal Group
• The proximity between sender and receiver is high It is reduced
• The roles of sender and receiver become interchangeable May not always happen
• Feedback is high Reduced feedback
• Easier to clarify views, persuade or motivate another person It may not be so easy.

Check Your Progress 3

Fill in the blanks
1. Graphical representation designed to explain the way the variable(s) works
2. Communication research
3. Shannon and Weaver
4. Interpersonal communication
5. Shared orientation between sender and receiver.

Check Your Progress 4

1- b), 2- e), 3- d), 4- f), 5- a), 6- c)
 Barriers to Communication:

Many people think that communicating is easy. It is, after all,

something we've done all our lives. There is some truth in this
simplistic view. Communicating is straightforward.What makes it
complex, difficult, and frustrating are the barriers we put / that
come in the way. When communication doesn’t happen, conflict
often does.

There are Six Barriers to Communication:

1. Physical Barriers
2. Cultural Barriers
3. Interpersonal Barriers
4. Perceptual Barriers
5. Emotional Barriers
6. Language Barriers
1. Physical Barriers:
Physical barriers are the environmental and natural conditions that act
as a barrier in communication in sending message from sender to
receiver. Organizational environment or interior workspace design
problems, technological problems and noise are the parts of physical
barriers.

Physical barriers (in the workplace) include:

• Marked out territories, empires and fiefdoms into which
strangers/others are not allowed
• Closed office doors, barrier screens, and separate areas for
people of different status and designation.
• Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically
separate from others
As one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is
proximity, being close to others aids communication because it
helps people get to know one another.
Example: Mr. Rahim Qazi sits in the second floor of the building
whereas his entire team sits is in the third floor of the office and as
a result his communication is limited to the entire team. This is an
example of Physical barrier.
2. Cultural Barriers:
Cultural diversity makes communication difficult as the mindset of
people of different cultures are different, the language, signs and
symbols are also different. Different cultures have different
meaning of words, behaviors and gestures. Culture also gives rise
to prejudices, ethnocentrism, manners and opinions.
Example: Americans prefer to be called by their first name
irrespective of their age and designation, whereas Indians (may)
have some reservations for the same. This is a classic example of
Cultural Barrier.
3. Interpersonal Barriers:
Interpersonal communication is the process by which people
exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and
non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication. Poor self-
esteem, social anxiety, and other issues can make it difficult for
people to feel comfortable opening up to others, which hurts their
ability to communicate feelings accurately to others as well as their
ability to interpret others. You might experience these struggles in
the following ways:
Lack of participation: It’s impossible to communicate with someone
who doesn’t want to. People can appear unwilling to communicate
when they don’t speak up when they should, dodge direct questions,
or use defensive body language.
Lack of open-mindedness: It’s tough to communicate with someone
who refuses to explore different points of view, opinions, or ideas
about the world. We must be able to get along with people of different
viewpoints to function even at a basic level with other people.
Example: Niharika is the part of the weekly sales meeting in her office
but because of her unwillingness to participate in the meeting, she
barely spoke and gave her inputs in the meeting. This is an example of
Interpersonal barrier to communication.
4. Perceptual Barriers:

Perceptual barriers are internal barriers to communication. If you go

into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to isn't going
to understand or be interested in what you have to say, you may end
up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to make your point.

• Perceptual Filters - We all have our own preferences, values,

attitudes, origins and life experiences that act as "filters" on our
experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things
through the lens of our own unique life experiences or
"conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and
misunderstandings of others whose experiences differ from our
own.

• Triggers and Cues - What we say is affected by how we say it

(tone, volume) and by our nonverbal cues, such as body language
and facial gestures. For example, you may perceive a situation
differently if the person you are speaking with is smiling or
frowning, has body odour and is standing too close or is not
giving you direct eye contact.

Example: Rajveer has relocated to New Delhi for new job but as his
past experiences in New Delhi were not good, he has stereotyped
views on Delhi and natives of Delhi thereby limiting his social
circle and interaction with the people around him. This is an
example of perceptual barrier.
5. Emotional Barriers:
One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is
emotional.The emotional barrier is comprised mainly of fear,
mistrust and suspicion.The roots of our emotional mistrust of others
lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful
about what we said to others.
"Mind your P's and Q's."
"Don't speak until you're spoken to."
"Children should be seen and not heard."
As a result, many people hold back from communicating their
thoughts and feelings to others. They feel vulnerable. While some
caution may be wise, excessive fear of what others might think
stunts our development as effective communicators and our ability
to form meaningful relationships.
Example: Riya has joined a new team in her where all the team
members are elder to her. This makes Riya uncomfortable to
disagree with anyone in her team as he is not able to put forth her
views and make any submission in any meeting. This is an
example of Emotional barrier to communication.
6. Language Barriers:
Our language may present barriers to others who are not familiar
with our expressions, buzz-words and jargon. When we couch our
communication in such language, it excludes others. Understanding
this is key to developing good public speaking skills and report
writing skills.
In a global marketplace, the greatest compliment we can pay
another person is to talk to them in their own language.
Example: One of the more chilling memories of the Cold War was
the threat by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev who said to the
Americans at the United Nations:
"We will bury you!"
This was taken to mean a threat of nuclear annihilation.
However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev's words would
have been:
"We will overtake you!"
By this, he meant economic superiority. It was not just the language
used that was the problem.
The fear and suspicion that the West had of the Soviet Union led to
the more alarmist and sinister interpretation.
DRAMNG IN.FER,ENCES- WORD ;~1c I URES
1

""1n1 reading~there am saveral l)'pes Df VIDrd 1pietures tne autnor will

· palnf' for )iOU

• Ihe setting.
• A Character's,Personality 1Dr Emotions.
• What a Character~s Motives ,Might Be_
• What tlhe Writer'.ls Motives behind writing U1e piece
might be ...
 THE OITIINING IIETHIII
Dash or i11 ndented outiining i.s usua1lly best
1

except: fror1
some scienlce dasses such ~
1
physics or math.
1. The informatio1 n which is most g eneral 1begin s 1 1
1

1
at the 1.eft with each mare speclific group of
facts in de nted with spaces to the r~ght.
1
1

2. The relationships betwee,n the differenit

rts is carried out thro ugh in denting.
pa1 1
1 1

J.. N0 numbers, letters or 1

Roman numerafs are
1

1
1
,

needed .
1
1
1. Describe what is happening 1n th is picture.
2. Whit time of day do you thinlk It 1s7
3. Wlrlere do you th ink he is dnving?
4. W)',y do )OU 'tt1 ink, he is clriVi ng?
1

5. wtlat could happen next?

Limra I Quesllons:
ls the man angry?
What 1s the time?
What colour is the man·s phone?
Is the man's be patterned or pla1n1
Inference Questions:
 Underwater Caleras

Aqular
Amphib1ilus

Niklnas
' ,snapshot

needs spec·inl housing

\ 1n under water
1

i1 air ·• water
1
~
 At first, Freud tried conventional, physical methods
of treatment such as giving baths, · ...··.·•·• .·..··· .·•. ·, rest
cures, and similar aids. But when these failed, he
tried techniques of hypnosis that he had soon used
by Jean-Martin Charcot. Finally, he borrowed an
idea from Jean Breuer and used dire ct verbal 1

communication to get an unhypnotized patient to

· reveal unconscious thoughts.
Sample Notes:
Freud 1st -- used phys. trtment; e.g., baths. etc_ This
fld_2nd -- used hypnosis (fr. Charcot) Finally --
used dirct vrb. commun. (fr. Breuer) - got unhynop,
patnt ta reveal uncons. th ou · ht-·_
1
 Nata-taking Nale-making

aklng notes onl1y gives the early 1

1
Maklng notes should be able to hel_

con'flgurallon lor the, who le topic.

1
S'Wdents In ca1ptllred Its main k1eyY!
1

~ veraU structure cannot be show . Showing of the overall structure

specmc su1bJect.

~otes are made by sources. Only Constructed by Ile learner them sel
hanoi-made ca1
n be 1
applled since whether by rh an~made 1
or

llhe time occurred can be limited. computer-typed lom1 If

Often In a most cre,a,llve farm so lh

the·Garrelatlon lo the brain abrllty i

stonng the facts become[sm coth. 1

I THE CIRNEll METHOD
M. OD:
~ Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving
J a six-inch area on the righ t in which to make notes~ Du ring
1

das s, take dow n info rma tion in lh1e six-inch area .. When the
1

inst ruct or moves to a new point. skip a few lines ~ Afte r

~ dass t complete phrases an d sen1ten ces as much as possibfe+
1
1

J For ev1ery sig111 1 ificant bit of information , wnit1e la cue i1 n tihe

left. margin . ·To ~eview, cover y,our nroles with a card, 1 l'eaving
thre cues exposed. Say the cue ou1t loudl, the1 n ,say .as much
1
1

~1 as you can of the ma terial und emeath ttie card. Whe

1
1

n you
J have said as much as you can, move the card and see if
what you said matches whiat js written. If you can say it, yo U
1
1

t know it.
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•ta up ■ perlecl 11,tae.e for oum-sLudytRI, lolff
l liert1re Co'\!'cr lne not•lldUfQI coliutnn w1tll a sMet Pr
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-- Cornell Notes
Dat e
Cin i
-•- M Id • IC&y words a ideas
Period

• • a1n ea
ill

~
: • Key Important dates/peoplllplaces
•
: Question • Ae pe ate d/S tre sse d Infa
1

: (af tu Mt • Ideo.slbrainstorming wr itte n an

• arc board / overhead pro jec tor
: mmplered) • Inf o from textbook/starie.s
• - • Diagr,110& & Pictures
-_l
• __ • Formulas
!!!!!iiiiiiiiii_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _liiiiiii i_ _ _ _ _ _ _

-.-. SanuMry of nata in JOU"' awn werds

~
_l i iiiilll_~

-
 lmllarltlm ·· -n n ,· ·-
taking and n ·. ·I-making
• Both 1Provides the stud:ent with material for easy]
1 1 1

referenc:e, preparation ,and study durinQ an ex,am

1

• Both1aids the srudent in remembering facts easier as it1

uti'li2es both readingr and listening senses

• Both1lhave ttie sam,e purpose tha1t is for the student to
excel 'in the·ir studies
,. Both !helps students]con centrate better a n d more
1
1
1

effectively
 · ren
taking and n .· -making
I Note-m■ki1ng
Note-taklng
1

Brings nc obviOus Improvement Maklng noles Improve 'the skills in

1
1

toward.I the skllls ln eludyingm

1
study.

Ornl;y .Jotung down points. ln,v·otve Helps studenrt to see each point
I c1early along with Its Un'k or
no slgt,t, lnterp retatlon.
1

reonnection with each other

Very less changes are required. Easier to change the notes made
1

] - - - - - - - - ---------+--~---~ ~ - - - - ~
·t aki'ng points fr-am one source on lnvo1lve the taking of points[fro1m

timerii ldifferent sources.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 ZERO

FIRST

SECOND

THIRD

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
ZERO CONDITIONAL is a structure used for
talking about general truths -- things which
always happen under certain conditions The
zero conditional is used to talk about things
which are always true -- scientific facts,
general truths, and so on.
N.B: (note that most zero conditional sentences will
mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of
"if").

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 Zero Conditionals
If clause Main clause

If + Present Simple Present Simple

If you heat the It boils

water to 100
degrees,

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
FIRST CONDITIONAL is a structure used for
talking about possibilities in the present or in
the future.
The first conditional is used to talk about
things which are possible and probable in the
present or the future --things which may
happen.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
if clause main clause

If + Present Simple Future Simple, can,

may

If you study hard, you will pass the

test.
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
SECOND CONDITIONAL is a structure used for
talking about unreal situations in the present
or in
the future. The second conditional is used to
express an imaginary present or improbable
future situations
(not true or not possible in the present or the
future) -- things which don't or won't
happen.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 if clause main clause

If + Past Simple would, could, might

+ infinitive

If I won a million I would buy a big

dollars, house.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
THIRD CONDITIONAL is a structure used for
talking about unreal situations in the past.
The third conditional is used to talk about
things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the past. It
can be very
useful, as It could be often used to express
criticism or regret.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 if clause main clause

If + Past Perfect would/could/might have +

Past Participle

If I had studied I would have passed the

harder, exam.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 Other time clauses
(before, unless, when, while, as soon as, as long as, provided that)

After using ; when, as soon as, before, while, unless, as long as and
provided that we use the present tense (not will).

• I’ll stay with Jake when I go to London next week.

• As soon as I get my exam results, I’m going on holiday.
• Before I go out tonight, I have to finish this essay.
• While I’m away, Penny’s going to look after my dog.
• I won’t be able to buy a car unless I find a job soon.
• I’ll come with you as long as I don't have to drive.
• You’ll pass your exam provided that you do enough revision.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 WISH / IF ONLY CLAUSES
Wish and if only can be used with would and past tenses. These structures express regrets, and
wishes for unlikely or impossible things.
If only is more emphatic.

1. Past tenses are used to talk about the present.

I wish I was better looking I wish I spoke French
Don’t you wish you could fly? If only I knew more people!
Were can be used instead of was, especially in a formal style.
He wishes he were better looking.

2. We use a past perfect tense to express regrets about the past

I wish you hadn’t said that.
Now she wishes she had gone to university.
If only she hadn’t told the police, everything would be all right.

3. We use would or could...

1. to talk about future things which aren’t very probable.
I wish / If only I could go to the party.
2. to talk about future things that we would like people (not) to do.
The subject of wish and the main verb is different. So here we
only use would. This often expresses dissatisfaction or annoyance: It
can sound critical.
I wish you would go home. If only the postman would come!
We can use this structure to talk about things as well as people.
I wish this damned car would start. If only it would stop raining!

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 Sample rephrasing

First Conditional:
- Be careful – someone’s going to see you!
- If you are careful, nobody will see you!
- If + Subject + present simple, subject + future will (aff or neg)

Second Conditional:

-Kathy wants to go to the movies but doesn't have any money

-If Kathy had some money, she would go to the movies.
-If + Subject + past simple (neg or aff), subject + would /could/might + infinitive +
complements

Third Conditional:
-Tom was not going to come to dinner the next day because you insulted him.
-If you hadn’t insulted him, Tom would have come to dinner.
- If + Subject + past perfect (neg or aff), subject + would/ could/might + have + pp + C

Wish / If only
I’m sorry, but I can’t help you now.
I wish I could help you.
I would have gone to the concert, but I didn’t have a ticket.
I wish I had had a ticket. / I had bought a ticket

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
 Other examples

- His book will be published provided he takes his manuscript to the editor.
Unless he takes his manuscript to the editor, his book won’t be published.
Unless + present simple, future simple (aff or neg)

-I didn't have an umbrella with me and so I got wet.

I wouldn't have got wet, if I had had an umbrella with me.

-We don't go to school when it rains

If it rains, we don’t go to school.

-I didn't move the table because Jack didn't help me.

If Jack had helped me, I would have moved the table.

- You drink too much coffee, that's why you don't sleep well.
If you didn’t drink too much coffee, you would sleep well.

-You never talk to me, so you don't know anything about me.
If you talked to me, you would know something about me.

DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
DR MARY JOHN SAJEEV,ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR ,SASL VITBhopal .
Back to School (9-12) Movie CLIP - Marge Takes Notes (1986) HD.mp4

The Importance of Taking Notes (remix).mp4

Note Taking & Note Making

Dr. Vinod Bhatt

Associate Professor
School of Social Languages
 Notes

• act as a summary or reinforcement of the main points of what you read,

heard or saw
• an essential record of where information came from (for referencing
purposes)
• remind you of other things you should do to continue learning,
e.g. sources to check out; action to take
• useful for future revision purposes, for exams or writing assignments
 Note-taking

• the first stage of the process of producing effective notes

• a process that involves writing or recording what you hear or
read in a descriptive way
• during lectures, tutorials or seminar
• copying notes from original resources seen, heard or read
 Note-making
• follows on from taking notes
• happens when
i. You synthesize your reading from a number of sources on the same
topic.
ii. You summarize for yourself the connections in any reading or from
any lecture.
iii. You add your own critical comments to what you read or hear
Similarities between note-taking and note-making

• Both provides the student with material for easy reference, preparation and study
during an exam
• Both aids the student in remembering facts easier as it utilizes both reading and
listening senses
• Both have the same purpose that is for the student to excel in their studies
• Both helps students concentrate better and more effectively
 Differences between note-taking and note-making
Note-taking Note-making

Brings no obvious improvement towards the Making notes improve the skills in study.
skills in studying.

Only jotting down points. Involve no sight Helps student to see each point clearly along
with its link or connection with each other
interpretation.

Very less changes are required. Easier to change the notes made

Taking points from one source on a time. Involve the taking of points from different
sources.
 Note-taking Note-making

Less understanding process involved, the Aimed in making note is that the making of
aim is to take notes/ point the notes must be in a way that helps
students to understand the topic related
better
Points or notes were rewrite in full form. Making notes are often in short form
Points given by sources are taken straightly (comprises only the main point or key words
that may help the study process). process
must involve the process of summarizing all
the information within the points studied
 Note-taking Note-making

Taking notes only gives the early configuration Making notes should be able to helps students in

for the whole topic. captured its main key.

Overall structure cannot be show clearly as it Showing of the overall structure of specific

still in complex form. subject.

Notes are made by sources. Only hand-made Constructed by the learner them self, whether by
can be applied since the time occurred can be hand-made or in computer-typed form.

limited. Often in a most creative form so that the

correlation to the brain ability in storing the facts

become smooth.
Methods of note-taking

• The Cornell Method

• The Outlining Method
• The Mapping Method
 The Cornell Method

The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing

notes without laborious recopying. After writing the notes in the main space, use the

left-hand space to label each idea and detail with a key word or "clue.“
 Procedure
• Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area on the right in
which to make notes.
• During class, take down information in the six-inch area. When the instructor moves to a
new point, skip a few lines. After class, complete phrases and sentences as much as
possible.
• For every significant bit of information, write a clue in the left margin.
• To review, cover your notes with a card, leaving the cues exposed. Say the clue out loud,
then say as much as you can of the material underneath the card.
• When you have said as much as you can, move the card and see if what you said matches
what is written. If you can say it, you know it.
Overview of the note
page
 Advantages

• Organized and systematic for recording and reviewing notes.

• Easy format for pulling out major concept and ideas.
• Simple and efficient.
• Saves time and effort.
 Outlining Method

Dash or indented outlining is usually best except for some science classes such as physics

or math.

• The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific group

of facts indented with spaces to the right.

• The relationships between the different parts is carried out through indenting.

• No numbers, letters, or Roman numerals are needed.

Procedure :

1. Listening and then write in points in an organized pattern based on space indention.

2. Place major points farthest to the left. Indent each more specific point to the right.

3. Levels of importance will be indicated by distance away from the major point.

Indention can be as simple as or as complex as labeling the indentations with

Roman numerals or decimals. Markings are not necessary as space relationships

will indicate the major/minor points.

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Example:
Advantages:

• Well-organized system if done right.

• Outlining records content as well as relationships.
• It also reduces editing and is easy to review by turning main points into
questions.
 Mapping Method

Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves

in a note-taking form which relates each fact or idea to every other fact or idea.
Mapping is a graphic representation of the content of a lecture. It is a method
that maximizes active participation, affords immediate knowledge as to its
understanding, and emphasizes critical thinking.
12/19/2020 School of Social Languages (SSL) 21
Example:
 Advantages

• This format helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of conditions.
• Little thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen.
• It is also easy to edit your notes by adding numbers, marks, and color coding.
• Review will call for you to restructure thought processes which will force you to check understanding.
• Review by covering lines for memory drill and relationships.
• Main points can be written on flash or note cards and pieced together into a table or larger structure at a
later date.
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