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1.
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The Late Geometric period represents some of the most significant periods in the history of

Greek civilization, which is also labeled the Greek renaissance, thanks to its progressive spirit.

Numerous political, societal, and cultural changes took place during this period. Just like the

renaissance was the revival of the antic values, historians believe that the Late Geometric Period

was the revival of the values of Mycenaean age.

It is the most developed time sequence of Geometric Period that brought great changes, and

during which Greek civilization got out from the period of Greek Dark Ages, and from which

proceeded into its most developed forms- Classical and Hellenic periods. The period is labeled

geometric according to the pottery that was decorated with strongly accentuated geometric

shapes. During the Late Geometric Period, many significant historical events took place. Greece

is expanding and they are becoming more successful in colonizing its surroundings. So, at the

end of the 8th century, they have colonized Southern Italy and Sicily. The need for the writing

system re-emerges and although the old Mycenaean alphabet has been lost, they are borrowing

the letters from Phoenicians and adapting their alphabet. This is the period during which new

forms of governing and political and social organization is taking place. City-state or polis is

emerging as a way of political organization. Those city-states are independent and there’s a great

competition between them, yet they share language and culture, thanks to which pan- Hellenistic

enthusiasm develops, leading people to gather on the famous religious sites where they

celebrated their gods. The First Olympic games were played out during the geometric period

(776. Bce).
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Aristocracy is getting all the richer during these decades- they are taking the best and the largest

land territory for themselves, leaving not substantial land to the rest.

The background for this all the more thriving setting, where contacts with other cultures that

Greeks made through colonization, but also trading. Communication with the east and

Mediterranean upscaled and thanks to that „even the more isolated areas were drawn into the

networks of cultural exchange.“ ( Pomeroy S, Burstein S. M, Donlan W, Roberts T. J, Tandy

D.W, 2013, p.59). Thanks to this exchange Greek managed to find ways for getting back the

writing and it was through the Phoenician alphabet that they adapted to the sounds of the Greek

language. The oldest usage of this writing system is made of parts of epics on the pottery .“

( Pomeroy S, Burstein S. M, Donlan W, Roberts T. J, Tandy D.W,2013, p. 60) which might

represent the proposition that writing developed in order to write and keep epics.

Pottery style changed and there’s the involvement of the new elements in the arts. As a

result of new cultural influences, there are new elements in decoration such as ornamental

motives of animals, leaves, flowers. Decorations are going towards more naturalistic depictions

and leaving geometrical ornaments. These elements came from the east, thus the label-

orientalism. In the decades to come they would be all the more common. Until the middle of the

century, these shy naturalistic decorations evolved to depict full scenes of funerals, wars, etc.

The most monumental form of Greek architecture developed during this period and that is a

Greek temple. Although the first temples were very humble, made of woods, and resembled the

common houses, the temple of Hera, built on the island of Samos, made "a clear distinction

between the divine and humane." .“( Pomeroy S, Burstein S. M, Donlan W, Roberts T. J, Tandy

D.W, 2013, p. 65) The aim of the first temples as we know them was to make a distinction
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between the common houses and divine places. This is also proof that there was a sense for the

community, and those who had money worked for the benefit of the community.

Reference list :

Pomeroy S, Burstein S. M, Donlan W, Roberts T. J, Tandy D.W. (2013). The Dark Age of

Greece and The 8th Century Renaissance, A Brief Hisory of Ancient Greece (3rd ed.,pp. 41-65.)

2.

The first sculpture is that of New York Kouros- labeled so for being kept in The Metropolitan

Museum of Art in New York is archaic Greek sculpture, nude male life-sized sculpture, made of

marble made in life-size. It is made in the 6th century BC, in the funerary style typical of

aristocratic families. These funerary statues were not representations of passed individuals, but

ideas of youth, beauty, and godly part of human beings, made in order to trespass earthly life.

Such a sculpture hasn’t been only used in funerary style- Kuroi were also dedicated in the

sanctuaries to the god Apollo. ( Archaic Greece Lecture )This style resembles a lot to the

Egyptian sculpture of Gods of the time, except that it is completely free from the stone of the

building, and fully sculpted from all the sides, which was not the case with the Egyptian

sculpture. There is a movement in this sculpture- the leg is stepping forward. Yet, the eyes are

blank, the shoulders are square, as well as the hips. Straight and stiff lines dominate the

sculpture. It is highly symmetrical, even with the movement forward, which makes it look

unnatural. Face lacks expression, it is blank, highly symmetrical, and geometric. The sculpture is

extremely heavy, it weighs about 2000 pounds, which made the artist, make hands, lean to the

hips, in order not to fall. This heavy figure standing on his own feet is a major technological
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advancement. His hair is beautifully braided and it is obvious that it the artist gave much

attention to it. These decorations are so precise, that just like the rest of the sculpture feel

completely unnatural- the spectator is sure that this is the sculpture. Yet, as a funerary sculpture,

thanks to its traits it has a spiritual aspect to it. Female version of the sculpture was also in the

wide-spread use, and quite similar in the style, posture and shape. The main difference was the

clothes- women were depicted clothed during the Archaic period.

Doryphoros by Polikleitos made circa 440 BC, of bronze, is one of the best knowns Greek

sculptures. This figure is a representation of an idealized form of the human body- the perfection

of the human form. It is the study of the real- life symmetry, unlike the symmetry in the Archaic

period kuros. The body is muscular, the face expression aloof (Late Classical Period Lecture) In

this sculpture, there’s a true difference when compared to the Kuros. Everything that feels

unnatural and rigid, has completely changed. Figures that seem fully alive would become the

goal of the classical period. This is the first time in art history, that the artists are dedicated to

making a sculpture that would feel fully alive and that would look like one of us. The figure is in

the position of contrapposto, meaning that all the balance is on the one side. There’s no

symmetry, in the sense of the movement, because it is perfectly sculpted according to the rules of

real life. Lines of the body seem soft and natural compared to that of Kiros. He stands

completely composed and calm, precisely in the rational manner of Classical Greece- Here, an

artist employed mathematical proportions in order to make him look as natural as possible. The

period of Classical period brought more innovations in art that strived towards the natural, so

during these years, sculptures would also start depicting old people and infants- not only the

beauty of the youth.

References :

The Archaic Period Lecture, 2020

The Late Classical Period Lecture, 2020

3.

On the picture left, there is a model of an Etruscan temple according to Vitruvius, and on the

picture right is The Temple of Portunus in Rome, which is a well-preserved example of a Roman

temple. Unlike the Greek and Roman ones, the Etruscan temple is not made of heavy materials,

but lighter ones. Although Etruscan religious architecture, as well as the civil architecture, left

few traces due to the fact that the temples were built with perishable materials. According to

Vitruvius, the Tuscan temple is completely distinguishable from Greek and Roman, and the

Tuscan column had a capitol very similar to the Doric one, except that is made of wood. These

columns were only present at the front of the temple, comparing to Greek and Roman models.

(The Etruscans and the Roman Republic Lecture )With the exception of the foundation and

bases, Etruscan temples had to be built of lighter materials, with the use of wood for the

supporting frames and the beams. This inevitably led to relatively limited development in height

and a large roof. One of the characteristics is a wider space between the columns, as well as the

three cellars, for every God that is worshiped in a particular temple. “Etruscans often, although

not always, worshiped multiple gods in a single temple. In such cases, each god received its own

cellar where their stature was kept. “ ( Early Rome). The Etruscan temple, like the Roman, has

the trait of having the main façade, with the entrance and main staircase on one side, unlike the

Greek temple. The pediment was originally open, leaving the structures of the roof cage visible
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on the facade; only later was the type of the closed pediment adopte d, decorated with a

figurative composition as in the Greek temples.

Roman temple took after the Etruscan one when it comes to many characteristics above, but it

also incorporated many Greek elements. Notable Greek influence is obvious in the rectangular

shape of the temple, tetrastyle and pseudo-peripteral, of the Ionic order. The facade is the

combination of Etruscan and Greek elements- so it lingers towards Greek peristyle, but still has

the closed walls at the end of the construction- just like Etruscan.

The Temple of Portunus has a high podium and faces only one side. It has columns only on the

façade and not on the sides. It is of a rectangular shape but narrower compared to the Etruscan

one. On the other hand, there are numerous elements of the Greek style. Firstly, the temple is

well- preserved, even nowadays,, which means that there’s a great difference between the

building materials of the two temples. Like Greek temples, the Temple of Portunus is built from

strong material. Romans used local stone- Tufo, made of volcanic ash, as well as travertine. In

Roman architecture, the temple was initially inspired by Etruscan models but soon drew on

Hellenistic architecture. The most marked difference of the Roman temple from the Greek one is

its elevation on a high podium, accessible by an often front staircase. Furthermore, there is a

tendency to give greater importance to the front, unlike Greek that had entrances from all sides.

Unlike Greek Temples, the Roman ones haven’t been built on the elevated space, but were more

incorporated into the surroundings and they usually faced east. Roman temples were bigger and

more monumental than the Greek ones- they were very rich, glamorous, and wanted to

emphasize their power. Anyway, inner rooms in Roman temples were closed for most of the

people, while the Greek ones felt more spacious.

Anyway, inner rooms in Roman temples were closed for most of the people, while the Greek

ones felt more spacious.

References :

The Etruscans and The Roman Republic Lecture, 2020

Humanities : Early Rome, Prehystoric to the 15th century, Lumen, web source:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-fscj-earlyhumanities/chapter/early-rome/

4.

Hellenic period and its art seem to me the most appealing. Compared to the other periods that

were art was more concered with gods, or abstract ideas about humans, Hellenic art is more

focused on the individual and on the tragedy and joy, brutality, violence of the life itself.

Sculptures are strongly based on the classical style, and its beautiful life like forms, yet emotion

and expression vary greatly. Compared to the composed and relaxed manner during the classical

period, here emotion is so strong that the spectator can feel the drama. I’m amazed by the beauty

of the sculptures from this period such as Nika and Laocoon and His Children.