Grade 10 Maths (PDFDrive) PDF

FHSST: Grade 10 Maths
Collection Editor:
Free High School Science Texts Project
Collection Editor:
Authors:
Rory Adams
Sarah Blyth
Mark Horner
Heather Williams
Online:
< http://cnx.org/content/col11239/1.1/ >
CONNEXIONS
Rice University, Houston, Texas

This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by Free High School Science Texts Project.
It is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Collection structure revised: November 18, 2010
PDF generated: April 21, 2011
For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see p. 320.
Table of Contents
1 Review of Past Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Estimating Surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5 Irrational Numbers and Rounding O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6 Number Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7 Finance - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8 Products and Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9 Equations and Inequalities - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10 Functions and graphs - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11 Average Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
12 Geometry Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13 Geometry - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14 Trigonometry - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15 Statistics - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
16 Probability - Grade 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Attributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
iv
Chapter 1
Review of Past Work 1
1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes some basic concepts which you have seen in earlier grades and lays the foundation
for the remainder of this book. You should feel condent with the content in this chapter, before moving on
with the rest of the book.
You can try out your skills on exercises in this chapter and ask your teacher for more questions just like
them. You can also try to make up your own questions, solve them and try them out on your classmates to
see if you get the same answers.
Practice is the only way to get good at maths!
1.2 What is a number?

A number is a way to represent quantity. Numbers are not something that you can touch or hold, because
they are not physical. But you can touch three apples, three pencils, three books. You can never just touch
three, you can only touch three of something. However, you do not need to see three apples in front of you
to know that if you take one apple away, there will be two apples left. You can just think about it. That is
your brain representing the apples in numbers and then performing arithmetic on them.
A number represents quantity because we can look at the world around us and quantify it using numbers.
How many minutes? How many kilometers? How many apples? How much money? How much medicine?
These are all questions which can only be answered using numbers to tell us how much of something we
want to measure.
A number can be written in many dierent ways and it is always best to choose the most appropriate
way of writing the number. For example, a half may be spoken aloud or written in words, but that
makes mathematics very dicult and also means that only people who speak the same language as you can
1
understand what you mean. A better way of writing a half is as a fraction
2 or as a decimal number 0, 5.
It is still the same number, no matter which way you write it.
In high school, all the numbers which you will see are called real numbers and mathematicians use the
symbol R to represent the set of all real numbers, which simply means all of the real numbers. Some of these
real numbers can be written in ways that others cannot. Dierent types of numbers are described in detail
in Section 1.12.
1 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/1.4/>.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF PAST WORK
1.3 Sets
A set is a group of objects with a well-dened criterion for membership. For example, the criterion for
belonging to a set of apples, is that the object must be an apple. The set of apples can then be divided into
red apples and green apples, but they are all still apples. All the red apples form another set which is a
sub-set of the set of apples. A sub-set is part of a set. All the green apples form another sub-set.
Now we come to the idea of a union, which is used to combine things. The symbol for union is ∪.
Here, we use it to combine two or more intervals. For example, if x is a real number such that 1<x≤3 or
6 ≤ x < 10 , then the set of all the possible x values is:
(1, 3] ∪ [6, 10) (1.1)
where the ∪ sign means the union (or combination) of the two intervals. We use the set and interval notation
and the symbols described because it is easier than having to write everything out in words.
1.4 Letters and Arithmetic

The simplest thing that can be done with numbers is adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing them.
When two numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided, you are performing arithmetic 2
. These
four basic operations can be performed on any two real numbers.
Mathematics as a language uses special notation to write things down. So instead of:
oneplusoneisequaltotwo (1.2)
mathematicians write
1+1=2 (1.3)
In earlier grades, place holders were used to indicate missing numbers in an equation.
1+=2
4−=2 (1.4)
+ 3 − 2 = 2
However, place holders only work well for simple equations. For more advanced mathematical workings,
letters are usually used to represent numbers.
1+x=2
4−y =2 (1.5)
z + 3 − 2z = 2
These letters are referred to as variables, since they can take on any value depending on what is required.
For example, x=1 in (1.5), but x = 26 in 2 + x = 28.
A constant has a xed value. The number 1 is a constant. The speed of light in a vacuum is also a
−1
constant which has been dened to be exactly 299 792 458 m·s (read metres per second). The speed of light
is a big number and it takes up space to always write down the entire number. Therefore, letters are also
used to represent some constants. In the case of the speed of light, it is accepted that the letter c represents
the speed of light. Such constants represented by letters occur most often in physics and chemistry.
2 Arithmetic is derived from the Greek word arithmos meaning number.

3
Additionally, letters can be used to describe a situation mathematically. For example, the following
equation
x+y =z (1.6)
can be used to describe the situation of nding how much change can be expected for buying an item. In
this equation, y represents the price of the item you are buying, x represents the amount of change you
should get back and z is the amount of money given to the cashier. So, if the price is R10 and you gave the
cashier R15, then write R15 instead of z and R10 instead of y and the change is then x.
x + 10 = 15 (1.7)
We will learn how to solve this equation towards the end of this chapter.
1.5 Addition and Subtraction

Addition (+) and subtraction (−) are the most basic operations between numbers but they are very closely
related to each other. You can think of subtracting as being the opposite of adding since adding a number
and then subtracting the same number will not change what you started with. For example, if we start with
a and add b, then subtract b, we will just get back to a again:
a+b−b=a
(1.8)
5+2−2=5
If we look at a number line, then addition means that we move to the right and subtraction means that we
move to the left.
The order in which numbers are added does not matter, but the order in which numbers are subtracted
does matter. This means that:
a+b = b+a
(1.9)
a − b 6= b − a ifa 6= b
The sign 6= means is not equal to. For example, 2 + 3 = 5 and 3 + 2 = 5, but 5 − 3 = 2 and 3 − 5 = −2. −2
is a negative number, which is explained in detail in "Negative Numbers" (Section 1.8: Negative Numbers).
1.5.1 Commutativity for Addition

The fact that a + b = b + a, is known as the commutative property for addition.
1.6 Multiplication and Division

Just like addition and subtraction, multiplication (×, ·) and division (÷, /) are opposites of each other.
Multiplying by a number and then dividing by the same number gets us back to the start again:
a×b÷b=a
(1.10)
5×4÷4=5
Sometimes you will see a multiplication of letters as a dot or without any symbol. Don't worry, its exactly
the same thing. Mathematicians are ecient and like to write things in the shortest, neatest way possible.
abc = a×b×c
(1.11)
a·b·c = a×b×c
It is usually neater to write known numbers to the left, and letters to the right. So although 4x and x4
are the same thing, it looks better to write 4x. In this case, the 4 is a constant that is referred to as the
coecient of x.
1.6.1 Commutativity for Multiplication

The fact that ab = ba is known as the commutative property of multiplication. Therefore, both addition
and multiplication are described as commutative operations.
1.7 Brackets
3
Brackets in mathematics are used to show the order in which you must do things. This is important as you
can get dierent answers depending on the order in which you do things. For example:
(5 × 5) + 20 = 45 (1.12)
whereas
5 × (5 + 20) = 125 (1.13)
If there are no brackets, you should always do multiplications and divisions rst and then additions and
4
subtractions . You can always put your own brackets into equations using this rule to make things easier
for yourself, for example:
a×b+c÷d = (a × b) + (c ÷ d)
(1.14)
5 × 5 + 20 ÷ 4 = (5 × 5) + (20 ÷ 4)
If you see a multiplication outside a bracket like this
a (b + c)
(1.15)
3 (4 − 3)
then it means you have to multiply each part inside the bracket by the number outside
a (b + c) = ab + ac
(1.16)
3 (4 − 3) = 3 × 4 − 3 × 3 = 12 − 9 = 3
unless you can simplify everything inside the bracket into a single term. In fact, in the above example, it
would have been smarter to have done this
3 (4 − 3) = 3 × (1) = 3 (1.17)
It can happen with letters too
3 (4a − 3a) = 3 × (a) = 3a (1.18)
3 Sometimes people say parentheses instead of brackets.

4 Multiplying and dividing can be performed in any order as it doesn't matter. Likewise it doesn't matter which order you
do addition and subtraction. Just as long as you do any ×÷ before any +−.
5
1.7.1 Distributivity
The fact that a (b + c) = ab + ac is known as the distributive property.
If there are two brackets multiplied by each other, then you can do it one step at a time:
(a + b) (c + d) = a (c + d) + b (c + d)
= ac + ad + bc + bd
(1.19)
(a + 3) (4 + d) = a (4 + d) + 3 (4 + d)
= 4a + ad + 12 + 3d
1.8 Negative Numbers

1.8.1 What is a negative number?
Negative numbers can be very confusing to begin with, but there is nothing to be afraid of. The numbers
that are used most often are greater than zero. These numbers are known as positive numbers.
A negative number is a number that is less than zero. So, if we were to take a positive number a and
subtract it from zero, the answer would be the negative of a.
0 − a = −a (1.20)
On a number line, a negative number appears to the left of zero and a positive number appears to the right
of zero.
Figure 1.1: On the number line, numbers increase towards the right and decrease towards the left.
Positive numbers appear to the right of zero and negative numbers appear to the left of zero.
1.8.2 Working with Negative Numbers

When you are adding a negative number, it is the same as subtracting that number if it were positive.
Likewise, if you subtract a negative number, it is the same as adding the number if it were positive. Numbers
are either positive or negative and we call this their s ign. A positive number has a positive sign (+) and a
negative number has a negative sign (−).
Subtraction is actually the same as adding a negative number.
In this example, a and b are positive numbers, but −b is a negative number
a − b = a + (−b)
(1.21)
5 − 3 = 5 + (−3)
So, this means that subtraction is simply a short-cut for adding a negative number and instead of writing
a + (−b), we write a − b. This also means that −b + a is the same as a − b. Now, which do you nd easier
to work out?
Most people nd that the rst way is a bit more dicult to work out than the second way. For example,
most people nd 12 − 3 a lot easier to work out than −3 + 12, even though they are the same thing. So
a − b, which looks neater and requires less writing is the accepted way of writing subtractions.
Table 1.1 shows how to calculate the sign of the answer when you multiply two numbers together. The
rst column shows the sign of the rst number, the second column gives the sign of the second number and
the third column shows what sign the answer will be.
a b a×b or a÷b
+ + +
+ − −
− + −
− − +
Table 1.1: Table of signs for multiplying or dividing two numbers.
So multiplying or dividing a negative number by a positive number always gives you a negative number,
whereas multiplying or dividing numbers which have the same sign always gives a positive number. For
example, 2×3=6 and −2 × −3 = 6, but −2 × 3 = −6 and 2 × −3 = −6.
Adding numbers works slightly dierently (see Table 1.2). The rst column shows the sign of the rst
number, the second column gives the sign of the second number and the third column shows what sign the
answer will be.
a b a+b
+ + +
+ − ?
− + ?
− − −
Table 1.2: Table of signs for adding two numbers.
If you add two positive numbers you will always get a positive number, but if you add two negative
numbers you will always get a negative number. If the numbers have a dierent sign, then the sign of the
answer depends on which one is bigger.
1.8.3 Living Without the Number Line

The number line in Figure 1.1 is a good way to visualise what negative numbers are, but it can get very
inecient to use it every time you want to add or subtract negative numbers. To keep things simple, we will
write down three tips that you can use to make working with negative numbers a little bit easier. These tips
will let you work out what the answer is when you add or subtract numbers which may be negative, and will
also help you keep your work tidy and easier to understand.
7
1.8.3.1 Negative Numbers Tip 1

If you are given an expression like −a + b, then it is easier to move the numbers around so that the expression
looks easier. In this case, we have seen that adding a negative number to a positive number is the same as
subtracting the number from the positive number. So,
−a + b = b−a
−5 + 10 = 10 + (−5)
(1.22)
= 10 − 5
= 5
This makes the expression easier to understand. For example, a question like What is −7 + 11? looks a
lot more complicated than What is 11 − 7?, even though they are exactly the same question.

When you have two negative numbers like −3 − 7, you can calculate the answer by simply adding together
the numbers as if they were positive and then putting a negative sign in front.
−c − d = − (c + d)
(1.23)
−7 − 2 = − (7 + 2) = −9

In Table 1.2 we saw that the sign of two numbers added together depends on which one is bigger. This tip
tells us that all we need to do is take the smaller number away from the larger one and remember to give
the answer the sign of the larger number. In this equation, F is bigger than e.
e−F = − (F − e)
(1.24)
2 − 11 = − (11 − 2) = −9
You can even combine these tips: for example, you can use Tip 1 on −10 + 3 to get 3 − 10 and then use
Tip 3 to get − (10 − 3) = −7.
1.8.3.3.1 Negative Numbers

1. Calculate:
(a) (−5) − (−3) (b) (−4) + 2 (c) (−10) ÷ (−2)

(d) 11 − (−9) (e) −16 − (6) (f ) −9 ÷ 3 × 2
(g) (−1) × 24 ÷ 8 × (−3) (h) (−2) + (−7) (i) 1 − 12
(j) 3 − 64 + 1 (k) −5 − 5 − 5 (l) −6 + 25
(m) −9 + 8 − 7 + 6 − 5 + 4 − 3 + 2 − 1
Table 1.3
5
Click here for the solution
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3B>
2. Say whether the sign of the answer is + or −
(a) −5 + 6 (b) −5 + 1 (c) −5 ÷ −5

(d) −5 ÷ 5 (e) 5 ÷ −5 (f ) 5÷5
(g) −5 × −5 (h) −5 × 5 (i) 5 × −5
(j) 5×5
Table 1.4
6
1.9 Rearranging Equations

Now that we have described the basic rules of negative and positive numbers and what to do when you add,
subtract, multiply and divide them, we are ready to tackle some real mathematics problems!
Earlier in this chapter, we wrote a general equation for calculating how much change (x) we can expect
if we know how much an item costs (y ) and how much we have given the cashier (z ). The equation is:
x+y =z (1.25)
So, if the price is R10 and you gave the cashier R15, then write R15 instead of z and R10 instead of y.
x + 10 = 15 (1.26)
Now that we have written this equation down, how exactly do we go about nding what the change is?
In mathematical terms, this is known as solving an equation for an unknown (x in this case). We want to
re-arrange the terms in the equation, so that only x is on the left hand side of the = sign and everything
else is on the right.
The most important thing to remember is that an equation is like a set of weighing scales. In order to
keep the scales balanced, whatever is done to one side must be done to the other.
6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3K>

9
Figure 1.2: An equation is like a set of weighing scales. In order to keep the scales balanced, you must
do the same thing to both sides. So, if you add, subtract, multiply or divide the one side, you must add,
subtract, multiply or divide the other side too.
1.9.1 Method: Rearranging Equations

You can add, subtract, multiply or divide both sides of an equation by any number you want, as long as you
always do it to both sides.
So for our example we could subtract y from both sides
x+y = z
x+y−y = z−y
x = z−y (1.27)
x = 15 − 10
= 5
Now we can see that the change is the price subtracted from the amount paid to the cashier. In the example,
the change should be R5. In real life we can do this in our heads; the human brain is very smart and can do
arithmetic without even knowing it.
When you subtract a number from both sides of an equation, it looks like you just moved a positive
number from one side and it became a negative on the other, which is exactly what happened. Likewise,
if you move a multiplied number from one side to the other, it looks like it changed to a divide. This is
because you really just divided both sides by that number and a number divided by itself is just 1
a (5 + c) = 3a
a (5 + c) ÷ a = 3a ÷ a
a a
a × (5 + c) = 3× a
(1.28)
1 × (5 + c) = 3×1
5+c = 3
c = 3 − 5 = −2
However, you must be careful when doing this, as it is easy to make mistakes.
The following is the WRONG thing to do
5a + c = 3a
(1.29)
5+c = 3
Can you see why it is wrong? It is wrong because we did not divide the c term by a as well. The correct
thing to do is
5a + c = 3a
5+c÷a = 3 (1.30)
c÷a = 3 − 5 = −2
1.9.1.1 Rearranging Equations

1. If 3 (2r − 5) = 27, 2r − 5 = ..... Click here for the solution7
then
2. Find the value for x if 0, 5 (x − 8) = 0, 2x + 11 Click here for the solution8
Solve 9 − 2n = 3 (n + 2) Click here for the solution
9
3.
Change the formula P = A + Akt to A = Click here for the solution
10
4.
1 1
Solve for x: + = 1 11
5. Click here for the solution
ax bx
7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3k>
8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l30>
11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3X>
11
1.10 Fractions and Decimal Numbers

A fraction is one number divided by another number. There are several ways to write a number divided by
a
another one, such as a ÷ b, a/b and
b . The rst way of writing a fraction is very hard to work with, so we will
use only the other two. We call the number on the top (left) the numerator
and the number on the bottom
(right) the denominator 1
. For example, in the fraction 1/5 or , the numerator is 1 and the denominator is
5
5.
1.10.1 Denition - Fraction

The word fraction means part of a whole.
The reciprocal of a fraction is the fraction turned upside down, in other words the numerator becomes
2 3
the denominator and the denominator becomes the numerator. So, the reciprocal of
3 is 2 .
A fraction multiplied by its reciprocal is always equal to 1 and can be written
a b
× =1 (1.31)
b a
This is because dividing by a number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.
1.10.2 Denition - Multiplicative Inverse

The reciprocal of a number is also known as the multiplicative inverse.
A decimal number is a number which has an integer part and a fractional part. The integer and the
fractional parts are separated by a decimal point, which is written as a comma in South African schools. For
14
example the number 3 100 can be written much more neatly as 3, 14.
All real numbers can be written as a decimal number. However, some numbers would take a huge amount
of paper (and ink) to write out in full! Some decimal numbers will have a number which will repeat itself,
such as 0, 33333... where there are an innite number of 3's. We can write this decimal value by using a dot
above the repeating number, so 0, 3̇ = 0, 33333.... If there are two repeating numbers such as 0, 121212...
then you can place dots
12
on each of the repeated numbers 0, 1̇2̇ = 0, 121212.... These kinds of repeating
decimals are called recurring decimals.
Table 1.5 lists some common fractions and their decimal forms.
Fraction Decimal Form

1
0,05
20
1
0,0625
16
1
0,1
10
1
0,125
8
1
6 0, 166̇
1
0,2
5
1
0,5
2
3
0,75
4
Table 1.5: Some common fractions and their equivalent decimal forms.
12 or a bar, like 0, 12
1.11 Scientic Notation

In science one often needs to work with very large or very small numbers. These can be written more easily
in scientic notation, which has the general form
a × 10m (1.32)
where a is a decimal number between 0 and 10 that is rounded o to a few decimal places. The m is an
integer and if it is positive it represents how many zeros should appear to the right of a. If m is negative,
then it represents how many times the decimal place in a should be moved to the left. For example 3, 2 × 103
−3
represents 32 000 and 3, 2 × 10 represents 0, 0032.
If a number must be converted into scientic notation, we need to work out how many times the number
must be multiplied or divided by 10 to make it into a number between 1 and 10 (i.e. we need to work out
the value of the exponent m) and what this number is (the value of a). We do this by counting the number
of decimal places the decimal point must move.
−1
For example, write the speed of light which is 299 792 458 ms in scientic notation, to two decimal
places. First, determine where the decimal point must go for two decimal places (to nd a) and then count
how many places there are after the decimal point to determine m.
In this example, the decimal point must go after the rst 2, but since the number after the 9 is a 7,
a = 3, 00.
So the number is 3, 00 × 10m , where m = 8, because there are 8 digits left after the decimal point. So,
the speed of light in scientic notation to two decimal places is 3, 00 × 108 ms−1 .
−7
As another example, the size of the HI virus is around 1, 2 × 10 m. This is equal to 1, 2 × 0, 0000001 m,
which is 0,00000012 m.
1.12 Real Numbers

Now that we have learnt about the basics of mathematics, we can look at what real numbers are in a little
more detail. The following are examples of real numbers and it is seen that each number is written in a
dierent way.
√ 56 1
3, 1, 2557878, , 10, 2, 1, − 5, − 6, 35, − (1.33)
34 90
Depending on how the real number is written, it can be further labelled as either rational, irrational, integer
or natural. A set diagram of the dierent number types is shown in Figure 1.3.
13
N Z Q R
Figure 1.3: Set diagram of all the real numbers R, the rational numbers Q, the integers Z and the
natural numbers N. The irrational numbers are the numbers not inside the set of rational numbers. All
of the integers are also rational numbers, but not all rational numbers are integers.
1.12.1 Non-Real Numbers

All numbers that are not real numbers have
√ imaginary components. We will not see imaginary numbers in
this book but they come from −1. Since we won't be looking at numbers which are not real, if you see a
number you can be sure it is a real one.
1.12.2 Natural Numbers

The rst type of numbers that are learnt about are the numbers that are used for counting. These numbers
are called natural numbers and are the simplest numbers in mathematics:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (1.34)
Mathematicians use the symbol N0 to mean the set of all natural numbers. These are also sometimes called
whole numbers. The natural numbers are a subset of the real numbers since every natural number is also a
real number.
1.12.3 Integers
The integers are all of the natural numbers and their negatives:
... − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4... (1.35)
Mathematicians use the symbol Z to mean the set of all integers. The integers are a subset of the real
numbers, since every integer is a real number.
1.12.4 Rational Numbers

The natural numbers and the integers are only able to describe quantities that are whole or complete. For
example, you can have 4 apples, but what happens when you divide one apple into 4 equal pieces and share
it among your friends? Then it is not a whole apple anymore and a dierent type of number is needed to
describe the apples. This type of number is known as a rational number.
A rational number is any number which can be written as:
a
(1.36)
b
where a and b are integers and b 6= 0.
The following are examples of rational numbers:
20 −1 20 3
, , , (1.37)
9 2 10 15
1.12.4.1 Notation Tip

a
Rational numbers are any number that can be expressed in the form
b ; a, b ∈ Z; b 6= 0 which means the set
a
of numbers
b when a and b are integers.
Mathematicians use the symbol Q to mean the set of all rational numbers. The set of rational numbers
contains all numbers which can be written as terminating or repeating decimals.
1.12.4.2 Rational Numbers

All integers are rational numbers with a denominator of 1.
You can add and multiply rational numbers and still get a rational number at the end, which is very
useful. If we have 4 integers a, b, c and d, then the rules for adding and multiplying rational numbers are
a c ad+bc
b + d = bd
(1.38)
a c ac
b × d = bd
1.12.4.3 Notation Tip

The statement "4 integers a, b, c and d" can be written formally as {a, b, c, d} ∈ Z because the ∈ symbol
means in and we say that a, b, c and d are in the set of integers.
a c
Two rational numbers (
b and d ) represent the same number if ad = bc. It is always best to simplify any
rational number, so that the denominator is as small as possible. This can be achieved by dividing both the
numerator and the denominator by the same integer. For example, the rational number 1000/10000 can be
2 8
divided by 1000 on the top and the bottom, which gives 1/10. 3 of a pizza is the same as
12 (Figure 1.4).
15
Figure 1.4:
8
12
of the pizza is the same as 2
3
of the pizza.
You can also add rational numbers together by nding the lowest common denominator and then adding
the numerators. Finding a lowest common denominator means nding the lowest number that both denomi-
nators are a factor 13
of. A factor of a number is an integer which evenly divides that number without leaving
a remainder. The following numbers all have a factor of 3
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, ... (1.39)
and the following all have factors of 4
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ... (1.40)
The common denominators between 3 and 4 are all the numbers that appear in both of these lists, like 12
and 24. The lowest common denominator of 3 and 4 is the smallest number that has both 3 and 4 as factors,
which is 12.
3 2
For example, if we wish to add
4 + 3 , we rst need to write both fractions so that their denominators are
3
the same by nding the lowest common denominator, which we know is 12. We can do this by multiplying
4
3 2 4 3 4
by
3 and 3 by 4 . 3 and 4 are really just complicated ways of writing 1. Multiplying a number by 1 doesn't
change the number.
3 2 3 3 2 4
4 + 3 = 4 × 3 + 3 × 4
3×3 2×4
= 4×3 + 3×4
9 8
= 12 + 12
(1.41)
9+8
= 12
17
= 12
13 Some people say divisor instead of factor.

Dividing by a rational number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal, as long as neither the numerator
nor the denominator is zero:
a c a d ad
÷ = . = (1.42)
b d b c bc
A rational number may be a proper or improper fraction.
Proper fractions have a numerator that is smaller than the denominator. For example,
−1 3 −5
, , (1.43)
2 15 −20
are proper fractions.
Improper fractions have a numerator that is larger than the denominator. For example,
−10 15 −53
, , (1.44)
2 13 −20
are improper fractions. Improper fractions can always be written as the sum of an integer and a proper
fraction.
1.12.4.4 Converting Rationals into Decimal Numbers

Converting rationals into decimal numbers is very easy.
If you use a calculator, you can simply divide the numerator by the denominator.
If you do not have a calculator, then you have to use long division.
Since long division was rst taught in primary school, it will not be discussed here. If you have trouble
with long division, then please ask your friends or your teacher to explain it to you.
1.12.5 Irrational Numbers

An irrational number is any real number that is not a rational number. When expressed as decimals, these
numbers can never be fully written out as they have an innite number of decimal places which never fall
√
into a repeating pattern. For example, 2 = 1, 41421356..., π = 3, 14159265.... π is a Greek letter and is
pronounced pie.
1.12.5.1 Real Numbers

1. Identify the number type (rational, irrational, real, integer) of each of the following numbers:
c
a.
d if c is an integer and if d is irrational.
3
b.
2
c. -25
d. 1,525
√
e. 10
14
√
2. Is the following pair of numbers real and rational or real and irrational? Explain. 4; 18 Click here for
15
the solution
14 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3b>
15 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3j>
17
1.13 Mathematical Symbols

The following is a table of the meanings of some mathematical signs and symbols that you should have come
across in earlier grades.
Sign or Symbol Meaning
> greater than
< less than
≥ greater than or equal to
≤ less than or equal to
Table 1.6
So if we write x > 5, we say that x is greater than 5 and if we write x ≥ y , we mean that x can be
greater than or equal to y . Similarly, < means `is less than' and ≤ means `is less than or equal to'. Instead
of saying that x is between 6 and 10, we often write 6 < x < 10. This directly means `six is less than x
which in turn is less than ten'.
1.13.1 Mathematical Symbols

1. Write the following in symbols:
a. x is greater than 1
b. y is less than or equal to z
c. a is greater than or equal to 21
d. p is greater than or equal to 21 and p is less than or equal to 25
16
1.14 Innity
Innity (symbol ∞) is usually thought of as something like the largest possible number" or the furthest
possible distance". In mathematics, innity is often treated as if it were a number, but it is clearly a very
dierent type of number" than integers or reals.
When talking about recurring decimals and irrational numbers, the term innite was used to describe
never-ending digits.
1.15 End of Chapter Exercises

1. Calculate
a. 18 − 6 × 2
b. 10 + 3 (2 + 6)
c. 50 − 10 (4 − 2) + 6
d. 2 × 9 − 3 (6 − 1) + 1
e. 8 + 24 ÷ 4 × 2
f. 30 − 3 × 4 + 2
g. 36 ÷ 4 (5 − 2) + 6
h. 20 − 4 × 2 + 3
16 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3l>
i. 4 + 6 (8 + 2) − 3
j. 100 − 10 (2 + 3) + 4
17
2. If p = q + 4r, then r = ..... Click here for the solution18
x−2
3 = x − 3 Click here for the solution
19
3. Solve
17 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3D>

18 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3W>
19 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3Z>
Chapter 2
Rational Numbers 1
2.1 Introduction
As described in the chapter on review of past work, a number is a way of representing quantity. The numbers
that will be used in high school are all real numbers, but there are many dierent ways of writing any single
real number.
This chapter describes rational numbers.
Khan Academy video on Integers and Rational Numbers
This media object is a Flash object. Please view or download it at
<http://www.youtube.com/v/kyu-IQ-gBIg&arel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 2.1
19
20 CHAPTER 2. RATIONAL NUMBERS
2.2 The Big Picture of Numbers
Figure 2.2
21
The term whole number does not have a consistent denition. Various authors use it in many dierent ways.
We use the following denitions:
• natural numbers are (1, 2, 3, ...)

• whole numbers are (0, 1, 2, 3, ...)
• integers are (... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ....)
2.3 Denition
The following numbers are all rational numbers.
10 21 −1 10 −3
, , , , (2.1)
1 7 −3 20 6
You can see that all denominators and all numerators are integers.
Denition 2.1: Rational Number

a
(2.2)
b
tip: Only fractions which have a numerator and a denominator (that is not 0) that are integers
are rational numbers.
This means that all integers are rational numbers, because they can be written with a denominator of 1.
Therefore
√
2 π
, (2.3)
7 20
are not examples of rational numbers, because in each case, either the numerator or the denominator is
not an integer.
A number may not be written as an integer divided by another integer, but may still be a rational
number. This is because the results may be expressed as an integer divided by an integer. The rule is, if a
number can be written as a fraction of integers, it is rational even if it can also be written in another way as
well. Here are two examples that might not look like rational numbers at rst glance but are because there
are equivalent forms that are expressed as an integer divided by another integer:
−1, 33 133 −3 −300

= , = = −100213 (2.4)
−3 300 6, 39 639
2.3.1 Rational Numbers

1. If a is an integer, b is an integer and c is irrational, which of the following are rational num-
bers?
5 a b 1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
6 3 2 c
Table 2.1
2
a
2. If
1 is a rational number, which of the following are valid values for a?
√
(i) 1 (ii) −10 (iii) 2 (iv) 2, 1
Table 2.2
3
2.4 Forms of Rational Numbers

All integers and fractions with integer numerators and denominators are rational numbers. There are two
more forms of rational numbers.
2.4.1 Investigation : Decimal Numbers

1
You can write the rational number
2 as the decimal number 0,5. Write the following numbers as decimals:
1
1.
4
1
2.
10
2
3.
5
1
4.
100
2
5.
3
Do the numbers after the decimal comma end or do they continue? If they continue, is there a repeating
pattern to the numbers?
You can write a rational number as a decimal number. Two types of decimal numbers can be written as
rational numbers:
1. decimal numbers that end or terminate, for example the fraction

4
10 can be written as 0,4.
1
2. decimal numbers that have a repeating pattern of numbers, for example the fraction
3 can be written
as 0, 3̇. The dot represents recurring 3's i.e., 0, 333... = 0, 3̇.
5
For example, the rational number
6 can be written in decimal notation as 0, 83̇ and similarly, the decimal
1
number 0,25 can be written as a rational number as .
4
tip: You can use a bar over the repeated numbers to indicate that the decimal is a repeating
decimal.
2.5 Converting Terminating Decimals into Rational Numbers

A decimal number has an integer part and a fractional part. For example 10, 589 has an integer part of 10
and a fractional part of 0, 589 because 10 + 0, 589 = 10, 589. The fractional part can be written as a rational
number, i.e. with a numerator and a denominator that are integers.
Each digit after the decimal point is a fraction with a denominator in increasing powers of ten. For
example:
1
• 10 is 0, 1
1
• 100 is 0, 01
3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3N>
23
This means that:
5 8 9
10, 589 = 10 + 10 + 100 + 1000
589
= 10 1000 (2.5)
10589
= 1000
2.5.1 Fractions
1. Write the following as fractions:
(a) 0, 1 (b) 0, 12 (c) 0, 58 (d) 0, 2589
Table 2.3
4
2.6 Converting Repeating Decimals into Rational Numbers

When the decimal is a repeating decimal, a bit more work is needed to write the fractional part of the
decimal number as a fraction. We will explain by means of an example.
a
If we wish to write 0, 3̇ in the form
b (where a and b are integers) then we would proceed as follows
x = 0, 33333...
10x = 3, 33333... multiply by 10 on both sides
(2.6)
9x = 3 (subtracting the second equation from the rst equation)
3 1
x = 9 = 3
And another example would be to write 5, 4̇3̇2̇ as a rational fraction.
x = 5, 432432432...
1000x = 5432, 432432432... multiply by 1000 on both sides
(2.7)
999x = 5427 (subtracting the second equation from the rst equation)
5427 201
x = 999 = 37
For the rst example, the decimal was multiplied by 10 and for the second example, the decimal was
multiplied by 1000. This is because for the rst example there was only one digit (i.e. 3) recurring, while
for the second example there were three digits (i.e. 432) recurring.
In general, if you have one digit recurring, then multiply by 10. If you have two digits recurring, then
multiply by 100. If you have three digits recurring, then multiply by 1000. Can you spot the pattern yet?
The number of zeros is the same as the number of recurring digits.
Not all decimal numbers can be written as rational numbers. Why? Irrational decimal numbers like
√
2 = 1, 4142135... cannot be written with an integer numerator and denominator, because they do not have
a pattern of recurring digits. However, when possible, you should try to use rational numbers or fractions
instead of decimals.
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3R>
2.6.1 Repeated Decimal Notation

1. Write the following using the repeated decimal notation:
a. 0, 11111111...
b. 0, 1212121212...
c. 0, 123123123123...
d. 0, 11414541454145...
5
2. Write the following in decimal form, using the repeated decimal notation:
2
a.
3
3
b. 1 11
5
c. 46
d. 2 19
6
3. Write the following decimals in fractional form:
a. 0, 6333̇
b. 5, 313131
c. 0, 999999̇
7
2.7 Summary
1. Real numbers can be either rational or irrational.
a
2. A rational number is any number which can be written as
b where a and b are integers and b 6= 0
3. The following are rational numbers:
a. Fractions with both denominator and numerator as integers.

b. Integers.
c. Decimal numbers that end.
d. Decimal numbers that repeat.

1. If a is an integer, b is an integer and c is irrational, which of the following are rational numbers?
5
a.
6
a
b.
3
b
c.
2
1
d.
c
8
2. Write each decimal as a simple fraction:
a. 0, 5
b. 0, 12
c. 0, 6
d. 1, 59
e. 12, 277̇
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3U>
6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3n>
7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3Q>
8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3v>
25
9
3. Show that the decimal 3, 211̇8̇ is a rational number.
10
a
4. Express 0, 78̇ as a fraction
b where a, b ∈ Z (show all working).
11
9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3f>

10 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3G>
11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOf>
Chapter 3
Exponentials 1
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the short cuts to writing 2×2×2×2 . This is known as writing a
number in exponential notation.
3.2 Denition
Exponential notation is a short way of writing the same number multiplied by itself many times. For example,
instead of 5 × 5 × 5, we write 53 to show that the number 5 is multiplied by itself 3 times and we say 5 to
the power of 3. Likewise 5 is 5 × 5 and 35 is 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3. We will
2
now have a closer look at writing
numbers using exponential notation.
Denition 3.1: Exponential Notation

Exponential notation means a number written like
an (3.1)
where n is an integer and a can be any real number. a is called the base and n is called the
exponent or index.
The nth power of a is dened as:
an = a × a × · · · × a (n times) (3.2)
with a multiplied by itself n times.

We can also dene what it means if we have a negative exponent −n. Then,
1
a−n = (3.3)
a × a × ··· × a (ntimes)
tip: Exponentials
n
If n is an even integer, then a will always be positive for any non-zero real number a. For example, although
2 −2 1
−2 is negative, (−2) = −2 × −2 = 4 is positive and so is (−2) = −2×−2 = 41 .
27
28 CHAPTER 3. EXPONENTIALS
Khan Academy video on Exponents - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/8htcZca0JIA&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 3.1
Khan Academy video on Exponents-2

<http://www.youtube.com/v/1Nt-t9YJM8k&rel=0>
Figure 3.2
3.3 Laws of Exponents

There are several laws we can use to make working with exponential numbers easier. Some of these laws
might have been seen in earlier grades, but we will list all the laws here for easy reference and explain each
law in detail, so that you can understand them and not only remember them.
a0 = 1
am × an = am+n
1
a−n = an
(3.4)
am ÷ an = a m−n
n
(ab) = an bn
n
(am ) = amn
3.3.1 Exponential Law 1: a0 = 1

Our denition of exponential notation shows that
a0 = 1 , (a 6= 0) (3.5)
0
For example, x0 = 1 and (1 000 000) = 1.
3.3.1.1 Application using Exponential Law 1: a0 = 1, (a 6= 0)

1. 160
2. 16a0
0
3. (16 + a)
0
4. (−16)
29
5. −160
2
3.3.2 Exponential Law 2: am × an = am+n

<http://www.youtube.com/v/kSYJxGqOcjA&rel=0>
Figure 3.3
Our denition of exponential notation shows that
am × an = 1 × a × ... × a (mtimes)
× 1 × a × ... × a (ntimes)
(3.6)
= 1 × a × ... × a (m + ntimes)
= am+n
For example,
27 × 23 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2)
= 27+3 (3.7)
= 210
note: This simple law is the reason why exponentials were originally invented. In the days
before calculators, all multiplication had to be done by hand with a pencil and a pad of paper.
Multiplication takes a very long time to do and is very tedious. Adding numbers however, is very
easy and quick to do. If you look at what this law is saying you will realise that it means that
adding the exponents of two exponential numbers (of the same base) is the same as multiplying the
two numbers together. This meant that for certain numbers, there was no need to actually multiply
the numbers together in order to nd out what their multiple was. This saved mathematicians a
lot of time, which they could use to do something more productive.
3.3.2.1 Application using Exponential Law 2: am × an = am+n

1. x2 · x5
2. 23 .24 [Take note that the base (2) stays the same.]
3. 3 × 32a × 32
3
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOG>

3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lO7>
3.3.3 Exponential Law 3: a−n = 1

an
, a 6= 0
Our denition of exponential notation for a negative exponent shows that
a−n = 1 ÷ a ÷ ... ÷ a (ntimes)

1
= 1×a×···×a (ntimes) (3.8)
1
= an
This means that a minus sign in the exponent is just another way of showing that the whole exponential
number is to be divided instead of multiplied.
For example,
1
2−7 = 2×2×2×2×2×2×2
(3.9)
1
= 27
3.3.3.1 Application using Exponential Law 3: a−n = 1

an , a 6= 0
1
1. 2−2 = 22
2−2
2.
32
2 −3
3.
3
m
4.
n−4
a−3 ·x4
5.
a5 ·x−2
4
3.3.4 Exponential Law 4: am ÷ an = am−n

We already realised with law 3 that a minus sign is another way of saying that the exponential number is
to be divided instead of multiplied. Law 4 is just a more general way of saying the same thing. We get this
law by multiplying law 3 by am on both sides and using law 2.
am
an = am a−n
(3.10)
= am−n
For example,
2×2×2×2×2×2×2
27 ÷ 23 = 2×2×2
= 2×2×2×2
(3.11)
= 24
= 27−3
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcx>

31
Khan academy video on exponents - 4

<http://www.youtube.com/v/tvj42WdKlH4&rel=0>
Figure 3.4
3.3.4.1 Application using Exponential Law 4: am ÷ an = am−n

a6
1.
a2 = a6−2
32
2.
36
32a2
3.
4a8
a3x
4.
a4
5
3.3.5 Exponential Law 5: (ab)n = an bn

The order in which two real numbers are multiplied together does not matter. Therefore,
n
(ab) = a × b × a × b × ... × a × b (ntimes)
= a × a × ... × a (ntimes)
(3.12)
× b × b × ... × b (ntimes)
= an bn
For example,
4
(2 · 3) = (2 · 3) × (2 · 3) × (2 · 3) × (2 · 3)
= (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (3 × 3 × 3 × 3)
(3.13)
= 24 × 34

= 24 34
3.3.5.1 Application using Exponential Law 5: n

(ab) = an bn
3
1. (2xy) = 23 x3 y 3
7a 2

2.
b
3
3. (5a)
6
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOA>

6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOs>
3.3.6 Exponential Law 6: (am )n = amn

We can nd the exponential of an exponential of a number. An exponential of a number is just a real
number. So, even though the sentence sounds complicated, it is just saying that you can nd the exponential
of a number and then take the exponential of that number. You just take the exponential twice, using the
answer of the rst exponential as the argument for the second one.
n
(am ) = am × am × ... × am (ntimes)
= a × a × ... × a (m × ntimes) (3.14)
= amn
For example,
3
22 = 22 × 22 × 22

= (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2)
(3.15)
= 26

= 2(2×3)
3.3.6.1 Application using Exponential Law 6: n

(am ) = amn
4
1. x3
h i2
3
2. a4
2
3. 3n+3
7
Exercise 3.1: Simplifying indices (Solution on p. 35.)

52x−1 ·9x−2
Simplify:
152x−3
3.3.6.2 Investigation : Exponential Numbers

Match the answers to the questions, by lling in the correct answer into the Answer column. Possible
3
answers are:
2 , 1, −1, − 13 , 8. Answers may be repeated.
Question Answer
23
73−3
2 −1

3
87−6
−1
(−3)
23
(−1)
Table 3.1
7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lO6>

33
The following video gives an example on using some of the concepts covered in this chapter.

<http://www.youtube.com/v/AbmQNC-iE84&rel=0>
Figure 3.5
3.4 Summary
Exponential notation means a number written like an where n is an integer and a can be any real
number.
a is called the base and n is called the exponent or index.
The nth power of a is dened as: an = a × a × · · · × a (n times)
There are six laws of exponents:
· Exponential Law 1: a0 = 1
· Exponential Law 2: am × an = am+n
· Exponential Law 3: a−n = a1n , a 6= 0
· Exponential Law 4: am ÷ an = am−n
n
· Exponential Law 5: (ab) = an bn
m n
· Exponential Law 6: (a ) = amn

1. Simplify as far as possible:
a. 3020
b. 10
0
c. (xyz)
h 5 2 i0
d. 3x4 y 7 z 12 −5x9 y 3 z 4
3
e. (2x)
3
f. (−2x)
4
g. (2x)
4
h. (−2x)
8
2. Simplify without using a calculator. Leave your answers with positive exponents.
3x−3
a.
(3x)2
1 −2
5x + 8−2 −
0
· 1x

b.
2
5b−3
c.
5b+1
9
3. Simplify, showing all steps:
8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOJ>

9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOu>
2a−2 .3a+3
a.
6a
a2m+n+p
b.
am+n+p ·am
3n ·9n−3
c.
27 2a 3
n−1
2x
d.
y −b
23x−1 ·8x+1
e.
42x−2
62x ·112x
f.
222x−1 ·32x
10
4. Simplify, without using a calculator:

(−3)−3 ·(−3)2
a.
(−3)−4
−1 −1 −1
3 +2

b.
9n−1 ·273−2n
c.
812−n
23n+2 ·8n−3
d.
43n−2
11
10 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOS>

11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOh>
35
Solutions to Exercises in Chapter 3

Solution to Exercise 3.1 (p. 32)
Step 1.
52x−1 ·(32 )
x−2
= (5.3) 2x−3
(3.16)
52x−1 ·32x−4
= 52x−3 ·32x−3
Step 2.
= 52x−1−2x+3 · 32x−4−2x+3
(3.17)
= 52 · 3−1
Step 3.
25
= (3.18)
3
Chapter 4
Estimating Surds 1
4.1
You should know by now what the nth root of a number means.
√ If the
√ nth root of a number cannot be
√
simplied to a rational number, we call it a surd . For example, 2 and
3
6 are surds, but 4 is not a surd
because it can be simplied to the rational number 2.
√
√ In this chapter we will only look at surds that look like
√
n
a, where a is√
any positive number, for example
7 or
√
3
5. It is very common for n to be 2, so we usually do not write
2
a. Instead we write the surd as
just a, which is much easier to read.
It is sometimes useful to know the approximate value of a surd without having to use a calculator. For
√
example, we want to be able to estimate where a surd like 3 is on the number line. So how do we know
√
where surds lie on the number line? From a calculator we know that
√ 3√is equal to 1, 73205.... It is easy to
see that 3 is above 1 and below 2. But to see this for other surds like 18 without using a calculator, you
must rst understand the following fact:
√ √
note: If a and b are positive whole numbers, and a < b, then
n
a< n
b. (Challenge: Can you
explain why?)
If you don't believe this fact, check it for a few numbers to convince yourself it is true.
√
How do we use this fact to help us guess what
√ √ 18 is? Well, you can easily see that
√ 18 < 25. Using our
2
rule, we also know that
√ 18 < 25. But we know that
√ 5 = 25 so that 25 = 5. Now it is easy to simplify
to get 18 < 5. Now we have a better idea of what
√ 18 is.
Now we know that 18 is less than 5, but this is only half the story. We can use the same trick again,
but this time with 18 on the right-hand side. You will agree that
√ √ 16 < 18. Using our rule again, we also
√
know that
√ 16 < 18. But we know that 16 is a perfect square, so we can simplify 16 to 4, and so we get
4< 18! √
As you can see, we have shown that
√ 18 is between 4 and 5. If we check on our calculator, we can see
that 18 = 4, 1231..., and the idea was right! You will notice that our idea used perfect squares that were
close to the number 18. We found the largest perfect square smaller than 18 was 42 = 16, and the smallest
2
perfect square greater than 18 was 5 = 25. Here is a quick summary of what a perfect square or cube is:
note: A perfect square is the number obtained when an integer is squared. For example, 9 is a
perfect square since 32 = 9. Similarly, a perfect cube is a number which is the cube of an integer.
For example, 27 is a perfect cube, because 33 = 27.
To make it easier to use our idea, we will create a list of some of the perfect squares and perfect cubes. The
list is shown in Table 4.1.
37
38 CHAPTER 4. ESTIMATING SURDS
Integer Perfect Square Perfect Cube
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 4 8
3 9 27
4 16 64
5 25 125
6 36 216
7 49 343
8 64 512
9 81 729
10 100 1000
Table 4.1: Some perfect squares and perfect cubes
√
√ When given the surd
√
3
52 you should be able to tell that it lies somewhere between 3 and 4, because
√
3
27 = 3 and
3
64 = 4 and 52 is between 27 and 64. In fact
3
52 = 3, 73... which is indeed between 3 and 4.
Exercise 4.1: Estimating Surds √ (Solution on p. 40.)

Find the two consecutive integers such that 26 lies between them.
(Remember that consecutive numbers are two numbers one after the other, like 5 and 6 or 8
and 9.)
Exercise
√ 4.2: Estimating Surds (Solution on p. 40.)
3
49 lies between:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 5
Table 4.2
4.2 Summary
• If the nth root of a number cannot be simplied to a rational number, we call it a
√ √ surd
• If a andb are positive whole numbers, and a < b, then
n
a< n
b
• Surds can be estimated by nding the largest perfect square (or perfect cube) that is less than the surd
and the smallest perfect square (or perfect cube) that is greater than the surd. The surd lies between
these two numbers.

39
√
1. 5 lies be- (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 5 Click here
tween for the
18
solution
√
tween for the
19
solution
√
tween for the
20
solution
√
tween for the
21
solution
√
5.
3
5 lies be- (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 5 Click here
tween for the
22
solution
√
6.
3
tween for the
23
solution
√
7.
3
tween for the
24
solution
√
8.
3
tween for the
25
solution
Table 4.3
√
√7 lies between them. Click here for the solution 27
26
1. Find two consecutive integers such that
2. Find two consecutive integers such that 15 lies between them. Click here for the solution
18 http://fhsst.org/lqr
19 http://fhsst.org/lqY
20 http://fhsst.org/lqg
21 http://fhsst.org/lq4
23 http://fhsst.org/lqT
24 http://fhsst.org/lqb
25 http://fhsst.org/ll5
26 http://fhsst.org/lqW
40 CHAPTER 4. ESTIMATING SURDS

√
Step 1. This is 52 = 25. Therefore 5
√ < 26.
2
Step 2. This is 6 = 36. Therefore 26 < 6.
√
Step 3. Our answer is 5 < 26 < 6.
√
Step 1. If 1√< 3 49 < 2 then cubing all terms gives 1 < 49 < 23 . Simplifying gives 1 < 49 < 8 which is false.
So
3
49√does not lie between 1 and 2.
Step 2. If 2 <
√
3
49 < 3 then cubing all terms gives 23 < 49 < 33 . Simplifying gives 8 < 49 < 27 which is false.
So
3
49√does not lie between 2 and 3.
Step 3. If 3 <
√
3
49 < 4 then cubing all terms gives 33 < 49 < 43 . Simplifying gives 27 < 49 < 64 which is true.
So
3
49 lies between 3 and 4.
Chapter 5
Irrational Numbers and Rounding O 1
5.1 Introduction
You have seen that repeating decimals may take a lot of paper and ink to write out. Not only is that
impossible, but writing numbers out to many decimal places or a high accuracy is very inconvenient and
rarely gives practical answers. For this reason we often estimate the number to a certain number of decimal
places or to a given number of signicant gures, which is even better.
5.2 Irrational Numbers

Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as a fraction with the numerator and denominator
as integers. This means that any number that is not a terminating decimal number or a repeating decimal
number is irrational. Examples of irrational numbers are:
√ √ √
2, 3, 3
4, π,
√ (5.1)
1+ 5
2 ≈ 1, 618 033 989
tip: When irrational numbers are written in decimal form, they go on forever and there is no
repeated pattern of digits.
If you are asked to identify whether a number is rational or irrational, rst write the number in decimal
form. If the number is terminated then it is rational. If it goes on forever, then look for a repeated pattern
of digits. If there is no repeated pattern, then the number is irrational.
When you write irrational numbers in decimal form, you may (if you have a lot of time and paper!)
continue writing them for many, many decimal places. However, this is not convenient and it is often
necessary to round o.
5.2.1 Investigation : Irrational Numbers

Which of the following cannot be written as a rational number?
Remember: A rational number is a fraction with numerator and denominator as integers. Terminating
decimal numbers or repeating decimal numbers are rational.
1. π = 3, 14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510...
2. 1,4
41
42 CHAPTER 5. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS AND ROUNDING OFF
3. 1, 618 033 989 ...

4. 100
5.3 Rounding O
Rounding o or approximating a decimal number to a given number of decimal places is the quickest way
to approximate a number. For example, if you wanted to round-o 2, 6525272 to three decimal places then
you would rst count three places after the decimal.
2, 652|5272 (5.2)
All numbers to the right of | are ignored after you determine whether the number in the third decimal place
must be rounded up or rounded down. You round up the nal digit if the rst digit after the | was greater
or equal to 5 and round down (leave the digit alone) otherwise. In the case that the rst digit before the |
is 9 and the | you need to round up the 9 becomes a 0 and the second digit before the | is rounded up.
So, since the rst digit after the | is a 5, we must round up the digit in the third decimal place to a 3
and the nal answer of 2, 6525272 rounded to three decimal places is
2, 653 (5.3)
Exercise 5.1: Rounding-O (Solution on p. 44.)

Round-o the following numbers to the indicated number of decimal places:
120
1.
99 = 1, 2121212121̇2̇ to 3 decimal places
2.
√ 3, 141592654... to 4 decimal places
π =
3. 3 = 1, 7320508... to 4 decimal places
5.4 Summary
• Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as a fraction with the numerator and denomi-
nator as integers.
• For convenience irrational numbers are often rounded o to a specied number of decimal places

1. Write the following rational numbers to 2 decimal places:
1
a.
2
b. 1
c. 0, 111111
d. 0, 999991
2
2. Write the following irrational numbers to 2 decimal places:
a. 3, 141592654...
b. 1, 618 033 989 ...
c. 1, 41421356...
d. 2, 71828182845904523536...
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llN>
43
3
3. Use your calculator and write the following irrational numbers to 3 decimal places:
√
a.
√2
b.
√3
c.
√5
d. 6
4
4. Use your calculator (where necessary) and write the following irrational numbers to 5 decimal places:
√
a.
√8
b.
√768
c.
√100
d.
√0, 49
e.
√0, 0016
f.
√0, 25
g.
√36
h.
√1960
i. 0,√0036
j. −8
√ 0, 04
k. 5 80
5
5. Write the following irrational numbers to 3 decimal places and then write them as a rational number
√
to get an approximation to the irrational number. For example,
√ √ 3 = 1, 73205.... To 3 decimal places,
732 183 183
3 = 1, 732. 1, 732 = 1 1000 = 1 250 . Therefore, 3 is approximately 1 250 .
a. 3, 141592654...
b. 1, 618 033 989 ...
c. 1, 41421356...
d. 2, 71828182845904523536...
6
3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llR>

4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lln>
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llQ>
6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llU>
44 CHAPTER 5. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS AND ROUNDING OFF

120
Step 1. a.
99 = 1, 212|1212121̇2̇
b.
√ 3, 1415|92654...
π =
c. 3 = 1, 7320|508...
120
Step 2. a. The last digit of
99 = 1, 212|1212121̇2̇ must be rounded-down.
b. The last digit of π = 3, 1415|92654... must be rounded-up.
√
c. The last digit of 3 = 1, 7320|508... must be rounded-up.
120
Step 3. a.
99 = 1, 212 rounded to 3 decimal places
b. π
√ = 3, 1416 rounded to 4 decimal places
c. 3 = 1, 7321 rounded to 4 decimal places
Chapter 6
Number Patterns 1
6.1 Number Patterns - Grade 10

In earlier grades you saw patterns in the form of pictures and numbers. In this chapter, we learn more about
the mathematics of patterns. Patterns are recognisable as repetitive sequences and can be found in nature,
shapes, events, sets of numbers and almost everywhere you care to look. For example, seeds in a sunower,
snowakes, geometric designs on quilts or tiles, the number sequence 0, 4, 8, 12, 16,....
6.1.1 Investigation : Patterns

Can you spot any patterns in the following lists of numbers?
1. 2; 4; 6; 8; 10; ...
2. 1; 2; 4; 7; 11; ...
3. 1; 4; 9; 16; 25; ...
4. 5; 10; 20; 40; 80; ...
6.2 Common Number Patterns

Numbers can have interesting patterns. Here we list the most common patterns and how they are made.
Examples:
1. 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ... This sequence has a dierence of 3 between each number. The pattern is
continued by adding 3 to the last number each time.
2. 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33, 38, ... This sequence has a dierence of 5 between each number. The pattern is
continued by adding 5 to the last number each time.
3. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, ... This sequence has a factor of 2 between each number. The pattern is
continued by multiplying the last number by 2 each time.
4. 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, ... This sequence has a factor of 3 between each number. The pattern is
continued by multiplying the last number by 3 each time.
6.2.1 Special Sequences

6.2.1.1 Triangular Numbers
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...
45
46 CHAPTER 6. NUMBER PATTERNS
This sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which form a triangle. By adding another row of dots
(with one more dot in each row than in the previous row) and counting all the dots, we can nd the next
number of the sequence.
6.2.1.2 Square Numbers

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ...
The next number is made by squaring the number of the position in the pattern. The second number is
2 2
2 squared (2 or 2 × 2 ). The seventh number is 7 squared (7 or 7 × 7 ) etc.
6.2.1.3 Cube Numbers

1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ...
The next number is made by cubing the number of the position in the pattern. The second number is 2
3 3
cubed (2 or 2 × 2 × 2 ). The seventh number is 7 cubed (7 or 7 × 7 × 7 ) etc.
6.2.1.4 Fibonacci Numbers

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
The next number is found by adding the two numbers before it together. The 2 is found by adding the
two numbers in front of it (1 + 1). The 21 is found by adding the two numbers in front of it (8 + 13). The
next number in the sequence above would be 55 (21 + 34).
Can you gure out the next few numbers?
Khan Academy video on Number Patterns - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/Zj-a_9cd5jc&rel=0>
Figure 6.1
Exercise 6.1: Study Table (Solution on p. 51.)

Say you and 3 friends decide to study for Maths, and you are seated at a square table. A few
minutes later, 2 other friends join you and would like to sit at your table and help you study.
Naturally, you move another table and add it to the existing one. Now 6 of you sit at the table.
Another 2 of your friends join your table, and you take a third table and add it to the existing
tables. Now 8 of you can sit comfortably.
Figure 6.2: Two more people can be seated for each table added.
Examine how the number of people sitting is related to the number of tables.
47
6.3 Notation
Khan Academy video on Number Patterns

<http://www.youtube.com/v/_3BnyEr5fG4&rel=0>
Figure 6.3
A sequence does not have to follow a pattern but when it does, we can often write down a formula to calculate
the nth -term, an . In the sequence
1; 4; 9; 16; 25; ... (6.1)
where the sequence consists of the squares of integers, the formula for the nth -term is
an = n2 (6.2)
You can check this by looking at:
a1 = 12 = 1
a2 = 22 = 4
a3 = 32 = 9
(6.3)
a4 = 42 = 16
a5 = 52 = 25
...
Therefore, using (6.2), we can generate a pattern, namely squares of integers.
Exercise 6.2: Study Table continued .... (Solution on p. 51.)

As before, you and 3 friends are studying for Maths, and you are seated at a square table. A few
minutes later, 2 other friends join you and add another table to the existing one. Now 6 of you can
sit together. A short time later 2 more of your friends join your table, and you add a third table
to the existing tables. Now 8 of you can sit comfortably as shown:
Figure 6.4: For each table added, two more people can be seated.
Find the expression for the number of people seated at n tables. Then, use the general formula
to determine how many people can sit around 12 tables and how many tables are needed for 20
people.
It is also important to note the dierence between n and an . n can be compared to a place holder, while an
is the value at the place held by n. Like our Study Table example above, the rst table (Table 1) holds
4 people. Thus, at place n = 1, the value of a1 = 4 and so on:
n 1 2 3 4 ...
an 4 6 8 10 ...
Table 6.1
6.3.1 Investigation : General Formula

1. Find the general formula for the following sequences and then nd a10 , a50 and a100 :
a. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
b. 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, ...
c. 2, −1, −4, −7, −10, ...
2. The general term has been given for each sequence below. Work out the missing terms.
a. 0; 3; ...; 15; 24 n2 − 1
b. 3; 2; 1; 0; ...; −2 −n + 4
c. −11; ...; −7; ...; −3 −13 + 2n
6.3.2 Patterns and Conjecture

Khan Academy video on Number Patterns - 2
<http://www.youtube.com/v/zIcxrhyJs6M&rel=0>
Figure 6.5
In mathematics, a conjecture is a mathematical statement which appears to be true, but has not been
formally proven to be true. A conjecture can be seen as an educated guess or an idea about a pattern.
For example: Make a conjecture about the next number based on the pattern 2; 6; 11; 17 : ...
The numbers increase by 4, 5, and 6.
Conjecture: The next number will increase by 7. So, it will be 17 + 7 or 24.
Exercise 6.3: Number patterns (Solution on p. 52.)

Consider the following pattern.
12 + 1 = 22 − 2
22 + 2 = 32 − 3
(6.4)
32 + 3 = 42 − 4
42 + 4 = 52 − 5
49
1. Add another two rows to the end of the pattern.

2. Make a conjecture about this pattern. Write your conjecture in words.
3. Generalise your conjecture for this pattern (in other words, write your conjecture alge-
braically).
4. Prove that your conjecture is true.
6.4 Summary
• There are several special sequences of numbers:
· Triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

· Square numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ...
· Cube numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ...
· Fibonacci numbers 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
• General formula is an = a1 + d · (n − 1) where d is the common dierence between terms and an is the
nth -term
6.5 Exercises
1. Find the nth term for: 3, 7, 11, 15, ... Click here for the solution
2
2. Find the general term of the following sequences:
a. −2, 1, 4, 7, ...
b. 11, 15, 19, 23, ...
c. sequence with a3 = 7 and a8 = 15
d. sequence with a4 = −8 and a10 = 10
3
3. The seating in a section of a sports stadium can be arranged so the rst row has 15 seats, the second
row has 19 seats, the third row has 23 seats and so on. Calculate how many seats are in the row 25.
4
4. A single square is made from 4 matchsticks. Two squares in a row need 7 matchsticks and 3 squares
in a row need 10 matchsticks. Determine:
a. the rst term

b. the common dierence
c. the formula for the general term
d. how many matchsticks are in a row of 25 squares
Figure 6.6
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcl>

3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcq>
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lqi>
5
5. You would like to start saving some money, but because you have never tried to save money before,
you have decided to start slowly. At the end of the rst week you deposit R5 into your bank account.
Then at the end of the second week you deposit R10 into your bank account. At the end of the third
week you deposit R15. After how many weeks do you deposit R50 into your bank account? Click here
6
for the solution
6. A horizontal line intersects a piece of string at four points and divides it into ve parts, as shown
below.
Figure 6.7
If the piece of string is intersected in this way by 19 parallel lines, each of which intersects it at four
7
points, nd the number of parts into which the string will be divided. Click here for the solution
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lc3>

6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcO>
7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31342/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcc>
51

Step 1.
Number of Tables, n Number of people seated
1 4=4
2 4+2=6
3 4+2+2=8
4 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10
. .
. .
. .
n 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 2
Table 6.2
Step 2. We can see that for 3 tables we can seat 8 people, for 4 tables we can seat 10 people and so on. We
started out with 4 people and added two each time. Thus, for each table added, the number of persons
increased by 2.

Step 1.
Number of Tables, n Number of people seated Formula
1 4=4 = 4 + 2 · (0)
2 4+2=6 = 4 + 2 · (1)
3 4+2+2=8 = 4 + 2 · (2)
4 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10 = 4 + 2 · (3)
. . .
. . .
. . .
n 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 = 4 + 2 · (n − 1)
Table 6.3
Step 2. The number of people seated at n tables is:
an = 4 + 2 · (n − 1) (6.5)
Step 3. Considering the example from the previous section, how many people can sit around say 12 tables?
We are looking for a12 , that is, where n = 12:
an = a1 + d · (n − 1)
a12 = 4 + 2 · (12 − 1)
= 4 + 2 (11) (6.6)
= 4 + 22
= 26
Step 4.
an = a1 + d · (n − 1)
20 = 4 + 2 · (n − 1)
20 − 4 = 2 · (n − 1)
(6.7)
16 ÷ 2 = n−1
8+1 = n
n = 9
Step 5. 26 people can be seated at 12 tables and 9 tables are needed to seat 20 people.

Step 1.
52 + 5 = 62 − 6
(6.8)
62 + 6 = 72 − 7
Step 2. Squaring a number and adding the same number gives the same result as squaring the next number
and subtracting that number.
Step 3. We have chosen to use x here. You could choose any letter to generalise the pattern.
2
x2 + x = (x + 1) − (x + 1) (6.9)
Step 4.
Lef t side : x2 + x (6.10)
2
Right side : (x + 1) − (x + 1) (6.11)
Right side = x2 + 2x + 1 − x − 1
= x2 + x
(6.12)
= lef t side
2
T heref ore x2 + x = (x + 1) − (x + 1)
Chapter 7
Finance - Grade 10 1
7.1 Introduction
Should you ever nd yourself stuck with a mathematics question on a television quiz show, you will probably
wish you had remembered how many even prime numbers there are between 1 and 100 for the sake of
R1 000 000. And who does not want to be a millionaire, right?
Welcome to the Grade 10 Finance Chapter, where we apply maths skills to everyday nancial situations
that you are likely to face both now and along your journey to purchasing your rst private jet.
If you master the techniques in this chapter, you will grasp the concept of compound interest, and how
it can ruin your fortunes if you have credit card debt, or make you millions if you successfully invest your
hard-earned money. You will also understand the eects of uctuating exchange rates, and its impact on
your spending power during your overseas holidays!
Before we begin discussing exchange rates it is worth noting that the vast majority of countries use a
decimal currency system. This simply means that countries use a currency system that works with powers
of ten, for example in South Africa we have 100 (10 squared) cents in a rand. In America there are 100 cents
in a dollar. Another way of saying this is that the country has one basic unit of currency and a sub-unit
which is a power of 10 of the major unit. This means that, if we ignore the eect of exchange rates, we can
essentially substitute rands for dollars or rands for pounds.
7.2 Foreign Exchange Rates

Is $500 ("500 US dollars") per person per night a good deal on a hotel in New York City? The rst question
you will ask is How much is that worth in Rands?". A quick call to the local bank or a search on the
Internet (for example on http://www.x-rates.com/) for the Dollar/Rand exchange rate will give you a basis
for assessing the price.
A foreign exchange rate is nothing more than the price of one currency in terms of another. For example,
the exchange rate of 6,18 Rands/US Dollars means that $1 costs R6,18. In other words, if you have $1 you
could sell it for R6,18 - or if you wanted $1 you would have to pay R6,18 for it.
But what drives exchange rates, and what causes exchange rates to change? And how does this aect
you anyway? This section looks at answering these questions.
7.2.1 How much is R1 really worth?

We can quote the price of a currency in terms of any other currency, for example, we can quote the Japanese
Yen in term of the Indian Rupee. The US Dollar (USD), British Pound Sterling (GBP) and the Euro (EUR)
53
54 CHAPTER 7. FINANCE - GRADE 10
are, however, the most common used market standards. You will notice that the nancial news will report
the South African Rand exchange rate in terms of these three major currencies.
Currency Abbreviation Symbol

South African Rand ZAR R
United States Dollar USD $
British Pounds Sterling GBP ¿
Table 7.1: Abbreviations and symbols for some common currencies.
So the South African Rand, noted ZAR, could be quoted on a certain date as 6,07040 ZAR per USD (i.e.
$1,00 costs R6,07040), or 12,2374 ZAR per GBP. So if I wanted to spend $1 000 on a holiday in the United
States of America, this would cost me R6 070,40; and if I wanted ¿1 000 for a weekend in London it would
cost me R12 237,40.
This seems obvious, but let us see how we calculated those numbers: The rate is given as ZAR per USD,
or ZAR/USD such that $1,00 buys R6,0704. Therefore, we need to multiply by 1 000 to get the number of
Rands per $1 000.
Mathematically,
$1, 00 = R6, 0740

∴ 1 000 × $1, 00 = 1 000 × R6, 0740 (7.1)
= R6 074, 00
as expected.
What if you have saved R10 000 for spending money for the same trip and you wanted to use this to buy
USD? How many USD could you get for this? Our rate is in ZAR/USD but we want to know how many
USD we can get for our ZAR. This is easy. We know how much $1,00 costs in terms of Rands.
$1, 00 = R6, 0740

$1,00 R6,0740
∴ 6,0740 = 6,0740
1,00
$ 6,0740 = R1, 00 (7.2)
1,00
R1, 00 = $ 6,0740
= $0, 164636
As we can see, the nal answer is simply the reciprocal of the ZAR/USD rate. Therefore, for R10 000 will
get:
1,00
R1, 00 = $ 6,0740
1,00
∴ 10 000 × R1, 00 = 10 000 × $ 6,0740 (7.3)
= $1 646, 36
We can check the answer as follows:
$1, 00 = R6, 0740

∴ 1 646, 36 × $1, 00 = 1 646, 36 × R6, 0740 (7.4)
= R10 000, 00
55
7.2.1.1 Six of one and half a dozen of the other

So we have two dierent ways of expressing the same exchange rate: Rands per Dollar (ZAR/USD) and
Dollar per Rands (USD/ZAR). Both exchange rates mean the same thing and express the value of one
currency in terms of another. You can easily work out one from the other - they are just the reciprocals of
the other.
If the South African Rand is our domestic (or home) currency, we call the ZAR/USD rate a direct" rate,
and we call a USD/ZAR rate an indirect" rate.
In general, a direct rate is an exchange rate that is expressed as units of home currency per units of
Domestic Currency
foreign currency, i.e.,
Foreign Currency .
The Rand exchange rates that we see on the news are usually expressed as direct rates, for example you
might see:
Currency Abbreviation Exchange Rates

1 USD R6,9556
1 GBP R13,6628
1 EUR R9,1954
Table 7.2: Examples of exchange rates
The exchange rate is just the price of each of the Foreign Currencies (USD, GBP and EUR) in terms of
our domestic currency, Rands.
An indirect rate is an exchange rate expressed as units of foreign currency per units of home currency,
Foreign Currency
i.e.
Domestic Currency .
Dening exchange rates as direct or indirect depends on which currency is dened as the domestic
currency. The domestic currency for an American investor would be USD which is the South African
investor's foreign currency. So direct rates, from the perspective of the American investor (USD/ZAR),
would be the same as the indirect rate from the perspective of the South Africa investor.
7.2.1.2 Terminology
Since exchange rates are simply prices of currencies, movements in exchange rates means that the price or
value of the currency has changed. The price of petrol changes all the time, so does the price of gold, and
currency prices also move up and down all the time.
If the Rand exchange rate moved from say R6,71 per USD to R6,50 per USD, what does this mean?
Well, it means that $1 would now cost only R6,50 instead of R6,71. The Dollar is now cheaper to buy, and
we say that the Dollar has depreciated (or weakened) against the Rand. Alternatively we could say that the
Rand has appreciated (or strengthened) against the Dollar.
What if we were looking at indirect exchange rates, and the exchange rate moved from $0,149 per ZAR
1 1
(=
6,71 ) to $0,1538 per ZAR (= 6,50 ).
Well now we can see that the R1,00 cost $0,149 at the start, and then cost $0,1538 at the end. The Rand
has become more expensive (in terms of Dollars), and again we can say that the Rand has appreciated.
Regardless of which exchange rate is used, we still come to the same conclusions.
In general,
• for direct exchange rates, the home currency will appreciate (depreciate) if the exchange rate falls
(rises)
• For indirect exchange rates, the home currency will appreciate (depreciate) if the exchange rate rises
(falls)
As with just about everything in this chapter, do not get caught up in memorising these formulae - doing
so is only going to get confusing. Think about what you have and what you want - and it should be quite
clear how to get the correct answer.
7.2.1.2.1 Discussion : Foreign Exchange Rates

In groups of 5, discuss:
1. Why might we need to know exchange rates?

2. What happens if one country's currency falls drastically vs another country's currency?
3. When might you use exchange rates?
7.2.2 Cross Currency Exchange Rates

We know that exchange rates are the value of one currency expressed in terms of another currency, and
we can quote exchange rates against any other currency. The Rand exchange rates we see on the news are
usually expressed against the major currencies, USD, GBP and EUR.
So if for example, the Rand exchange rates were given as 6,71 ZAR/USD and 12,71 ZAR/GBP, does this
tell us anything about the exchange rate between USD and GBP?
Well I know that if $1 will buy me R6,71, and if ¿1.00 will buy me R12,71, then surely the GBP is
stronger than the USD because you will get more Rands for one unit of the currency, and we can work out
the USD/GBP exchange rate as follows:
Before we plug in any numbers, how can we get a USD/GBP exchange rate from the ZAR/USD and
ZAR/GBP exchange rates?
Well,
USD/GBP = USD/ZAR × ZAR/GBP. (7.5)
Note that the ZAR in the numerator will cancel out with the ZAR in the denominator, and we are left with
the USD/GBP exchange rate.
Although we do not have the USD/ZAR exchange rate, we know that this is just the reciprocal of the
ZAR/USD exchange rate.
1
USD/ZAR = (7.6)
ZAR/USD
Now plugging in the numbers, we get:
USD/GBP = USD/ZAR × ZAR/GBP

1
= ZAR/USD × ZAR/GBP
(7.7)
1
= 6,71 × 12, 71
= 1, 894
tip: Sometimes you will see exchange rates in the real world that do not appear to work exactly
like this. This is usually because some nancial institutions add other costs to the exchange rates,
which alter the results. However, if you could remove the eect of those extra costs, the numbers
would balance again.
Exercise 7.1: Cross Exchange Rates (Solution on p. 67.)

If $1 = R 6,40, and ¿1 = R11,58 what is the $/¿ exchange rate (i.e. the number of US$ per ¿)?
57
7.2.2.1 Investigation : Cross Exchange Rates - Alternative Method

If $1 = R 6,40, and ¿1 = R11,58 what is the $/¿ exchange rate (i.e. the number of US$ per ¿)?
Overview of problem
You need the $/¿ exchange rate, in other words how many dollars must you pay for a pound. So you
need ¿1. From the given information we know that it would cost you R11,58 to buy ¿1 and that $ 1 =
R6,40.
Use this information to:
1. calculate how much R1 is worth in $.

2. calculate how much R11,58 is worth in $.
Do you get the same answer as in the worked example?
7.2.3 Enrichment: Fluctuating exchange rates

If everyone wants to buy houses in a certain suburb, then house prices are going to go up - because the
buyers will be competing to buy those houses. If there is a suburb where all residents want to move out,
then there are lots of sellers and this will cause house prices in the area to fall - because the buyers would
not have to struggle as much to nd an eager seller.
This is all about supply and demand, which is a very important section in the study of Economics. You
can think about this is many dierent contexts, like stamp-collecting for example. If there is a stamp that
lots of people want (high demand) and few people own (low supply) then that stamp is going to be expensive.
And if you are starting to wonder why this is relevant - think about currencies. If you are going to visit
London, then you have Rands but you need to buy" Pounds. The exchange rate is the price you have to
pay to buy those Pounds.
Think about a time where lots of South Africans are visiting the United Kingdom, and other South
Africans are importing goods from the United Kingdom. That means there are lots of Rands (high supply)
trying to buy Pounds. Pounds will start to become more expensive (compare this to the house price example
at the start of this section if you are not convinced), and the exchange rate will change. In other words, for
R1 000 you will get fewer Pounds than you would have before the exchange rate moved.
Another context which might be useful for you to understand this: consider what would happen if people
in other countries felt that South Africa was becoming a great place to live, and that more people were
wanting to invest in South Africa - whether in properties, businesses - or just buying more goods from South
Africa. There would be a greater demand for Rands - and the price of the Rand" would go up. In other
words, people would need to use more Dollars, or Pounds, or Euros ... to buy the same amount of Rands.
This is seen as a movement in exchange rates.
Although it really does come down to supply and demand, it is interesting to think about what factors
might aect the supply (people wanting to sell" a particular currency) and the demand (people trying to
buy" another currency). This is covered in detail in the study of Economics, but let us look at some of the
basic issues here.
There are various factors which aect exchange rates, some of which have more economic rationale than
others:
• economic factors (such as ination gures, interest rates, trade decit information, monetary policy
and scal policy)
• political factors (such as uncertain political environment, or political unrest)
• market sentiments and market behaviour (for example if foreign exchange markets perceived a currency
to be overvalued and starting selling the currency, this would cause the currency to fall in value - a
self-fullling expectation).
7.2.3.1 Foreign Exchange

1. I want to buy an IPOD that costs ¿100, with the exchange rate currently at £1 = R14. I believe the
exchange rate will reach R12 in a month.
a. How much will the MP3 player cost in Rands, if I buy it now?
b. How much will I save if the exchange rate drops to R12?
c. How much will I lose if the exchange rate moves to R15?
2
2. Study the following exchange rate table:
Country Currency Exchange Rate
United Kingdom (UK) Pounds(¿) R14, 13

United States (USA) Dollars ($) R7, 04
Table 7.3
a. In South Africa the cost of a new Honda Civic is R173 400. In England the same vehicle costs
£12 200 and in the USA $ 21 900. In which country is the car the cheapest when you compare
the prices converted to South African Rand ?
b. Sollie and Arinda are waiters in a South African restaurant attracting many tourists from abroad.
Sollie gets a £6 tip from a tourist and Arinda gets $ 12. How many South African Rand did each
one get ?
3
7.3 Being Interested in Interest

If you had R1 000, you could either keep it in your wallet, or deposit it in a bank account. If it stayed in
your wallet, you could spend it any time you wanted. If the bank looked after it for you, then they could
spend it, with the plan of making prot from it. The bank usually pays" you to deposit it into an account,
as a way of encouraging you to bank it with them, This payment is like a reward, which provides you with
a reason to leave it with the bank for a while, rather than keeping the money in your wallet.
We call this reward "interest".
If you deposit money into a bank account, you are eectively lending money to the bank - and you can
expect to receive interest in return. Similarly, if you borrow money from a bank (or from a department store,
or a car dealership, for example) then you can expect to have to pay interest on the loan. That is the price
of borrowing money.
The concept is simple, yet it is core to the world of nance. Accountants, actuaries and bankers, for
example, could spend their entire working career dealing with the eects of interest on nancial matters.
In this chapter you will be introduced to the concept of nancial mathematics - and given the tools to
cope with even advanced concepts and problems.
tip: Interest
The concepts in this chapter are simple - we are just looking at the same idea, but from many dierent angles.
The best way to learn from this chapter is to do the examples yourself, as you work your way through. Do
not just take our word for it!

59
7.4 Simple Interest

Denition 7.1: Simple Interest
Simple interest is where you earn interest on the initial amount that you invested, but not interest
on interest.
As an easy example of simple interest, consider how much you will get by investing R1 000 for 1 year
with a bank that pays you 5% simple interest. At the end of the year, you will get an interest of:
Interest = R1 000 × 5%
5
= R1 000 × 100
(7.8)
= R1 000 × 0, 05
= R50
So, with an opening balance" of R1 000 at the start of the year, your closing balance" at the end of the
year will therefore be:
Closing Balance = Opening Balance + Interest

= R1 000 + R50 (7.9)
= R1 050
We sometimes call the opening balance in nancial calculations the Principal, which is abbreviated as P
(R1 000 in the example). The interest rate is usually labelled i (5% in the example), and the interest amount
(in Rand terms) is labelled I (R50 in the example).
So we can see that:
I =P ×i (7.10)
and
Closing Balance = Opening Balance + Interest

= P +I
(7.11)
= P + (P × i)
= P (1 + i)
This is how you calculate simple interest. It is not a complicated formula, which is just as well because you
are going to see a lot of it!
7.4.1 Not Just One

You might be wondering to yourself:
1. how much interest will you be paid if you only leave the money in the account for 3 months, or
2. what if you leave it there for 3 years?
It is actually quite simple - which is why they call it Simple Interest.

1. Three months is 1/4 of a year, so you would only get 1/4 of a full year's interest, which is: 1/4×(P × i).
The closing balance would therefore be:
Closing Balance = P + 1/4 × (P × i)

(7.12)
= P (1 + (1/4) i)
2. For 3 years, you would get three years' worth of interest, being: 3 × (P × i). The closing balance at
the end of the three year period would be:
Closing Balance = P + 3 × (P × i)
(7.13)
= P × (1 + (3) i)
If you look carefully at the similarities between the two answers above, we can generalise the result. If you
invest your money (P ) in an account which pays a rate of interest (i) for a period of time (n years), then,
using the symbol A for the Closing Balance:
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.14)
As we have seen, this works when n is a fraction of a year and also when n covers several years.
tip: Interest Calculation
Annual Rates means Yearly rates. and p.a.(per annum) = per year
Exercise 7.2: Simple Interest (Solution on p. 67.)

If I deposit R1 000 into a special bank account which pays a Simple Interest of 7% for 3 years,
how much will I get back at the end of this term?
Exercise 7.3: Calculating n (Solution on p. 67.)

If I deposit R30 000 into a special bank account which pays a Simple Interest of 7.5%, for how
many years must I invest this amount to generate R45 000?
7.4.2 Other Applications of the Simple Interest Formula

Exercise 7.4: Hire-Purchase (Solution on p. 68.)
Troy is keen to buy an additional hard drive for his laptop advertised for R 2 500 on the internet.
There is an option of paying a 10% deposit then making 24 monthly payments using a hire-purchase
agreement where interest is calculated at 7,5% p.a. simple interest. Calculate what Troy's monthly
payments will be.
Many items become less valuable as they are used and age. For example, you pay less for a second hand car
than a new car of the same model. The older a car is the less you pay for it. The reduction in value with
time can be due purely to wear and tear from usage but also to the development of new technology that
makes the item obsolete, for example, new computers that are released force down the value of older models.
The term we use to descrive the decrease in value of items with time is depreciation.
Depreciation, like interest can be calculated on an annual basis and is often done with a rate or percentage
change per year. It is like negative interest. The simplest way to do depreciation is to assume a constant
rate per year, which we will call simple depreciation. There are more complicated models for depreciation
but we won't deal with them here.
Exercise 7.5: Depreciation (Solution on p. 68.)

Seven years ago, Tjad's drum kit cost him R12 500. It has now been valued at R2 300. What rate
of simple depreciation does this represent ?
61
7.4.2.1 Simple Interest

1. An amount of R3 500 is invested in a savings account which pays simple interest at a rate of 7,5% per
annum. Calculate the balance accumulated by the end of 2 years.
4
2. Calculate the simple interest for the following problems.
a. A loan of R300 at a rate of 8% for l year.

b. An investment of R225 at a rate of 12,5% for 6 years.
5
3. I made a deposit of R5 000 in the bank for my 5 year old son's 21st birthday. I have given him the
amount of R 18 000 on his birthday. At what rate was the money invested, if simple interest was
calculated ?
6
4. Bongani buys a dining room table costing R 8 500 on Hire Purchase. He is charged simple interest at
17,5% per annum over 3 years.
a. How much will Bongani pay in total ?

b. How much interest does he pay ?
c. What is his monthly installment ?
7
7.5 Compound Interest

To explain the concept of compound interest, the following example is discussed:
Exercise 7.6: Using Simple Interest to lead to the concept Compound Interest (Solution
on p. 69.)
I deposit R1 000 into a special bank account which pays a Simple Interest of 7%. What if I empty
the bank account after a year, and then take the principal and the interest and invest it back into
the same account again. Then I take it all out at the end of the second year, and then put it all
back in again? And then I take it all out at the end of 3 years?
In the two worked examples using simple interest (Exercise 7.2 ( Simple Interest ) and Exercise 7.6 ( Using
Simple Interest to lead to the concept Compound Interest )), we have basically the same problem because
P =R1 000, i=7% and n=3 years for both problems. Except in the second situation, we end up with R1
225,04 which is more than R1 210 from the rst example. What has changed?
In the rst example I earned R70 interest each year - the same in the rst, second and third year. But
in the second situation, when I took the money out and then re-invested it, I was actually earning interest
in the second year on my interest (R70) from the rst year. (And interest on the interest on my interest in
the third year!)
This more realistically reects what happens in the real world, and is known as Compound Interest. It
is this concept which underlies just about everything we do - so we will look at it more closely next.
Denition 7.2: Compound Interest

Compound interest is the interest payable on the principal and its accumulated interest.
Compound interest is a double-edged sword, though - great if you are earning interest on cash you have
invested, but more serious if you are stuck having to pay interest on money you have borrowed!
In the same way that we developed a formula for Simple Interest, let us nd one for Compound Interest.
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcT>

5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcb>
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7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcD>
If our opening balance is P and we have an interest rate of i then, the closing balance at the end of the
rst year is:
Closing Balance after 1 year = P (1 + i) (7.15)
This is the same as Simple Interest because it only covers a single year. Then, if we take that out and
re-invest it for another year - just as you saw us doing in the worked example above - then the balance after
the second year will be:
Closing Balance after 2 years = [P (1 + i)] × (1 + i)

(7.16)
2
= P (1 + i)
And if we take that money out, then invest it for another year, the balance becomes:
2
h i
Closing Balance after 3 years = P (1 + i) × (1 + i)
(7.17)
3
= P (1 + i)
We can see that the power of the term (1 + i) is the same as the number of years. Therefore,
n
Closing Balance after n years = P (1 + i) (7.18)
7.5.1 Fractions add up to the Whole

It is easy to show that this formula works even when n is a fraction of a year. For example, let us invest the
money for 1 month, then for 4 months, then for 7 months.
1
Closing Balance after 1 month = P (1 + i) 12
Closing Balance after 5 months = Closing Balance after 1 month invested for 4 months more
h 4
i 12
1
= P (1 + i) 12
1
+ 12
4
= P (1 + i) 12
5
= P (1 + i) 12
(7.19)
Closing Balance after 12 months = Closing Balance after 5 months invested for 7 months more
h 7
i 12
5
= P (1 + i) 12
5
+ 12
7
= P (1 + i) 12
12
= P (1 + i) 12
1
= P (1 + i)
which is the same as investing the money for a year.
Look carefully at the long equation above. It is not as complicated as it looks! All we are doing is taking
the opening amount (P ), then adding interest for just 1 month. Then we are taking that new balance and
adding interest for a further 4 months, and then nally we are taking the new balance after a total of 5
months, and adding interest for 7 more months. Take a look again, and check how easy it really is.
Does the nal formula look familiar? Correct - it is the same result as you would get for simply investing
P for one full year. This is exactly what we would expect, because:
1 month + 4 months + 7 months = 12 months,
which is a year. Can you see that? Do not move on until you have understood this point.
63
7.5.2 The Power of Compound Interest

To see how important this interest on interest" is, we shall compare the dierence in closing balances for
money earning simple interest and money earning compound interest. Consider an amount of R10 000 that
you have to invest for 10 years, and assume we can earn interest of 9%. How much would that be worth
after 10 years?
The closing balance for the money earning simple interest is:
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R10 000 (1 + 9% × 10) (7.20)
= R19 000
The closing balance for the money earning compound interest is:
n
A = P (1 + i)
10
= R10 000(1 + 9%) (7.21)
= R23 673, 64
So next time someone talks about the magic of compound interest", not only will you know what they
mean - but you will be able to prove it mathematically yourself !
Again, keep in mind that this is good news and bad news. When you are earning interest on money you
have invested, compound interest helps that amount to increase exponentially. But if you have borrowed
money, the build up of the amount you owe will grow exponentially too.
Exercise 7.7: Taking out a Loan (Solution on p. 69.)

Mr Lowe wants to take out a loan of R 350 000. He does not want to pay back more than R625 000
altogether on the loan. If the interest rate he is oered is 13%, over what period should he take the
loan.
7.5.3 Other Applications of Compound Growth

Exercise 7.8: Population Growth (Solution on p. 70.)
South Africa's population is increasing by 2,5% per year. If the current population is 43 million,
how many more people will there be in South Africa in two years' time ?
Exercise 7.9: Compound Decrease (Solution on p. 70.)

A swimming pool is being treated for a build-up of algae. Initially, 50m2 of the pool is covered by
algae. With each day of treatment, the algae reduces by 5%. What area is covered by algae after
30 days of treatment ?
7.5.3.1 Compound Interest

1. An amount of R3 500 is invested in a savings account which pays compound interest at a rate of 7,5%
per annum. Calculate the balance accumulated by the end of 2 years.
8
2. If the average rate of ination for the past few years was 7,3% and your water and electricity account
is R 1 425 on average, what would you expect to pay in 6 years time ?
9
8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcW>
9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcZ>
3. Shrek wants to invest some money at 11% per annum compound interest. How much money (to the
nearest rand) should he invest if he wants to reach a sum of R 100 000 in ve year's time ?
10
7.6 Summary
• A foreign exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another.
• There are two types of interest: simple and compound.
• The following table summarises the key denitions that are used in both simple and compound inter-
est.
P Principal (the amount of money at the starting point of the calculation)
A Closing balance (the amount of money at the ending point of the calculation)
i interest rate, normally the eective rate per annum
n period for which the investment is made
Table 7.4
• For simple interest we use:

A = P (1 + i · n) (7.22)
• For compound interest we use:

n
A = P (1 + i) (7.23)
tip: Always keep the interest and the time period in the same units of time (e.g. both in years, or
both in months etc.).
The following three videos provide a summary of how to calculate interest. Take note that although the
examples are done using dollars, we can use the fact that dollars are a decimal currency and so are inter-
changeable (ignoring the exchange rate) with rands. This is what is done in the subtitles.
Khan academy video on interest - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/nR-8xYGJM9Q>
Figure 7.1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/nYO9-wl42JY&rel=0>
Figure 7.2
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65
Note in this video that at the very end the rule of 72 is mentioned. You will not be using this rule, but
will rather be using trial and error to solve the problem posed.

<http://www.youtube.com/v/whmE_8l0JtA&rel=0>
Figure 7.3

1. You are going on holiday to Europe. Your hotel will cost 200 euros per night. How much will you need
in Rands to cover your hotel bill, if the exchange rate is 1 euro = R9,20?
11
2. Calculate how much you will earn if you invested R500 for 1 year at the following interest rates:
a. 6,85% simple interest.

b. 4,00% compound interest.
12
3. Bianca has R1 450 to invest for 3 years. Bank A oers a savings account which pays simple interest
at a rate of 11% per annum, whereas Bank B oers a savings account paying compound interest at a
rate of 10,5% per annum. Which account would leave Bianca with the highest accumulated balance at
the end of the 3 year period?
13
4. How much simple interest is payable on a loan of R2 000 for a year, if the interest rate is 10%?
14
5. How much compound interest is payable on a loan of R2 000 for a year, if the interest rate is 10%?
15
6. Discuss:
a. Which type of interest would you like to use if you are the borrower?
b. Which type of interest would you like to use if you were the banker?
16
7. Calculate the compound interest for the following problems.
a. A R2 000 loan for 2 years at 5%.

b. A R1 500 investment for 3 years at 6%.
c. An R800 loan for l year at 16%.
17
8. If the exchange rate for 100 Yen = R 6,2287 and 1 Australian Doller (AUD) = R 5,1094 , determine
the exchange rate between the Australian Dollar and the Japanese Yen.
18
11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcK>
12 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lck>
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17 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcl>
9. Bonnie bought a stove for R 3 750. After 3 years she had nished paying for it and the R 956,25
interest that was charged for hire-purchase. Determine the rate of simple interest that was charged.
19
19 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35739/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcN>

67

Step 1. The following are given:
• ZAR/USD rate = R6,40

• ZAR/GBP rate = R11,58
The following is required:
• USD/GBP rate
Step 2. We know that:
USD/GBP = USD/ZAR × ZAR/GBP. (7.24)
Step 3.
USD/GBP = USD/ZAR × ZAR/GBP

1
= ZAR/USD × ZAR/GBP
(7.25)
1
= 6,40 × 11, 58
= 1, 8094
Step 4. $ 1,8094 can be bought for ¿1.

Step 1. • opening balance, P = R1 000
• interest rate, i = 7%
• period of time, n = 3 years
We are required to nd the closing balance (A).
Step 2. We know from (7.14) that:
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.26)
Step 3.
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R1 000 (1 + 3 × 7%) (7.27)
= R1 210
Step 4. The closing balance after 3 years of saving R1 000 at an interest rate of 7% is R1 210.

• interest rate, i = 7, 5%
• closing balance, A = R45 000
We are required to nd the number of years.
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.28)
Step 3.
A = P (1 + i · n)
R45 000 = R30 000 (1 + n × 7, 5%)
45000
(1 + 0, 075 × n) = 30000
0, 075 × n = 1, 5 − 1 (7.29)
0,5
n = 0,075
n = 6, 6666667
n = 6 years 8 months
Step 4. The period is 6 years and 8 months for R30 000 to generate R45 000 at a simple interest rate of 7,5%.
If we were asked for the nearest whole number of years, we would have to invest the money for 7 years.

Step 1. A new opening balance is required, as the 10% deposit is paid in cash.
• 10% of R 2 500 = R250

• new opening balance, P = R2 500 − R250 = R2 250
• interest rate, i = 7, 5%
We are required to nd the closing balance (A) and then the monthly payments.
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.30)
Step 3.
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R2 250 (1 + (2 × 7, 5%))
= R2 587, 50 (7.31)
Monthly payment = 2587, 50 ÷ 24

= R107, 81
Step 4. Troy's monthly payments = R 107,81

We are required to nd the interest rate(i).
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.32)
Therefore, for depreciation the formula will change to:

A = P (1 − i · n) (7.33)
Step 3.
A = P (1 − i · n)
R2 300 = R12 500 (1 − 7 × i) (7.34)
i = 0, 11657...
69
Step 4. Therefore the rate of depreciation is 11, 66%

• interest rate, i = 7%
• period of time, 1 year at a time, for 3 years
We are required to nd the closing balance at the end of three years.
Step 2. We know that:
A = P (1 + i · n) (7.35)
Step 3.
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R1 000 (1 + 1 × 7%) (7.36)
= R1 070
Step 4. After the rst year, we withdraw all the money and re-deposit it. The opening balance for the second
year is therefore R1 070, because this is the balance after the rst year.
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R1 070 (1 + 1 × 7%) (7.37)
= R1 144, 90
Step 5. After the second year, we withdraw all the money and re-deposit it. The opening balance for the third
year is therefore R1 144, 90, because this is the balance after the rst year.
A = P (1 + i · n)
= R1 144, 90 (1 + 1 × 7%) (7.38)
= R1 225, 04
Step 6. The closing balance after withdrawing all the money and re-depositing each year for 3 years of saving
R1 000 at an interest rate of 7% is R1 225,04.

• interest rate, i = 13% peryear
We are required to nd the time period(n).
n
A = P (1 + i) (7.39)
We need to nd n.
Therefore we convert the formula to:
A n
= (1 + i) (7.40)
P
and then nd n by trial and error.
Step 3.
A n
P = (1 + i)
625000 n
350000 = (1 + 0, 13)
n
1, 785... = (1, 13)
(7.41)
3
Try n = 3: (1, 13) = 1, 44...
4
Try n = 4: (1, 13) = 1, 63...
5
Try n = 5: (1, 13) = 1, 84...
Step 4. Mr Lowe should take the loan over four years

Step 1. • initial value (opening balance), P = 43 000 000
• period of time, n = 2 year
• rate of increase, i = 2, 5% peryear
We are required to nd the closing balance(A).
n
A = P (1 + i) (7.42)
Step 3.
n
A = P (1 + i)
2
= 43 000 000(1 + 0, 025) (7.43)
= 45 176 875
Step 4. There will be 45 176 875 − 43 000 000 = 2 176 875 more people in 2 years' time

Step 1. • opening balance, P = 50m2
• period of time, n = 30 days
• rate of increase, i = 5% perday
We are required to nd the closing balance(A).
n
A = P (1 + i) (7.44)
But this is compound decrease so we can use the formula:

n
A = P (1 − i) (7.45)
Step 3.
n
A = P (1 − i)
30
= 50(1 − 0, 05) (7.46)
2
= 10, 73m
Step 4. Therefore the area still covered with algae is 10, 73m2
Chapter 8
Products and Factors 1
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter you will learn how to work with algebraic expressions. You will recap some of the work
on factorisation and multiplying out expressions that you learnt in earlier grades. This work will then be
extended upon for Grade 10.
8.2 Recap of Earlier Work

The following should be familiar. Examples are given as reminders.
8.2.1 Parts of an Expression

Mathematical expressions are just like sentences and their parts have special names. You should be familiar
with the following names used to describe the parts of a mathematical expression.
a · x k + b · x + cm = 0
(8.1)
d · yp + e · y + f ≤ 0
71
72 CHAPTER 8. PRODUCTS AND FACTORS
Name Examples (separated by commas)

term a · xk ,b · x, cm , d · y p , e · y , f
expression a · x k + b · x + cm , d · y p + e · y + f
coecient a, b, d, e
exponent (or index) k, p
base x, y , c
constant a, b, c, d, e, f
variable x, y
equation a · x k + b · x + cm = 0
inequality d · yp + e · y + f ≤ 0
binomial expression with two terms
trinomial expression with three terms
Table 8.1
8.2.2 Product of Two Binomials

A binomial is a mathematical expression with two terms, e.g. (ax + b) and (cx + d). If these two binomials
are multiplied, the following is the result:
(a · x + b) (c · x + d) = (ax) (c · x + d) + b (c · x + d)
= (ax) (cx) + (ax) d + b (cx) + b · d (8.2)
= ax2 + x (ad + bc) + bd
Exercise 8.1: Product of two binomials (Solution on p. 82.)

Find the product of (3x − 2) (5x + 8)
The product of two identical binomials is known as the square of the binomial and is written as:
2
(ax + b) = a2 x2 + 2abx + b2 (8.3)
If the two terms are ax + b and ax − b then their product is:
(ax + b) (ax − b) = a2 x2 − b2 (8.4)
This is known as the dierence of two squares.
8.2.3 Factorisation
Factorisation is the opposite of expanding brackets. For example expanding brackets would require 2 (x + 1)
to be written as 2x + 2. Factorisation would be to start with 2x + 2 and to end up with 2 (x + 1). In
previous grades, you factorised based on common factors and on dierence of squares.
73
8.2.3.1 Common Factors

Factorising based on common factors relies on there being common factors between your terms. For example,
2x − 6x2 can be factorised as follows:
2x − 6x2 = 2x (1 − 3x) (8.5)
8.2.3.1.1 Investigation : Common Factors

Find the highest common factors of the following pairs of terms:
(a) 6y; 18x (b) 12mn; 8n (c) 3st; 4su (d) 18kl; 9kp (e) abc; ac
(f ) 2xy; 4xyz (g) 3uv; 6u (h) 9xy; 15xz (i) 24xyz; 16yz (j) 3m; 45n
Table 8.2
8.2.3.2 Dierence of Two Squares

We have seen that:
(ax + b) (ax − b) = a2 x2 − b2 (8.6)
Since (8.6) is an equation, both sides are always equal. This means that an expression of the form:
a2 x2 − b2 (8.7)
can be factorised to
(ax + b) (ax − b) (8.8)
Therefore,
a2 x2 − b2 = (ax + b) (ax − b) (8.9)
2 2 2
For example, x −16 can be written as x − 4

which is a dierence of two squares. Therefore, the factors
2
of x − 16 are (x − 4) and (x + 4).
Exercise 8.2: Factorisation (Solution on p. 82.)

Factorise completely: b2 y 5 − 3aby 3
Exercise 8.3: Factorising binomials with a common bracket (Solution on p. 82.)
Factorise completely: 3a (a − 4) − 7 (a − 4)
Exercise 8.4: Factorising using a switch around in brackets (Solution on p. 82.)
Factorise 5 (a − 2) − b (2 − a)
8.2.3.2.1 Recap
1. Find the products of:
(a) 2y (y + 4) (b) (y + 5) (y + 2) (c) (y + 2) (2y + 1)

(d) (y + 8) (y + 4) (e) (2y + 9) (3y + 1) (f ) (3y − 2) (y + 6)
Table 8.3
2
2. Factorise:
a. 2l + 2w
b. 12x + 32y
c. 6x2 + 2x + 10x3
d. 2xy 2 + xy 2 z + 3xy
e. −2ab2 − 4a2 b
3
3. Factorise completely:
(a) 7a + 4 (b) 20a − 10 (c) 18ab − 3bc

2
(d) 12kj + 18kq (e) 16k − 4k (f ) 3a2 + 6a − 18
(g) −6a − 24 (h) −2ab − 8a (i) 24kj − 16k 2 j
(j) −a2 b − b2 a (k) 12k 2 j + 24k 2 j 2 (l) 72b2 q − 18b3 q 2
(m) 4 (y − 3) + k (3 − y) (n) a (a − 1) − 5 (a − 1) (o) bm (b + 4) − 6m (b + 4)
(p) a2 (a + 7) + a (a + 7) (q) 3b (b − 4) − 7 (4 − b) (r) a2 b2 c2 − 1
Table 8.4
4
8.3 More Products

Khan Academy video on products of polynomials.
<http://www.youtube.com/v/fGThIRpWEE4&rel=0>
Figure 8.1
We have seen how to multiply two binomials in "Product of Two Binomials" (Section 8.2.2: Product of Two
Binomials). In this section, we learn how to multiply a binomial (expression with two terms) by a trinomial
(expression with three terms). Fortunately, we use the same methods we used to multiply two binomials to
multiply a binomial and a trinomial.
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxl>

3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lqV>
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lqE>
75
For example, multiply 2x + 1 by x2 + 2x + 1.
(2x + 1) x2 + 2x + 1

= 2x x2 + 2x + 1 + 1 x2 + 2x + 1 (applydistributivelaw)

= 2x x + 2x (2x) + 2x (1) + 1 x2 + 1 (2x) + 1 (1)

2

(8.10)
= 2x3 + 4x2 + 2x + x2 + 2x + 1 (expandthebrackets)
= 2x3 + 4x2 + x2 + (2x + 2x) + 1 (groupliketermstosimplify)

= 2x3 + 5x2 + 4x + 1 (simplifytogetfinalanswer)
tip: Multiplication of Binomial with Trinomial
If the binomial is A+B and the trinomial is C + D + E, then the very rst step is to apply the distributive
law:
(A + B) (C + D + E) = A (C + D + E) + B (C + D + E) (8.11)
If you remember this, you will never go wrong!
Exercise 8.5: Multiplication of Binomial with Trinomial (Solution on p. 82.)

Multiply x−1 with x2 − 2x + 1.
Exercise 8.6: Sum of Cubes (Solution on p. 82.)
Find the product of x+y and x2 − xy + y 2 .
tip: We have seen that:

(x + y) x2 − xy + y 2 = x3 + y 3

(8.12)
This is known as a sum of cubes.
8.3.1 Investigation : Dierence of Cubes

3
Show that the dierence of cubes (x − y3 ) is given by the product of x−y and x2 + xy + y 2 .
8.3.2 Products
1. Find the products of:
−2y 2 − 4y + 11 (5y − 12) (−11y + 3) −10y 2 − 7y − 9

(a) (b)
2
(c) 4y + 12y + 10 −9y 2 + 8y + 2 2
(d) 7y − 6y − 8 (−2y + 2)

5
(e) 10y + 3 −2y 2 − 11y + 2 2
(f ) (−12y − 3) 12y − 11y + 3

2 6 5
(g) (−10) 2y + 8y + 3 (h) 2y + 3y (−5y − 12)

7 2 2 2
(i) 6y − 8y + 7 (−4y − 3) −6y − 7y − 11 (j) −9y + 11y + 2 8y 2 + 6y − 7

5 4 3
(k) 8y + 3y + 2y (5y + 10) 12y 2 + 6y + 6 (−7y + 11) (−12y + 3)

(l)
3 2 2
(m) 4y + 5y − 12y (−12y − 2) 7y − 9y + 12 (7y + 3) 7y 2 + 3y + 10

(n)
2
(o) (9) 8y − 2y + 3 (−12y + 12) 4y 2 − 11y + 11

(p)
4 2
(q) −6y + 11y + 3y (10y + 4) (4y − 4) −3y 6 − 6y 3 (11y − 6) (10y − 10)

(r)
5 4
(s) −11y + 11y + 11 9y 3 − 7y 2 − 4y + 6 (−3y + 8) −4y 3 + 8y 2 − 2y + 12

(t)
Table 8.5
5
8.4 Factorising a Quadratic

Khan Academy video on factorising a quadratic.
<http://www.youtube.com/v/eF6zYNzlZKQ&rel=0>
Figure 8.2
Factorisation can be seen as the reverse of calculating the product of factors. In order to factorise a quadratic,
we need to nd the factors which when multiplied together equal the original quadratic.
Let us consider a quadratic that is of the form ax2 + bx . We can see here that x is a common factor of
2
both terms. Therefore, ax + bx factorises to x (ax + b). For example, 8y 2 + 4y factorises to 4y (2y + 1).
Another type of quadratic is made up of the dierence of squares. We know that:
(a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2 . (8.13)
This is true for any values of a and b, and more importantly since it is an equality, we can also write:
a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b) . (8.14)
This means that if we ever come across a quadratic that is made up of a dierence of squares, we can
immediately write down what the factors are.
Exercise 8.7: Dierence of Squares (Solution on p. 83.)

Find the factors of 9x2 − 25.
These types of quadratics are very simple to factorise. However, many quadratics do not fall into these
categories and we need a more general method to factorise quadratics like x2 − x − 2 ?
We can learn about how to factorise quadratics by looking at how two binomials are multiplied to get a
quadratic. For example, (x + 2) (x + 3) is multiplied out as:
(x + 2) (x + 3) = x (x + 3) + 2 (x + 3)
= (x) (x) + 3x + 2x + (2) (3) (8.15)
= x2 + 5x + 6.
We see that the x2 term in the quadratic is the product of the x-terms in each bracket. Similarly, the 6 in
the quadratic is the product of the 2 and 3 in the brackets. Finally, the middle term is the sum of two terms.
So, how do we use this information to factorise the quadratic?
Let us start with factorising x2 + 5x + 6 and see if we can decide upon some general rules. Firstly, write
down two brackets with an x in each bracket and space for the remaining terms.
( x )( x ) (8.16)
Next, decide upon the factors of 6. Since the 6 is positive, these are:
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llz>

77
Factors of 6
1 6
2 3
-1 -6
-2 -3
Table 8.6
Therefore, we have four possibilities:
Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
(x + 1) (x + 6) (x − 1) (x − 6) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x − 2) (x − 3)
Table 8.7
Next, we expand each set of brackets to see which option gives us the correct middle term.
(x + 1) (x + 6) (x − 1) (x − 6) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x − 2) (x − 3)
2 2 2
x + 7x + 6 x − 7x + 6 x + 5x + 6 x2 − 5x + 6
Table 8.8
We see that Option 3 (x+2)(x+3) is the correct solution. As you have seen that the process of factorising
a quadratic is mostly trial and error, there is some information that can be used to simplify the process.
8.4.1 Method: Factorising a Quadratic

1. First, divide the entire equation by any common factor of the coecients so as to obtain an equation
of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c have no common factors and a is positive.
2. Write down two brackets with an x in each bracket and space for the remaining terms.
( x )( x ) (8.17)
3. Write down a set of factors for a and c.

4. Write down a set of options for the possible factors for the quadratic using the factors of a and c.
5. Expand all options to see which one gives you the correct answer.
There are some tips that you can keep in mind:

• If c is positive, then the factors of c must be either both positive or both negative. The factors are
both negative if b is negative, and are both positive if b is positive. If c is negative, it means only one
of the factors of c is negative, the other one being positive.
• Once you get an answer, multiply out your brackets again just to make sure it really works.
Exercise 8.8: Factorising a Quadratic (Solution on p. 83.)

Find the factors of 3x2 + 2x − 1.
8.4.1.1 Factorising a Trinomial

1. Factorise the following:
(a) x2 + 8x + 15 (b) x2 + 10x + 24 (c) x2 + 9x + 8

(d) x2 + 9x + 14 (e) x2 + 15x + 36 (f ) x2 + 12x + 36
Table 8.9
6
2. Factorise the following:
a. x2 − 2x − 15
b. x2 + 2x − 3
c. x2 + 2x − 8
d. x2 + x − 20
e. x2 − x − 20
7
3. Find the factors for the following trinomial expressions:
a. 2x2 + 11x + 5
b. 3x2 + 19x + 6
c. 6x2 + 7x + 2
d. 12x2 + 8x + 1
e. 8x2 + 6x + 1
8
4. Find the factors for the following trinomials:
a. 3x2 + 17x − 6
b. 7x2 − 6x − 1
c. 8x2 − 6x + 1
d. 2x2 − 5x − 3
9
8.5 Factorisation by Grouping

One other method of factorisation involves the use of common factors. We know that the factors of 3x + 3
are 3 and (x + 1). Similarly, the factors of 2x2 + 2x are 2x and (x + 1). Therefore, if we have an expression:
2x2 + 2x + 3x + 3 (8.18)
then we can factorise as:
2x (x + 1) + 3 (x + 1) . (8.19)
6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liY>

7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lir>
8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/li1>
9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liC>
79
You can see that there is another common factor: x + 1. Therefore, we can now write:
(x + 1) (2x + 3) . (8.20)
We get this by taking out the x+1 and seeing what is left over. We have a +2x from the rst term and a
+3 from the second term. This is called factorisation by grouping.
Exercise 8.9: Factorisation by Grouping (Solution on p. 84.)
Find the factors of 7x + 14y + bx + 2by by grouping
Khan Academy video on factorising a trinomial by grouping.

<http://www.youtube.com/v/HXIj16mjfgk&rel=0>
Figure 8.3
8.5.1 Factorisation by Grouping

1. Factorise by grouping: 6x + a + 2ax + 3
10
2
2. Factorise by grouping: x − 6x + 5x − 30
11
3. Factorise by grouping: 5x + 10y − ax − 2ay
12
2
4. Factorise by grouping: a − 2a − ax + 2x
13
5. Factorise by grouping: 5xy − 3y + 10x − 6
14
8.6 Simplication of Fractions

In some cases of simplifying an algebraic expression, the expression will be a fraction. For example,
x2 + 3x
(8.21)
x+3
has a quadratic in the numerator and a binomial in the denominator. You can apply the dierent factori-
sation methods to simplify the expression.
x2 +3x
x+3
x(x+3)
= x+3
(8.22)
= x providedx 6= −3
10 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lih>
11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liS>
12 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liJ>
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14 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liz>
If x were 3 then the denominator, x − 3, would be 0 and the fraction undened.
Exercise 8.10: Simplication of Fractions (Solution on p. 84.)

2x−b+x−ab
Simplify:
ax2 −abx
Exercise 8.11: Simplication of Fractions (Solution on p. 84.)
x2 −x−2 x2 +x
Simplify:
x2 −4 ÷ x2 +2x
8.6.1 Simplication of Fractions

1. Simplify:
3a 2a+10
(a) (b)
15 4
5a+20 a2 −4a
(c) (d)
a+4 a−4
3a2 −9a 9a+27
(e) (f )
2a−6 9a+18
6ab+2a 16x2 y−8xy
(g) (h)
2b 12x−6
4xyp−8xp 3a+9 7a+21
(i)
12xy (j)
14 ÷ a+3
a2 −5a 3a+15 3xp+4p 12p2
(k)
2a+10 ÷ 4a (l)
8p ÷ 3x+4
16 6x2 +8x 24a−8
(m)
2xp+4x ÷ 12 (n)
12 ÷ 9a−36
a2 +2a 2a+4 p +pq
2
8p+8q
(o)
5 ÷ 20 (p)
7p ÷ 21q
5ab−15b 6b2 f 2 a−f a2
(q)
4a−12 ÷ a+b (r)
f −a
Table 8.10
15
x2 −1 1 1
2. Simplify:
3 × x−1 − 2
16

1. Factorise:
(a) a2 − 9 (b) m2 − 36 (c) 9b2 − 81

(d) 16b6 − 25a2 (e) m2 − (1/9) (f ) 5 − 5a2 b6
(g) 16ba4 − 81b (h) a2 − 10a + 25 (i) 16b2 + 56b + 49
(j) 2a2 − 12ab + 18b2 (k) −4b2 − 144b8 + 48b5
Table 8.11
17
2 2
2. Show that (2x − 1) − (x − 3) can be simplied to (x + 2) (3x − 4)
18
15 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lit>
16 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lie>
17 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liM>
18 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lib>
81
2
3. What must be added to x2 − x + 4 to make it equal to (x + 2)
19
19 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31483/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/liT>


Step 1.
(3x − 2) (5x + 8) = (3x) (5x) + (3x) (8) + (−2) (5x) + (−2) (8)
= 15x2 + 24x − 10x − 16 (8.23)
2
= 15x + 14x − 16

Step 1.
b2 y 5 − 3aby 3 = by 3 by 2 − 3a

(8.24)

Step 1. (a − 4) is the common factor
3a (a − 4) − 7 (a − 4) = (a − 4) (3a − 7) (8.25)

Step 1.
5 (a − 2) − b (2 − a) = 5 (a − 2) − [−b (a − 2)]
= 5 (a − 2) + b (a − 2) (8.26)
= (a − 2) (5 + b)

Step 1. We are given two expressions: a binomial, x − 1, and a trinomial, x2 − 2x + 1. We need to multiply
them together.
Step 2. Apply the distributive law and then simplify the resulting expression.
Step 3.
(x − 1) x2 − 2x + 1

= x x2 − 2x + 1 − 1 x2 − 2x + 1 (applydistributivelaw)

= x x + x (−2x) + x (1) + −1 x2 − 1 (−2x) − 1 (1)

2

(8.27)
= x3 − 2x2 + x − x2 + 2x − 1 (expandthebrackets)
= x3 + −2x2 − x2 + (x + 2x) − 1 (groupliketermstosimplify)

3 2
= x − 3x + 3x − 1 (simplifytogetfinalanswer)
Step 4. The product of x−1 and x2 − 2x + 1 is x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1.

Step 1. We are given two expressions: a binomial, x + y, and a trinomial, x2 − xy + y 2 . We need to multiply
them together.
Step 2. Apply the distributive law and then simplify the resulting expression.
83
Step 3.
(x + y) x2 − xy + y 2

= x x2 − xy + y 2 + y x2 − xy + y 2 (applydistributivelaw)

= x x2 + x (−xy) + x y 2 + y x2 + y (−xy) + y y 2

(8.28)
= x3 − x2 y + xy 2 + yx2 − xy 2 + y 3 (expandthebrackets)
= x3 + −x2 y + yx2 + xy 2 − xy 2 + y 3 (groupliketermstosimplify)

3 3
= x +y (simplifytogetfinalanswer)
Step 4. The product of x+y and x2 − xy + y 2 is x3 + y 3 .
Step 1. We see that the quadratic is a dierence of squares because:
2
(3x) = 9x2 (8.29)
and
52 = 25. (8.30)
Step 2.
2
9x2 − 25 = (3x) − 52 (8.31)
Step 3.
2
(3x) − 52 = (3x − 5) (3x + 5) (8.32)
2
Step 4. The factors of 9x − 25 are (3x − 5) (3x + 5).
Step 1. The quadratic is in the required form.
Step 2.
( x )( x ) (8.33)
Write down a set of factors for a and c. The possible factors for a are: (1,3). The possible factors for
c are: (-1,1) or (1,-1).
Write down a set of options for the possible factors of the quadratic using the factors of a and c.
Therefore, there are two possible options.
Option 1 Option 2
(x − 1) (3x + 1) (x + 1) (3x − 1)
2
3x − 2x − 1 3x2 + 2x − 1
Table 8.12
Step 3.
(x + 1) (3x − 1) = x (3x − 1) + 1 (3x − 1)

= (x) (3x) + (x) (−1) + (1) (3x) + (1) (−1)
(8.34)
= 3x2 − x + 3x − 1
= x2 + 2x − 1.
Step 4. The factors of 3x2 + 2x − 1 are (x + 1) and (3x − 1).

Step 1. There are no factors that are common to all terms.
Step 2. 7 is a common factor of the rst two terms and b is a common factor of the second two terms.
Step 3.
7x + 14y + bx + 2by = 7 (x + 2y) + b (x + 2y) (8.35)
Step 4. x + 2y is a common factor.

Step 5.
7 (x + 2y) + b (x + 2y) = (x + 2y) (7 + b) (8.36)
Step 6. The factors of 7x + 14y + bx + 2by are (7 + b) and (x + 2y).

Step 1. Use grouping for numerator and common factor for denominator in this example.
(ax−ab)+(x−b)
= ax2 −abx
a(x−b)+(x−b)
= ax(x−b)
(8.37)
(x−b)(a+1)
= ax(x−b)
Step 2. The simplied answer is:
a+1
= ax
(8.38)

Step 1.
(x+1)(x−2) x(x+1)
= (x+2)(x−2) ÷ x(x+2)
(8.39)
Step 2.
(x+1)(x−2) x(x+2)
= (x+2)(x−2) × x(x+1)
(8.40)
Step 3. The simplied answer is
= 1 (8.41)
Chapter 9
Equations and Inequalities - Grade 10 1
9.1 Strategy for Solving Equations

This chapter is all about solving dierent types of equations for one or two variables. In general, we want
to get the unknown variable alone on the left hand side of the equation with all the constants on the right
hand side of the equation. For example, in the equation x−1 = 0 , we want to be able to write the equation
as x = 1.
As we saw in review of past work (Chapter 1) (section on rearranging equations), an equation is like a
set of weighing scales that must always be balanced. When we solve equations, we need to keep in mind
that what is done to one side must be done to the other.
9.1.1 Method: Rearranging Equations

You can add, subtract, multiply or divide both sides of an equation by any number you want, as long as you
always do it to both sides.
For example, in the equation x+5−1 = −6 , we want to get x alone on the left hand side of the equation.
This means we need to subtract 5 and add 1 on the left hand side. However, because we need to keep the
equation balanced, we also need to subtract 5 and add 1 on the right hand side.
x+5−1 = −6
x+5−5−1+1 = −6 − 5 + 1
(9.1)
x+0+0 = −11 + 1
x = −10
2
In another example,
3 x = 8, we must divide by 2 and multiply by 3 on the left hand side in order to get x
alone. However, in order to keep the equation balanced, we must also divide by 2 and multiply by 3 on the
right hand side.
2
3x = 8
2
3x ÷ 2 × 3 = 8÷2×3
2 3 8×3
2 × 3 ×x = (9.2)
2
1×1×x = 12
x = 12
85
86 CHAPTER 9. EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES - GRADE 10
These are the basic rules to apply when simplifying any equation. In most cases, these rules have to be
applied more than once, before we have the unknown variable on the left hand side of the equation.
tip: The following must also be kept in mind:
1.Division by 0 is undened.
x
2.If
y = 0, then x=0 and y 6= 0, because division by 0 is undened.
We are now ready to solve some equations!
9.1.1.1 Investigation : Strategy for Solving Equations

In the following, identify what is wrong.
4x − 8 = 3 (x − 2)
4 (x − 2) = 3 (x − 2)
(9.3)
4(x−2) 3(x−2)
(x−2) = (x−2)
4 = 3
9.2 Solving Linear Equations

The simplest equation to solve is a linear equation. A linear equation is an equation where the power of the
variable(letter, e.g. x) is 1(one). The following are examples of linear equations.
2x + 2 = 1
2−x
3x+1 = 2 (9.4)
4
3x −6 = 7x + 2
In this section, we will learn how to nd the value of the variable that makes both sides of the linear equation
true. For example, what value of x makes both sides of the very simple equation, x+1=1 true.
Since the denition of a linear equation is that if the variable has a highest power of one (1), there is at
most one solution or root for the equation.
This section relies on all the methods we have already discussed: multiplying out expressions, grouping
terms and factorisation. Make sure that you are comfortable with these methods, before trying out the work
in the rest of this chapter.
2x + 2 = 1
2x = 1−2 (liketermstogether) (9.5)
2x = −1 (simplifiedasmuchapossible)
Now we see that 2x = −1. This means if we divide both sides by 2, we will get:
1
x=− (9.6)
2
87
If we substitute x = − 12 , back into the original equation, we get:
LHS = 2x + 2
= 2 − 12 + 2

= −1 + 2
(9.7)
= 1
and
RHS = 1
That is all that there is to solving linear equations.
tip: Solving Equations
When you have found the solution to an equation, substitute the solution into the original equation, to check
your answer.
9.2.1 Method: Solving Equations

The general steps to solve equations are:
1. Expand (Remove) all brackets.

2. "Move" all terms with the variable to the left hand side of the equation, and all constant terms (the
numbers) to the right hand side of the equals sign. Bearing in mind that the sign of the terms will
change from (+) to (−) or vice versa, as they "cross over" the equals sign.
3. Group all like terms together and simplify as much as possible.
4. Factorise if necessary.
5. Find the solution.
6. Substitute solution into original equation to check answer.
Khan academy video on equations - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/f15zA0PhSek&rel=0>
Figure 9.1
Exercise 9.1: Solving Linear Equations (Solution on p. 102.)

Solve for x: 4 − x = 4
Solve for x: 4 (2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x
2−x
Solve for x: 3x+1 =2
4
Solve for x: 3x − 6 = 7x + 2
9.2.1.1 Solving Linear Equations

1. Solve for y : 2y − 3 = 7 Click here for the solution2
2. Solve for w: −3w = 0 Click here for the solution3
3. Solve for z : 4z = 16 Click here for the solution4
4. Solve for t: 12t + 0 = 144 Click here for the solution5
5. Solve for x: 7 + 5x = 62 Click here for the solution6
6. Solve for y : 55 = 5y + 34 Click here for the solution7
7. Solve for z : 5z = 3z + 45 Click here for the solution8
8. Solve for a: 23a − 12 = 6 + 2a Click here for the solution9
9. Solve for b: 12 − 6b + 34b = 2b − 24 − 64 Click here for the solution10
10. Solve for c: 6c + 3c = 4 − 5 (2c − 3) Click here for the solution11
11. Solve for p: 18 − 2p = p + 9 Click here for the solution12
12. Solve for q : 4q = 16
24 Click here for the solution
13
q
13. Solve for q : 14 = 2 Click here for the solution14
14. Solve for r: − (−16 − r) = 13r − 1 Click here for the solution15
15. Solve for d: 6d − 2 + 2d = −2 + 4d + 8 Click here for the solution16
16. Solve for f : 3f − 10 = 10 Click here for the solution17
17. Solve for v : 3v + 16 = 4v − 10 Click here for the solution18
18. Solve for k : 10k + 5 + 0 = −2k + −3k + 80 Click here for the solution19
19. Solve for j : 8 (j − 4) = 5 (j − 4) Click here for the solution20
20. Solve for m: 6 = 6 (m + 7) + 5m Click here for the solution21
9.3 Solving Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is an equation where the power of the variable is at most 2. The following are examples
of quadratic equations.
2x2 + 2x = 1
2−x
3x+1 = 2x (9.8)
4
3x −6 = 7x2 + 2
Quadratic equations dier from linear equations by the fact that a linear equation only has one solution,
while a quadratic equation has at most two solutions. There are some special situations when a quadratic
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcR>

7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcn>
11 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcQ>
16 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcU>
89
equation only has one solution.

We solve quadratic equations by factorisation, that is writing the quadratic as a product of two expressions
in brackets. For example, we know that:
(x + 1) (2x − 3) = 2x2 − x − 3. (9.9)
In order to solve:
2x2 − x − 3 = 0 (9.10)
2
we need to be able to write 2x − x − 3 as (x + 1) (2x − 3), which we already know how to do.
9.3.1 Investigation : Factorising a Quadratic

Factorise the following quadratic expressions:
1. x + x2
2. x2 + 1 + 2x
3. x2 − 4x + 5
4. 16x2 − 9
5. 4x2 + 4x + 1
Being able to factorise a quadratic means that you are one step away from solving a quadratic equation.
For example, x2 − 3x − 2 = 0 can be written as (x − 1) (x − 2) = 0. This means that both x − 1 = 0 and
x − 2 = 0, which gives x = 1 and x = 2 as the two solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 3x − 2 = 0.
9.3.2 Method: Solving Quadratic Equations

1. First divide the entire equation by any common factor of the coecients, so as to obtain an equation
of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c have no common factors. For example, 2x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
2
can be written as x + 2x + 1 = 0 by dividing by 2.
2
2. Write ax + bx + c in terms of its factors (rx + s) (ux + v). This means (rx + s) (ux + v) = 0.
3. Once writing the equation in the form (rx + s) (ux + v) = 0, it then follows that the two solutions are
x = − rs or x = − uv .
4. For each solution substitute the value into the original equation to check whether it is valid
9.3.2.1 Solutions of Quadratic Equations

There are two solutions to a quadratic equation, because any one of the values can solve the equation.
Khan academy video on equations - 3
<http://www.youtube.com/v/y19jYxzY8Y8&rel=0>
Figure 9.2
Exercise 9.5: Solving Quadratic Equations (Solution on p. 104.)

Solve for x: 3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0
Sometimes an equation might not look like a quadratic at rst glance but turns into one with a simple
operation or two. Remember that you have to do the same operation on both sides of the equation for it to
remain true.
You might need to do one (or a combination) of:
• For example,
c
ax + b = x
c
x (ax + b) = x

(9.11)
x
2
ax + bx = c
• This is raising both sides to the power of −1. For example,
1
ax2 +bx = c
−1
−1

1
ax2 +bx = (c)
(9.12)
ax2 +bx 1
1 = c
2 1
ax + bx = c
• This is raising both sides to the power of 2. For example,
√
ax2 + bx = c
√ 2
ax2 + bx = c2 (9.13)
2 2
ax + bx = c
You can combine these in many ways and so the best way to develop your intuition for the best thing to do
is practice problems. A combined set of operations could be, for example,
1
√
ax2+bx
= c
−1
−1

1
ax2 +bx = (c) (invertbothsides)
√
ax2 +bx 1
1 = c
√ 1
(9.14)
ax2 + bx = c
√ 2 1 2
ax2 + bx = (squarebothsides)

c
1
ax2 + bx = c2
Exercise 9.6:√ Solving Quadratic Equations (Solution on p. 104.)

Solve for x: x+2=x
Solve the equation: x2 + 3x − 4 = 0.
Find the roots of the quadratic equation 0 = −2x2 + 4x − 2.
9.3.2.2 Solving Quadratic Equations

1. Solve for x: (3x + 2) (3x − 4) = 0 Click here for the solution
22
22 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcP>

91
2. Solve for a: (5a − 9) (a + 6) = 0 Click here for the solution23

3. Solve for x: (2x + 3) (2x − 3) = 0 Click here for the solution24
4. Solve for x: (2x + 1) (2x − 9) = 0 Click here for the solution25
5. Solve for x: (2x − 3) (2x − 3) = 0 Click here for the solution26
6. Solve for x: 20x + 25x2 = 0 Click here for the solution27
7. Solve for a: 4a2 − 17a − 77 = 0 Click here for the solution28
8. Solve for x: 2x2 − 5x − 12 = 0 Click here for the solution29
9. Solve for b: −75b2 + 290b − 240 = 0 Click here for the solution30
10. Solve for y : 2y = 13 y 2 − 3y + 14 23 Click here for the solution31
11. Solve for θ: θ2 − 4θ = −4 Click here for the solution32
12. Solve for q : −q 2 + 4q − 6 = 4q 2 − 5q + 3 Click here for the solution33
13. Solve for t: t2 = 3t Click here for the solution34
14. Solve for w: 3w2 + 10w − 25 = 0 Click here for the solution35
15. Solve for v : v 2 − v + 3 Click here for the solution36
16. Solve for x: x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 Click here for the solution37
17. Solve for t: t2 − 6t = 7 Click here for the solution38
18. Solve for x: 14x2 + 5x = 6 Click here for the solution39
19. Solve for t: 2t2 − 2t = 12 Click here for the solution40
20. Solve for y : 3y 2 + 2y − 6 = y 2 − y + 2 Click here for the solution41
9.4 Exponential Equations of the Form ka(x+p) = m

Exponential equations generally have the unknown variable as the power. The following are examples of
exponential equations:
2x = 1
2−x
3x+1 = 2 (9.15)
4
3 −6 = 7x + 2
You should already be familiar with exponential notation. Solving exponential equations is simple, if we
remember how to apply the laws of exponentials.
9.4.1 Investigation : Solving Exponential Equations

Solve the following equations by completing the table:

27 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcE>
33 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcm>
2x = 2 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
2
Table 9.1
3x = 9 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
3x
Table 9.2
2x+1 = 8 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x+1
2
Table 9.3
9.4.2 Algebraic Solution

Denition 9.1: Equality for Exponential Functions
If a is a positive number such that a > 0, (except when a=1 ) then:
ax = ay (9.16)
if and only if:
x=y (9.17)
(If a = 1, then x and y can dier)
This means that if we can write all terms in an equation with the same base, we can solve the exponential
equations by equating the indices. For example take the equation 3x+1 = 9. This can be written as:
3x+1 = 32 . (9.18)
Since the bases are equal (to 3), we know that the exponents must also be equal. Therefore we can write:
x + 1 = 2. (9.19)
This gives:
x = 1. (9.20)
9.4.2.1 Method: Solving Exponential Equations

1. Try to write all terms with the same base.
2. Equate the exponents of the bases of the left and right hand side of the equation.
3. Solve the equation obtained in the previous step.
4. Check the solutions
93
9.4.2.1.1 Investigation : Exponential Numbers

Write the following with the same base. The base is the rst in the list. For example, in the list 2, 4, 8, the
base is two and we can write 4 as 22 .
1. 2,4,8,16,32,64,128,512,1024
2. 3,9,27,81,243
3. 5,25,125,625
4. 13,169
5. 2x, 4x2 , 8x3 , 49x8
Exercise 9.9: Solving Exponential Equations (Solution on p. 105.)

Solve for x: 2x = 2
Exercise 9.10: Solving Exponential Equations (Solution on p. 106.)
Solve:
2x+4 = 42x (9.21)
9.4.2.1.2 Solving Exponential Equations

1. Solve the following exponential equations.
a. 2x+5 = 25 b. 32x+1 = 33 c. 52x+2 = 53

d. 65−x = 612 e. 64x+1 = 162x+5 f. 125x = 5
Table 9.4
42
2. Solve: 39x−2 = 27 Click here for the solution43
k+2
3. Solve for k : 81 = 27k+4 Click here for the solution44
4. The growth of an algae in a pond can be modeled by the function f (t) = 2t . Find the value of t such
that f (t) = 128 Click here for the solution 45
(1−2x)
5. Solve for x: 25 = 54 Click here for the solution46
x x−2
6. Solve for x: 27 × 9 = 1 Click here for the solution47
9.5 Linear Inequalities

9.5.1 Investigation : Inequalities on a Number Line
Represent the following on number lines:
1. x=4
2. x<4
3. x≤4
42 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lce>
43 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lct>
44 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lct>
45 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcz>
46 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcu>
47 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35965/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcu>
4. x≥4
5. x>4
A linear inequality is similar to a linear equation in that the largest exponent of a variable is 1. The following
are examples of linear inequalities.
2x + 2 ≤ 1
2−x
3x+1 ≥ 2 (9.22)
4
3x −6 < 7x + 2
The methods used to solve linear inequalities are identical to those used to solve linear equations. The only
dierence occurs when there is a multiplication or a division that involves a minus sign. For example, we
know that 8 > 6. If both sides of the inequality are divided by −2, −4 is not greater than −3. Therefore,
the inequality must switch around, making −4 < − 3.
tip: When you divide or multiply both sides of an inequality by any number with a minus sign,
the direction of the inequality changes. For this reason you cannot divide or multiply by a variable.
For example, if x < 1, then −x > − 1.

In order to compare an inequality to a normal equation, we shall solve an equation rst. Solve 2x + 2 = 1.
2x + 2 = 1
2x = 1−2
(9.23)
2x = −1
x = − 21
If we represent this answer on a number line, we get
Figure 9.3
Now let us solve the inequality 2x + 2 ≤ 1.
2x + 2 ≤ 1
2x ≤ 1−2
(9.24)
2x ≤ −1
x ≤ − 12
If we represent this answer on a number line, we get
95
Figure 9.4
As you can see, for the equation, there is only a single value of x for which the equation is true. However,
for the inequality, there is a range of values for which the inequality is true. This is the main dierence
between an equation and an inequality.
Khan academy video on inequalities - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/y7QLay8wrW8&rel=0>
Figure 9.5
Khan academy video on inequalities - 2

<http://www.youtube.com/v/VgDe_D8ojxw&rel=0>
Figure 9.6
Exercise 9.11: Linear Inequalities (Solution on p. 107.)

Solve for r: 6 − r > 2
Exercise 9.12: Linear Inequalities (Solution on p. 107.)
Solve for q : 4q + 3 < 2 (q + 3) and represent the solution on a number line.
Exercise 9.13: Compound Linear Inequalities (Solution on p. 107.)

Solve for x: 5 ≤ x + 3 < 8 and represent solution on a number line.
9.5.2 Linear Inequalities

1. Solve for x and represent the solution graphically:
a. 3x + 4 > 5x + 8
b. 3 (x − 1) − 2 ≤ 6x + 4
x−7 2x−3
c.
3 > 2
d. −4 (x − 1) < x + 2
1 1 5 1
e.
2 x + 3 (x − 1) ≥ 6 x − 3
48
2. Solve the following inequalities. Illustrate your answer on a number line if x is a real number.
a. −2 ≤ x − 1 < 3 Click here for the solution49

b. −5 < 2x − 3 ≤ 7 Click here for the solution50
3. Solve for x: 7 (3x + 2) − 5 (2x − 3) > 7 Illustrate this answer on a number line. Click here for the
51
solution
9.6 Linear Simultaneous Equations

Thus far, all equations that have been encountered have one unknown variable that must be solved for.
When two unknown variables need to be solved for, two equations are required and these equations are
known as simultaneous equations. The solutions to the system of simultaneous equations are the values of
the unknown variables which satisfy the system of equations simultaneously, that means at the same time.
In general, if there are n unknown variables, then n equations are required to obtain a solution for each of
the n variables.
An example of a system of simultaneous equations is:
2x + 2y = 1
(9.25)
2−x
3y+1 =2
9.6.1 Finding solutions

In order to nd a numerical value for an unknown variable, one must have at least as many independent
equations as variables. We solve simultaneous equations graphically and algebraically.
Khan academy video on simultaneous equations - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/nok99JOhcjo&rel=0>
Figure 9.7
9.6.2 Graphical Solution

Simultaneous equations can be solved graphically. If the graph corresponding to each equation is drawn,
then the solution to the system of simultaneous equations is the co-ordinate of the point at which both
graphs intersect.
x = 2y
(9.26)
y = 2x − 3
Draw the graphs of the two equations in (9.26).
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97
Figure 9.8
The intersection of the two graphs is (2, 1). So the solution to the system of simultaneous equations in
(9.26) is y=1 and x = 2.
This can be shown algebraically as:
x = 2y
∴ y = 2 (2y) − 3
y − 4y = −3
−3y = −3 (9.27)
y = 1
Substituteintothefirstequation : x = 2 (1)
= 2
Exercise 9.14: Simultaneous Equations (Solution on p. 108.)

Solve the following system of simultaneous equations graphically.
4y + 3x = 100
(9.28)
4y − 19x = 12
9.6.3 Solution by Substitution

A common algebraic technique is the substitution method: try to solve one of the equations for one of
the variables and substitute the result into the other equations, thereby reducing the number of equations
and the number of variables by 1. Continue until you reach a single equation with a single variable, which
(hopefully) can be solved; back substitution then allows checking the values for the other variables.
In the example (9.25), we rst solve the rst equation for x:
1
x= −y (9.29)
2
and substitute this result into the second equation:
2−x
3y+1 = 2
2−( )
2 −y
1
3y+1 = 2
2 − 12 − y = 2 (3y + 1)

2 − 21 + y = 6y + 2 (9.30)
1
y − 6y = −2 + 2 + 2
1
−5y = 2
1
y = − 10
1
∴ x = 2 −y
1 1
= − − 10

2
(9.31)
6
= 10
3
= 5
The solution for the system of simultaneous equations (9.25) is:
3
x = 5
(9.32)
1
y = − 10
Exercise 9.15: Simultaneous Equations (Solution on p. 109.)

Solve the following system of simultaneous equations:
4y + 3x = 100
(9.33)
4y − 19x = 12
Exercise 9.16: Bicycles and Tricycles (Solution on p. 109.)

A shop sells bicycles and tricycles. In total there are 7 cycles (cycles includes both bicycles and
tricycles) and 19 wheels. Determine how many of each there are, if a bicycle has two wheels and a
tricycle has three wheels.
9.6.3.1 Simultaneous Equations

1. Solve graphically and conrm your answer algebraically: 3a − 2b7 = 0 , a − 4b + 1 = 0 Click here for
52
the solution
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99
2. Solve algebraically: 15c + 11d − 132 = 0, 2c + 3d − 59 = 0 Click here for the solution53
3. Solve algebraically: −18e − 18 + 3f = 0, e − 4f + 47 = 0 Click here for the solution54
4. Solve graphically: x + 2y = 7, x + y = 0 Click here for the solution55
9.7 Mathematical Models

9.7.1 Introduction
Tom and Jane are friends. Tom picked up Jane's Physics test paper, but will not tell Jane what her marks
are. He knows that Jane hates maths so he decided to tease her. Tom says: I have 2 marks more than you
do and the sum of both our marks is equal to 14. How much did we get?
Let's help Jane nd out what her marks are. We have two unknowns, Tom's mark (which we shall call
t) and Jane's mark (which we shall call j ). Tom has 2 more marks than Jane. Therefore,
t=j+2 (9.34)
Also, both marks add up to 14. Therefore,
t + j = 14 (9.35)
The two equations make up a set of linear (because the highest power is one) simultaneous equations, which
we know how to solve! Substitute for t in the second equation to get:
t+j = 14
j+2+j = 14
2j + 2 = 14
2 (j + 1) = 14 (9.36)
j+1 = 7
j = 7−1
= 6
Then,
t = j+2
= 6+2 (9.37)
= 8
So, we see that Tom scored 8 on his test and Jane scored 6.
This problem is an example of a simple mathematical model. We took a problem and we were able to
write a set of equations that represented the problem mathematically. The solution of the equations then
gave the solution to the problem.
9.7.2 Problem Solving Strategy

The purpose of this section is to teach you the skills that you need to be able to take a problem and formulate
it mathematically in order to solve it. The general steps to follow are:
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1. Read ALL of it !
2. Find out what is requested.
3. Use a variable(s) to denote the unknown quantity/quantities that has/have been requested e.g., x.
4. Rewrite the information given in terms of the variable(s). That is, translate the words into algebraic
expressions.
5. Set up an equation or set of equations (i.e. a mathematical sentence or model) to solve the required
variable.
6. Solve the equation algebraically to nd the result.
9.7.3 Application of Mathematical Modelling

Exercise 9.17: Mathematical Modelling: Two variables (Solution on p. 110.)
Three rulers and two pens have a total cost of R 21,00. One ruler and one pen have a total cost
of R 8,00. How much does a ruler costs on its own and how much does a pen cost on its own?
Exercise 9.18: Mathematical Modelling: One variable (Solution on p. 110.)

A fruit shake costs R2,00 more than a chocolate milkshake. If three fruit shakes and 5 chocolate
milkshakes cost R78,00, determine the individual prices.
9.7.3.1 Mathematical Models

1. Stephen has 1 l of a mixture containing 69% of salt. How much water must Stephen add to make the
56
mixture 50% salt? Write your answer as a fraction of a litre. Click here for the solution
2. The diagonal of a rectangle is 25 cm more than its width. The length of the rectangle is 17 cm more
57
than its width. What are the dimensions of the rectangle? Click here for the solution
3. The sum of 27 and 12 is 73 more than an unknown number. Find the unknown number. Click here
58
for the solution
4. The two smaller angles in a right-angled triangle are in the ratio of 1:2. What are the sizes of the two
59
angles? Click here for the solution
5. George owns a bakery that specialises in wedding cakes. For each wedding cake, it costs George R150
for ingredients, R50 for overhead, and R5 for advertising. George's wedding cakes cost R400 each. As
a percentage of George's costs, how much prot does he make for each cake sold? Click here for the
60
solution
6. If 4 times a number is increased by 7, the result is 15 less than the square of the number. Find the
numbers that satisfy this statement, by formulating an equation and then solving it. Click here for
61
the solution
7. The length of a rectangle is 2 cm more than the width of the rectangle. The perimeter of the rectangle
62
is 20 cm. Find the length and the width of the rectangle. Click here for the solution
9.7.4 End of Chapter Exercises

1. What are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 ? Click here for the solution
63
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101
2. What are the solutions to the equation x2 + x = 6 ? Click here for the solution
64
3. In the equation y = 2x2 − 5x − 18, which is a value of x when y=0 ?

65
4. Manuel has 5 more CDs than Pedro has. Bob has twice as many CDs as Manuel has. Altogether the
66
boys have 63 CDs. Find how many CDs each person has. Click here for the solution
5. Seven-eighths of a certain number is 5 more than one-third of the number. Find the number. Click
67
here for the solution
6. A man runs to a telephone and back in 15 minutes. His speed on the way to the telephone is 5 m/s and
68
his speed on the way back is 4 m/s. Find the distance to the telephone. Click here for the solution
x x
7. Solve the inequality and then answer the questions:
3 − 14 > 14 − 4
a. If x ∈ R, write the solution in interval notation.
b. if x ∈ Z and x < 51, write the solution as a set of integers.
69
8. Solve for a: 1−a 2−a
2 − 3 > 1 Click here for the solution
70
42
9. Solve for x: x − 1 = x Click here for the solution 71
10. Solve for x and y : 7x + 3y = 13 and 2x − 3y = −4 Click here for the solution
72

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Step 1. We are given 4−x=4 and are required to solve for x.
Step 2. Since there are no brackets, we can start with grouping like terms and then simplifying.
Step 3.
4−x = 4
−x = 4−4 (moveallconstantterms (numbers) totheRHS (righthandside))
−x = 0 (groupliketermstogether)
(9.38)
−x = 0 (simplifygroupedterms)
−x = 0
∴ x = 0
Step 4. Substitute solution into original equation:
4−0=4 (9.39)
4=4 (9.40)
Since both sides are equal, the answer is correct.

Step 5. The solution of 4−x=4 is x = 0.

Step 1. We are given 4 (2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x and are required to solve for x.
Step 2. We start with expanding the brackets, then grouping like terms and then simplifying.
Step 3.
4 (2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x
8x − 36 − 4x = 4 − 6x (expandthebrackets)
8x − 4x + 6x = 4 + 36 movealltermswithxtotheLHS
andallconstanttermstotheRHSofthe =
(9.41)
(8x − 4x + 6x) = (4 + 36) (groupliketermstogether)
10x = 40 (simplifygroupedterms)
10 40
10 x = 10 (dividebothsidesby10)
x = 4
4 (2 (4) − 9) − 4 (4) = 4 − 6 (4)

4 (8 − 9) − 16 = 4 − 24
4 (−1) − 16 = −20 (9.42)
−4 − 16 = −20
−20 = −20
Since both sides are equal to −20, the answer is correct.
Step 5. The solution of 4 (2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x is x = 4.
103

2−x
Step 1. We are given
3x+1 = 2 and are required to solve for x.
Step 2. Since there is a denominator of (3x + 1), we can start by multiplying both sides of the equation by
−1
(3x + 1). But because division by 0 is not permissible, there is a restriction on a value for x. (x 6=
3 )
Step 3.
2−x
3x+1 = 2
(2 − x) = 2 (3x + 1)
2−x = 6x + 2 (remove/expandbrackets)
−x − 6x = 2−2 movealltermscontainingxtotheLHS
(9.43)
andallconstantterms (numbers) totheRHS.
−7x = 0 (simplifygroupedterms)
x = 0 ÷ (−7)
theref ore x = 0 zerodividedbyanynumberis0
2−(0)
3(0)+1 = 2
(9.44)
2
1 = 2
Since both sides are equal to 2, the answer is correct.
2−x
Step 5. The solution of
3x+1 =2 is x = 0.
4
Step 1. We are given
3 x − 6 = 7x + 2 and are required to solve for x.
Step 2. We start with multiplying each of the terms in the equation by 3, then grouping like terms and then
simplifying.
Step 3.
4
3x −6 = 7x + 2
4x − 18 = 21x + 6 (eachtermismultipliedby3)
4x − 21x = 6 + 18 (movealltermswithxtotheLHS
andallconstanttermstotheRHSofthe = (9.45)
−17x = 24 (simplifygroupedterms)
−17 24
−17 x = −17 (dividebothsidesby − 17)
−24
x = 17
4 −24 −24
3 × 17 − 6 = 7× 17 + 2
4×(−8) 7×(−24)
(17) − 6 = 17 +2
(−32) −168
17 − 6 = 17 + 2
(9.46)
−32−102 (−168)+34
17 = 17
−134 −134
17 = 17
−134
Since both sides are equal to
17 , the answer is correct.
4 −24
Step 5. The solution of
3x − 6 = 7x + 2 is, x= 17 .

Step 1. As we have seen the factors of 3x2 + 2x − 1 are (x + 1) and (3x − 1).
Step 2.
(x + 1) (3x − 1) = 0 (9.47)
Step 3. We have
x+1=0 (9.48)
or
3x − 1 = 0 (9.49)
1
Therefore, x = −1 or x= 3.
Step 4. Text here
1
Step 5. 3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0 for x = −1 or x= 3.

Step 1. Both sides of the equation should be squared to remove the square root sign.
x + 2 = x2 (9.50)
Step 2.
x+2 = x2 subtractx2 tobothsides

x + 2 − x2 = 0 (dividebothsidesby − 1)
(9.51)
2
−x − 2 + x = 0
x2 − x + 2 = 0
Step 3.
x2 − x + 2 (9.52)
The factors of x2 − x + 2 are (x − 2) (x + 1).

Step 4.
(x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 (9.53)
Step 5. We have
x+1=0 (9.54)
or
x−2=0 (9.55)
Therefore, x = −1 or x = 2. √
Step 6. Substitute x = −1 into the original equation x + 2 = x:
LHS = (−1) + 2
p
√
= 1
= 1 (9.56)
but
RHS = (−1)
105
Therefore LHS6=RHS. The sides of an equation must always balance, a potential solution that does
not balance the equation is not valid. In this case the equation does not balance.
Therefore x 6= −1. √
Now substitute x=2 into original equation x + 2 = x:
√
LHS = 2+2
√
= 4
= 2 (9.57)
and
RHS = 2
Therefore LHS = RHS
Therefore
√ x = 2 is the only valid solution
Step 7. x + 2 = x for x = 2 only.
Step 1. The equation is in the required form, with a = 1.
Step 2. You need the factors of 1 and 4 so that the middle term is +3 So the factors are:
(x − 1) (x + 4)
Step 3.
x2 + 3x − 4 = (x − 1) (x + 4) = 0 (9.58)
Therefore x=1 or x = −4.

Step 4. Therefore the solutions are x=1 or x = −4.

Step 1. There is a common factor: -2. Therefore, divide both sides of the equation by -2.
−2x2 + 4x − 2 = 0
(9.59)
2
x − 2x + 1 = 0
Step 2. The middle term is negative. Therefore, the factors are (x − 1) (x − 1)
If we multiply out (x − 1) (x − 1), we get x2 − 2x + 1.
Step 3.
x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1) (x − 1) = 0 (9.60)
In this case, the quadratic is a perfect square, so there is only one solution for x: x = 1.
Step 4. The root of 0 = −2x2 + 4x − 2 is x = 1.
Step 1. All terms are written with the same base.
2x = 21 (9.61)
Step 2.
x=1 (9.62)
Step 3.
LHS = 2x
= 21
= 2
(9.63)
RHS = 21
= 2
= LHS
Step 4.
x=1 (9.64)
x
is the solution to 2 = 2.
Step 1.
2x+4 = 42x
2x+4 = 22(2x) (9.65)
x+4 4x
2 = 2
Step 2.
x + 4 = 4x (9.66)
Step 3.
x+4 = 4x
x − 4x = −4
−3x = −4 (9.67)
−4
x = −3
4
x = 3
Step 4.
LHS = 2x+4
2( 3 +4)
4
=
16
= 23
1
= 216 3
RHS = 42x
42( 3 )
4
= (9.68)
8
= 43
1
= 48 3
13
8
= 22
1
= 216 3
= LHS
107
Step 5.
4
x= (9.69)
3
is the solution to 2x+4 = 42x .
Step 1.
−r > 2 − 6
(9.70)
−r > − 4
Step 2. When you multiply by a minus sign, the direction of the inequality changes.
r<4 (9.71)
r<4
bc
Step 3. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 9.9

Step 1.
4q + 3 < 2 (q + 3)
(9.72)
4q + 3 < 2q + 6
Step 2.
4q + 3 < 2q + 6
4q − 2q < 6−3 (9.73)
2q < 3
Step 3.
2q < 3 Dividebothsidesby2
(9.74)
3
q < 2
3
q< 2
bc
Step 4. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 9.10

Step 1.
5−3≤ x+3−3 <8−3

(9.75)
2≤ x <5
2≤x<5
b bc
Step 2. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 9.11

Step 1. For the rst equation:
4y + 3x = 100
4y = 100 − 3x (9.76)
3
y = 25 − 4x
and for the second equation:
4y − 19x = 12
4y = 19x + 12 (9.77)
19
y = 4 x +3
Figure 9.12
Step 2. The graphs intersect at (4, 22).

109
Step 3.
x = 4
(9.78)
y = 22

Step 1.
Step 2.
4y + 3x = 100
3x = 100 − 4y (9.79)
100−4y
x = 3
Step 3.
100−4y
4y − 19 = 12

3
12y − 19 (100 − 4y) = 36
12y − 1900 + 76y = 36 (9.80)
88y = 1936
y = 22
Step 4.
100−4(22)
x = 3
100−88
= 3
(9.81)
12
= 3
= 4
Step 5.
4 (22) + 3 (4) = 88 + 12 = 100

(9.82)
4 (22) − 19 (4) = 88 − 76 = 12

Step 1. The number of bicycles and the number of tricycles are required.
Step 2. If b is the number of bicycles and t is the number of tricycles, then:
b+t = 7
(9.83)
2b + 3t = 19
Step 3.
b = 7−t
Intosecondequation : 2 (7 − t) + 3t = 19
14 − 2t + 3t = 19
(9.84)
t = 5
Intofirstequation : b = 7−5
= 2
Step 4.
2+5 = 7
(9.85)
2 (2) + 3 (5) = 4 + 15 = 19
Step 1. Let the cost of one ruler be x rand and the cost of one pen be y rand.
Step 2.
3x + 2y = 21
(9.86)
x+y = 8
Step 3. First solve the second equation for y:
y =8−x (9.87)
and substitute the result into the rst equation:
3x + 2 (8 − x) = 21
3x + 16 − 2x = 21 (9.88)
x = 5
therefore
y = 8−5
(9.89)
y = 3
Step 4. One ruler costs R 5,00 and one pen costs R 3,00.

Step 1. Let the price of a chocolate milkshake be x and the price of a fruitshake be y.
Price number Total
Fruit y 3 3y
Chocolate x 5 5x
Table 9.5
Step 2.
3y + 5x = 78 (9.90)
y =x+2
Step 3.
3 (x + 2) + 5x = 78
3x + 6 + 5x = 78
8x = 72
x = 9 (9.91)
y = x+2
= 9+2
= 11
Step 4. One chocolate milkshake costs R 9,00 and one Fruitshake costs R 11,00
Chapter 10
Functions and graphs - Grade 10 1
10.1 Introduction to Functions and Graphs

Functions are mathematical building blocks for designing machines, predicting natural disasters, curing
diseases, understanding world economies and for keeping aeroplanes in the air. Functions can take input
from many variables, but always give the same answer, unique to that function. It is the fact that you always
get the same answer from a set of inputs that makes functions special.
A major advantage of functions is that they allow us to visualise equations in terms of a graph. A graph
is an accurate drawing of a function and is much easier to read than lists of numbers. In this chapter we will
learn how to understand and create real valued functions, how to read graphs and how to draw them.
Despite their use in the problems facing humanity, functions also appear on a day-to-day level, so they
are worth learning about. A function is always dependent on one or more variables, like time, distance or a
more abstract quantity.
10.2 Functions and Graphs in the Real-World

Some typical examples of functions you may already have met include:-
• how much money you have, as a function of time. You never have more than one amount of money
at any time because you can always add everything to give one number. By understanding how your
money changes over time, you can plan to spend your money sensibly. Businesses nd it very useful to
plot the graph of their money over time so that they can see when they are spending too much. Such
observations are not always obvious from looking at the numbers alone.
• the temperature is a very complicated function because it has so many inputs, including; the time of
day, the season, the amount of clouds in the sky, the strength of the wind, where you are and many
more. But the important thing is that there is only one temperature when you measure it in a specic
place. By understanding how the temperature is eected by these things, you can plan for the day.
• where you are is a function of time, because you cannot be in two places at once! If you were to plot
the graphs of where two people are as a function of time, if the lines cross it means that the two people
meet each other at that time. This idea is used in logistics, an area of mathematics that tries to plan
where people and items are for businesses.
• your weight is a function of how much you eat and how much exercise you do, but everybody has a
dierent function so that is why people are all dierent sizes.
111
112 CHAPTER 10. FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS - GRADE 10
10.3 Recap
The following should be familiar.
10.3.1 Variables and Constants

In Review of past work (Section 1.4: Letters and Arithmetic), we were introduced to variables and constants.
To recap, a variable can take any value in some set of numbers, so long as the equation is consistent. Most
often, a variable will be written as a letter.
A constant has a xed value. The number 1 is a constant. Sometimes letters are used to represent
constants, as they are easier to work with.
10.3.1.1 Investigation : Variables and Constants

In the following expressions, identify the variables and the constants:
1. 2x2 = 1
2. 3x + 4y = 7
3. y = −5
x
4. y = 7x − 2
10.3.2 Relations and Functions

In earlier grades, you saw that variables can be related to each other. For example, Alan is two years older
than Nathan. Therefore the relationship between the ages of Alan and Nathan can be written as A = N + 2,
where A is Alan's age and N is Nathan's age.
In general, a relation is an equation which relates two variables. For example, y = 5x and y 2 + x2 = 5
are relations. In both examples x and y are variables and 5 is a constant, but for a given value of x the value
of y will be very dierent in each relation.
Besides writing relations as equations, they can also be represented as words, tables and graphs. Instead
of writing y = 5x, we could also say y is always ve times as big as x. We could also give the following
table:
x y = 5x
2 10
6 30
8 40
13 65
15 75
Table 10.1
10.3.2.1 Investigation : Relations and Functions

Complete the following table for the given functions:
113
x y=x y = 2x y =x+2
1
50
100
Table 10.2
10.3.3 The Cartesian Plane

When working with real valued functions, our major tool is drawing graphs. In the rst place, if we have
two real variables, x and y , then we can assign values to them simultaneously. That is, we can say let x be 5
and y be 3. Just as we write let x = 5 for let x be 5, we have the shorthand notation let (x, y) = (5, 3)
for let x be 5 and y be 3. We usually think of the real numbers as an innitely long line, and picking a
number as putting a dot on that line. If we want to pick two numbers at the same time, we can do something
similar, but now we must use two dimensions. What we do is use two lines, one for x and one for y, and
rotate the one for y, as in Figure 10.1. We call this the Cartesian plane.
Figure 10.1: The Cartesian plane is made up of an x−axis (horizontal) and a y−axis (vertical).
10.3.4 Drawing Graphs

In order to draw the graph of a function, we need to calculate a few points. Then we plot the points on the
Cartesian Plane and join the points with a smooth line.
Assume that we were investigating the properties of the function f (x) = 2x. We could then consider all
the points (x; y) such that y = f (x), i.e.y = 2x. For example, (1; 2) , (2, 5; 5) , and (3; 6) would all be such
points, whereas (3; 5) would not since 5 6= 2 × 3. If we put a dot at each of those points, and then at every
115
similar one for all possible values of x, we would obtain the graph shown in Figure 10.2
Figure 10.2: Graph of f (x) = 2x
The form of this graph is very pleasing it is a simple straight line through the middle of the plane. The
technique of plotting, which we have followed here, is the key element in understanding functions.
10.3.4.1 Investigation : Drawing Graphs and the Cartesian Plane

Plot the following points and draw a smooth line through them. (-6; -8),(-2; 0), (2; 8), (6; 16)
10.3.5 Notation used for Functions

Thus far you would have seen that we can use y = 2x to represent a function. This notation however gets
confusing when you are working with more than one function. A more general form of writing a function is
to write the function as f (x), where f is the function name and x is the independent variable. For example,
f (x) = 2x and g (t) = 2t + 1 are two functions.
Both notations will be used in this book.
Exercise 10.1: Function notation (Solution on p. 149.)

If f (n) = n2 − 6n + 9, nd f (k − 1) in terms of k.
Exercise 10.2: Function notation (Solution on p. 149.)
If f (x) = x2 − 4, calculate b if f (b) = 45.
10.3.5.1 Recap
1. Guess the function in the form y = ... that has the values listed in the table.
x 1 2 3 40 50 600 700 800 900 1000
y 1 2 3 40 50 600 700 800 900 1000
Table 10.3
2
x 1 2 3 40 50 600 700 800 900 1000
y 2 4 6 80 100 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Table 10.4
3
x 1 2 3 40 50 600 700 800 900 1000
y 10 20 30 400 500 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Table 10.5
4
4. On a Cartesian plane, plot the following points: (1;2), (2;4), (3;6), (4;8), (5;10). Join the points. Do
5
you get a straight line? Click here for the solution
2
5. If f (x) = x + x , write out:
a. f (t)
b. f (a)
c. f (1)
d. f (3)
6
6. If g (x) = x and f (x) = 2x, write out:
a. f (t) + g (t)
b. f (a) − g (a)
c. f (1) + g (2)
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxO>
3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxc>
4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxx>
5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxa>
6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxC>
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d. f (3) + g (s)
7
7. A car drives by you on a straight highway. The car is travelling 10 m every second. Complete
the table below by lling in how far the car has travelled away from you after 5, 10 and 20 sec-
onds.
Time (s) 0 1 2 5 10 20
Distance (m) 0 10 20
Table 10.6
Use the values in the table and draw a graph of distance on the y -axis and time on the x-axis. Click
8
here for the solution
10.4 Characteristics of Functions - All Grades

There are many characteristics of graphs that help describe the graph of any function. These properties will
be described in this chapter and are:
1. dependent and independent variables

2. domain and range
3. intercepts with axes
4. turning points
5. asymptotes
6. lines of symmetry
7. intervals on which the function increases/decreases
8. continuous nature of the function
Some of these words may be unfamiliar to you, but each will be clearly described. Examples of these
properties are shown in Figure 10.3.

8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxr>
Figure 10.3: (a) Example graphs showing the characteristics of a function. (b) Example graph showing
asymptotes of a function. The asymptotes are shown as dashed lines.
10.4.1 Dependent and Independent Variables

Thus far, all the graphs you have drawn have needed two values, an x-value and a y -value. The y -value is
usually determined from some relation based on a given or chosen x-value. These values are given special
names in mathematics. The given or chosen x-value is known as theindependent variable, because its value
can be chosen freely. The calculated y -value is known as the dependent variable, because its value depends
on the chosen x-value.
10.4.2 Domain and Range

The domain of a relation is the set of all the x values for which there exists at least one y value according
to that relation. The range is the set of all the y values, which can be obtained using at least one x value.
If the relation is of height to people, then the domain is all living people, while the range would be about
0,1 to 3 metres no living person can have a height of 0m, and while strictly it's not impossible to be taller
than 3 metres, no one alive is. An important aspect of this range is that it does not contain all the numbers
between 0,1 and 3, but at most six billion of them (as many as there are people).
119
As another example, suppose x and y are real valued variables, and we have the relation y = 2x . Then
for any value of x, there is a value of y, so the domain of this relation is the whole set of real numbers.
However, we know that no matter what value of x we choose, 2x can never be less than or equal to 0. Hence
the range of this function is all the real numbers strictly greater than zero.
These are two ways of writing the domain and range of a function, set notation and interval notation.
Both notations are used in mathematics, so you should be familiar with each.
10.4.2.1 Set Notation

A set of certain x values has the following form:
x : conditions, moreconditions (10.1)
We read this notation as the set of all x values where all the conditions are satised. For example, the set
of all positive real numbers can be written as {x : x ∈ R, x > 0} which reads as the set of all x values where
x is a real number and is greater than zero.
10.4.2.2 Interval Notation

Here we write an interval in the form ' lower bracket, lower number, comma, upper number, upper bracket'.
We can use two types of brackets, square ones [; ] or round ones (; ). A square bracket means including the
number at the end of the interval whereas a round bracket means excluding the number at the end of the
interval. It is important to note that this notation can only be used for all real numbers in an interval. It
cannot be used to describe integers in an interval or rational numbers in an interval.
So if x is a real number greater than 2 and less than or equal to 8, then x is any number in the interval
(2; 8] (10.2)
It is obvious that 2 is the lower number and 8 the upper number. The round bracket means 'excluding 2',
since x is greater than 2, and the square bracket means 'including 8' as x is less than or equal to 8.
10.4.3 Intercepts with the Axes

The intercept is the point at which a graph intersects an axis. The x-intercepts are the points at which the
graph cuts the x-axis and the y -intercepts are the points at which the graph cuts the y -axis.
In Figure 10.3(a), the A is the y -intercept and B, C and F are x-intercepts.
You will usually need to calculate the intercepts. The two most important things to remember is that
at the x-intercept, y = 0 y -intercept, x = 0.
and at the
For example, calculate the intercepts of y = 3x + 5. For the y -intercept, x = 0. Therefore the y -intercept
is yint = 3 (0) + 5 = 5. For the x-intercept, y = 0. Therefore the x-intercept is found from 0 = 3xint + 5,
5
giving xint = − .
3
10.4.4 Turning Points

Turning points only occur for graphs of functions whose highest power is greater than 1. For example, graphs
of the following functions will have turning points.
f (x) = 2x2 − 2
g (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x − 2 (10.3)
2 4
h (x) = 3x −2
There are two types of turning points: a minimal turning point and a maximal turning point. A minimal
turning point is a point on the graph where the graph stops decreasing in value and starts increasing in value
and a maximal turning point is a point on the graph where the graph stops increasing in value and starts
decreasing. These are shown in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: (a) Maximal turning point. (b) Minimal turning point.
In Figure 10.3(a), E is a maximal turning point and D is a minimal turning point.
10.4.5 Asymptotes
An asymptote is a straight or curved line, which the graph of a function will approach, but never touch.
In Figure 10.3(b), the y -axis and line h are both asymptotes as the graph approaches both these lines,
but never touches them.
10.4.6 Lines of Symmetry

Graphs look the same on either side of lines of symmetry. These lines may include the x- and y- axes. For
example, in Figure 10.5 is symmetric about the y -axis. This is described as the axis of symmetry. Not every
graph will have a line of symmetry.
121
Figure 10.5: Demonstration of axis of symmetry. The y-axis is an axis of symmetry, because the graph
looks the same on both sides of the y-axis.
10.4.7 Intervals on which the Function Increases/Decreases

In the discussion of turning points, we saw that the graph of a function can start or stop increasing or
decreasing at a turning point. If the graph in Figure 10.3(a) is examined, we nd that the values of the
graph increase and decrease over dierent intervals. We see that the graph increases (i.e. that the y -values
increase) from -∞ to point E, then it decreases (i.e. the y -values decrease) from point E to point D and then
it increases from point D to +∞.
10.4.8 Discrete or Continuous Nature of the Graph

A graph is said to be continuous if there are no breaks in the graph. For example, the graph in Figure 10.3(a)
can be described as a continuous graph, while the graph in Figure 10.3(b) has a break around the asymptotes
which means that it is not continuous. In Figure 10.3(b), it is clear that the graph does have a break in it
around the asymptote.
10.4.8.1 Domain and Range

1. The domain of the function f (x) = 2x + 5 is -3; -3; -3; 0. Determine the range of f. Click here for the
9
solution
2. If g (x) = −x2 + 5 and x is between - 3 and 3, determine:
a. the domain of g (x)

b. the range of g (x)
10
3. On the following graph label:
a. the x-intercept(s)
b. the y -intercept(s)
9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxY>
10 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxg>
c. regions where the graph is increasing

d. regions where the graph is decreasing
Figure 10.6
11
4. On the following graph label:
a. the x-intercept(s)
b. the y -intercept(s)
123
c. regions where the graph is increasing

d. regions where the graph is decreasing
Figure 10.7
12
10.5 Graphs of Functions

x + q
10.5.1 Functions of the form y = ax + q

Functions with a general form of y = ax + q are called straight line functions. In the equation, y = ax + q , a
and q are constants and have dierent eects on the graph of the function. The general shape of the graph
of functions of this form is shown in Figure 10.8 for the function f (x) = 2x + 3.
Figure 10.8: Graph of f (x) = 2x + 3
10.5.1.1 Investigation : Functions of the Form y = ax + q

1. On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs:
a. a (x) = x − 2
b. b (x) = x − 1
c. c (x) = x
d. d (x) = x + 1
e. e (x) = x + 2
Use your results to deduce the eect of dierent values of q on the resulting graph.
a. f (x) = −2 · x
b. g (x) = −1 · x
c. h (x) = 0 · x
d. j (x) = 1 · x
e. k (x) = 2 · x
Use your results to deduce the eect of dierent values of a on the resulting graph.
You may have that the value of a aects the slope of the graph. As a increases, the slope of the graph
increases. If a>0 then the graph increases from left to right (slopes upwards). If a<0 then the graph
increases from right to left (slopes downwards). For this reason, a is referred to as the slope or gradient of
a straight-line function.
You should have also found that the value of q aects where the graph passes through the y -axis. For
this reason, q is known as the y-intercept.
125
These dierent properties are summarised in Table 10.7.
a>0
q>0
Figure 10.9
q<0
Figure 10.11
Table 10.7: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form y = ax + q .

For f (x) = ax + q , the domain is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x ∈ R for which f (x) is undened.
f (x) = ax + q is also {f (x) : f (x) ∈ R} because there is no value of f (x) ∈ R for which
The range of
f (x) is undened.
For example, the domain of g (x) = x − 1 is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x ∈ R for which
g (x) is undened. The range of g (x) is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ R}.
10.5.1.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = ax + q , the details of calculating the intercepts with the x and y axis are
given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows:
y = ax + q
yint = a (0) + q (10.4)
= q
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = x − 1 is given by setting x=0 to get:
g (x) = x−1
yint = 0−1 (10.5)
= −1
The x-intercepts are calculated as follows:
y = ax + q
0 = a · xint + q
(10.6)
a · xint = −q
xint = − aq
For example, the x-intercepts of g (x) = x − 1 is given by setting y=0 to get:
g (x) = x−1
0 = xint − 1 (10.7)
xint = 1
10.5.1.4 Turning Points

The graphs of straight line functions do not have any turning points.
10.5.1.5 Axes of Symmetry

The graphs of straight-line functions do not, generally, have any axes of symmetry.
10.5.1.6 Sketching Graphs of the Form f (x) = ax + q

In order to sketch graphs of the form, f (x) = ax + q , we need to determine three characteristics:
1. sign of a
2. y -intercept
3. x-intercept
Only two points are needed to plot a straight line graph. The easiest points to use are the x-intercept (where
the line cuts the x-axis) y -intercept.
and the
For example, sketch the graph of g (x) = x − 1. Mark the intercepts.
Firstly, we determine that a > 0. This means that the graph will have an upward slope.
The y -intercept is obtained by setting x = 0 and was calculated earlier to be yint = −1. The x-intercept
is obtained by setting y = 0 and was calculated earlier to be xint = 1.
127
Figure 10.13: Graph of the function g (x) = x − 1
Exercise 10.3: Drawing a straight line graph (Solution on p. 149.)

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 2
10.5.1.6.1 Intercepts
1. List the y -intercepts for the following straight-line graphs:
a. y=x
b. y =x−1
c. y = 2x − 1
d. y + 1 = 2x
13
2. Give the equation of the illustrated graph below:
13 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxT>

y
(0;3)
(4;0) x
Figure 10.14
14
3. Sketch the following relations on the same set of axes, clearly indicating the intercepts with the axes
as well as the co-ordinates of the point of interception of the graph: x + 2y − 5 = 0 and 3x − y − 1 = 0
15
10.5.2 Functions of the Form y = ax2 + q

The general shape and position of the graph of the function of the form f (x) = ax2 + q , called a parabola,
is shown in Figure 10.15. These are parabolic functions.
14 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxb>

15 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxj>
129
Figure 10.15: Graph of f (x) = x2 − 1.
10.5.2.1 Investigation : Functions of the Form y = ax2 + q

a. a (x) = −2 · x2 + 1
b. b (x) = −1 · x2 + 1
c. c (x) = 0 · x2 + 1
d. d (x) = 1 · x2 + 1
e. e (x) = 2 · x2 + 1
Use your results to deduce the eect of a.
a. f (x) = x2 − 2
b. g (x) = x2 − 1
c. h (x) = x2 + 0
d. j (x) = x2 + 1
e. k (x) = x2 + 2
Use your results to deduce the eect of q.
Complete the following table of values for the functions a to k to help with drawing the required graphs in
this activity:
x −2 −1 0 1 2
a (x)
b (x)
c (x)
d (x)
e (x)
f (x)
g (x)
h (x)
j (x)
k (x)
Table 10.8
This simulation allows you to visualise the eect of changing a and q. Note that in this simulation q =
c. Also an extra term bx has been added in. You can leave bx as 0, or you can also see what eect this has
on the graph.
Phet simulation for graphing

<equation-grapher.swf>
Figure 10.16
From your graphs, you should have found that a aects whether the graph makes a smile or a frown. If
a < 0, the graph makes a frown and if a>0 then the graph makes a smile. This is shown in Figure 10.17.
b b b b
a > 0 (a positive smile) a < 0 (a negative frown)
Figure 10.17: Distinctive shape of graphs of a parabola if a > 0 and a < 0.
You should have also found that the value of q aects whether the turning point is to the left of the
y -axis (q > 0) or to the right of the y -axis (q < 0).
These dierent properties are summarised in .
131
a>0
q>0
Figure 10.18
q<0
Figure 10.20
Table 10.9: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y = ax2 + q .

For f (x) = ax2 + q , the domain is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x ∈ R for which f (x) is undened.
2
The range of f (x) = ax + q depends on whether the value for a is positive or negative. We will consider
these two cases separately.
If a>0 then we have:
x2 ≥ 0 (Thesquareofanexpressionisalwayspositive)
ax2 ≥ 0 (Multiplicationbyapositivenumbermaintainsthenatureoftheinequality)
(10.8)
2
ax + q ≥ q
f (x) ≥ q
This tells us that for all values of x, f (x) is always greater than q . Therefore if a > 0, the range of
f (x) = ax2 + q is{f (x) : f (x) ∈ [q, ∞)}.
2
Similarly, it can be shown that if a < 0 that the range of f (x) = ax + q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, q]}.
This is left as an exercise.
For example, the domain of g (x) = x2 + 2 is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x∈R for which
g (x) is undened. The range of g (x) can be calculated as follows:
x2 ≥ 0
2
x +2 ≥ 2 (10.9)
g (x) ≥ 2
Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ [2, ∞)}.
10.5.2.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = ax2 + q , the details of calculating the intercepts with the x and y axis is given.
y = ax2 + q
2
yint = a(0) + q (10.10)
= q
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = x2 + 2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
g (x) = x2 + 2
yint = 02 + 2 (10.11)
= 2
The x-intercepts are calculated as follows:
y = ax2 + q
0 = ax2int + q
(10.12)
ax2int = −q
p q
xint = ± −a
However, (10.12) is only valid if − aq ≥ 0 which means that either q ≤ 0 or a < 0. This is consistent with
q
what we expect, since if q > 0 and a > 0 then − is negative and in this case the graph lies above the x-axis
a
q
and therefore does not intersect the x-axis. If however, q > 0 and a < 0, then −
a is positive and the graph
q
is hat shaped and should have two x-intercepts. Similarly, if q < 0 and a > 0 then −
a is also positive, and
the graph should intersect with the x-axis.
If q = 0 then we have one intercept at x = 0.
2
For example, the x-intercepts of g (x) = x + 2 is given by setting y = 0 to get:
g (x) = x2 + 2
0 = x2int + 2 (10.13)
−2 = x2int
which is not real. Therefore, the graph of g (x) = x2 + 2 does not have any x-intercepts.
10.5.2.4 Turning Points

The turning point of the function of the form f (x) = ax2 + q is given by examining the range of the function.
2
We know that if a > 0 then the range of f (x) = ax + q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ [q, ∞)} and if a < 0 then the
2
range of f (x) = ax + q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, q]}.
133
So, if a > 0, then the lowest value that f (x) can take on is q . Solving for the value of x at which f (x) = q
gives:
q = ax2tp + q
0 = ax2tp
(10.14)
0 = x2tp
xtp = 0
∴x = 0 atf (x) = q . The co-ordinates of the (minimal) turning point is therefore (0, q).
Similarly, if a < 0, then the highest value that f (x) can take on is q and the co-ordinates of the (maximal)
turning point is (0, q).
10.5.2.5 Axes of Symmetry

There is one axis of symmetry for the function of the form f (x) = ax2 + q that passes through the turning
point. Since the turning point lies on the y -axis, the axis of symmetry is the y -axis.
10.5.2.6 Sketching Graphs of the Form f (x) = ax2 + q

In order to sketch graphs of the form, f (x) = ax2 + q , we need to determine ve characteristics:
1. sign of a
2. domain and range
3. turning point
4. y -intercept
5. x-intercept
For example, sketch the graph ofg (x) = − 21 x2 − 3. Mark the intercepts, turning point and axis of symmetry.
Firstly, we determine that a < 0. This means that the graph will have a maximal turning point.
The domain of the graph is {x : x ∈ R} because f (x) is dened for all x ∈ R. The range of the graph is
determined as follows:
x2 ≥ 0
− 12 x2 ≤ 0
(10.15)
− 21 x2 − 3 ≤ −3
∴ f (x) ≤ −3
Therefore the range of the graph is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, −3]}.
Using the fact that the maximum value that f (x) achieves is -3, then the y -coordinate of the turning
point is -3. The x-coordinate is determined as follows:
− 21 x2 − 3 = −3
− 12 x2 −3+3 = 0
− 12 x2 = 0
(10.16)
1
Dividebothsidesby − 2 : x2 = 0
Takesquarerootofbothsides : x = 0
∴ x = 0
The coordinates of the turning point are: (0; −3).
The y -intercept is obtained by setting x = 0. This gives:
2
yint = − 12 (0) − 3
= − 12 (0) − 3 (10.17)
= −3
The x-intercept is obtained by setting y = 0. This gives:
0 = − 12 x2int − 3
3 = − 21 x2int
(10.18)
−3 · 2 = x2int
−6 = x2int
which is not real. Therefore, there are no x-intercepts which means that the function does not cross or even
touch the x-axis at any point.
We also know that the axis of symmetry is the y -axis.
Finally, we draw the graph. Note that in the diagram only the y-intercept is marked. The graph has
a maximal turning point (i.e. makes a frown) as determined from the sign of a, there are no x-intercepts
and the turning point is that same as the y-intercept. The domain is all real numbers and the range is
{f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, −3]}.
135
Figure 10.22: Graph of the function f (x) = − 12 x2 − 3
The following video shows one method of graphing parabolas. Note that in this video the term vertex is
used in place of turning point. The vertex and the turning point are the same thing.
Khan academy video on graphing parabolas - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/TgKBc3Igx1I&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 10.23
10.5.2.6.1 Parabolas
1. Show that if a<0 that the range of f (x) = ax2 + q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞; q]}. Click here for the
16
solution
2. Draw the graph of the function y = −x2 + 4 showing all intercepts with the axes. Click here for the
17
solution
3. Two parabolas are drawn: g : y = ax2 + p and h : y = bx2 + q .
y
g
23
(-4; 7) (4; 7)
x
3
h
-9
Figure 10.24
a. Find the values of a and p.

b. Find the values of b and q .
2 2
c. Find the values of x for which ax + p ≥ bx + q .
d. For what values of x is g increasing ?
18
10.5.3 Functions of the Form y = xa + q

Functions of the form
a
y=
x + q are known as hyperbolic functions. The general form of the graph of this
function is shown in Figure 10.25.
16 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxD>

17 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxW>
18 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxZ>
137
Figure 10.25: General shape and position of the graph of a function of the form f (x) = a
x
+ q.
10.5.3.1 Investigation : Functions of the Form y = xa + q

a. a (x) = −2x +1
b. b (x) = −1x +1
c. c (x) = x0 + 1
d. d (x) = +1x +1
e. e (x) = +2x +1
1
a. f (x) = x −2
1
b. g (x) = x −1
1
c. h (x) = x +0
1
d. j (x) = x +1
1
e. k (x) = x +2
You should have found that the value of a aects whether the graph is located in the rst and third quadrants
of Cartesian plane.
You should have also found that the value of q aects whether the graph lies above the x-axis (q > 0) or
below the x-axis (q < 0).
These dierent properties are summarised in Table 10.10. The axes of symmetry for each graph are
shown as a dashed line.
a>0
q>0
Figure 10.26
q<0
Figure 10.28
a
Table 10.10: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y= x + q. The axes
of symmetry are shown as dashed lines.

a
For y= x + q, the function is undened for x = 0. The domain is therefore {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0}.
139
a
We see that y= x +q can be re-written as:
a
y = x +q
a
y−q = x
(10.19)
Ifx 6= 0then : (y − q) (x) = a
a
x = y−q
a
This shows that the function is undened at y = q. Therefore the range of f (x) = x +q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈
(−∞; q) ∪ (q; ∞)}.
2
For example, the domain of g (x) = x +2 is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0} because g (x) is undened at x = 0.
2
y = x +2
2
(y − 2) = x
(10.20)
Ifx 6= 0then : x (y − 2) = 2
2
x = y−2
We see that g (x) is undened at y = 2. Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞; 2) ∪ (2; ∞)}.
10.5.3.3 Intercepts
a
For functions of the form, y=
+ q , the intercepts with
x the x and y axis is calculated by setting x=0 for
the y -intercept and by setting y = 0 for the x-intercept.
a
y = x +q
(10.21)
a
yint = 0 +q
which is undened because we are dividing by 0. Therefore there is no y -intercept.
2
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = x +2 is given by setting x = 0 to get:
2
y = x +2
(10.22)
2
yint = 0 +2
which is undened.
The x-intercepts are calculated by setting y=0 as follows:
a
y = x +q
a
0 = xint +q
a
xint = −q (10.23)
a = −q (xint )
a
xint = −q
2
For example, the x-intercept of g (x) = x +2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
2
y = x +2
2
0 = xint + 2
2
−2 = xint
(10.24)
−2 (xint ) = 2
2
xint = −2
xint = −1
10.5.3.4 Asymptotes
a
There are two asymptotes for functions of the form
x + q . Just a reminder, an asymptote is a straight or
y=
curved line, which the graph of a function will approach, but never touch. They are determined by examining
the domain and range.
We saw that the function was undened at x=0 and for y = q. Therefore the asymptotes are x=0 and
y = q.
For example, the domain of g (x) = x2 + 2 is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0} because g (x) is undened at x = 0. We
also see that g (x) is undened at y = 2. Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞; 2) ∪ (2; ∞)}.
From this we deduce that the asymptotes are at x = 0 and y = 2.
10.5.3.5 Sketching Graphs of the Form f (x) = xa + q

a
In order to sketch graphs of functions of the form, f (x) = x + q, we need to determine four characteristics:
1. domain and range

2. asymptotes
3. y -intercept
4. x-intercept
2
For example, sketch the graph of g (x) =
x + 2. Mark the intercepts and asymptotes.
We have determined the domain to be {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0} and the range to be {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞; 2) ∪
(2; ∞)}. Therefore the asymptotes are at x = 0 and y = 2.
There is no y -intercept and the x-intercept is xint = −1.
141
Figure 10.30: Graph of g (x) = 2

x
+ 2.
10.5.3.5.1 Graphs
1. Using graph (grid) paper, draw the graph of xy = −6.
a. Does the point (-2; 3) lie on the graph ? Give a reason for your answer.
b. Why is the point (-2; -3) not on the graph ?
c. If the x-value of a point on the drawn graph is 0,25, what is the corresponding y -value ?
d. What happens to the y -values as the x-values become very large ?
e. With the line y = −x as line of symmetry, what is the point symmetrical to (-2; 3) ?
19
2. Draw the graph of xy = 8.
a. How would the graph y = 83 + 3 compare with that of xy = 8? Explain your answer fully.
b. Draw the graph of y = 83 + 3 on the same set of axes.
20
10.5.4 Functions of the Form y = ab(x) + q

Functions of the form y = ab(x) + q are known as exponential functions. The general shape of a graph of a
function of this form is shown in Figure 10.31.
19 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxB>

20 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxK>
Figure 10.31: General shape and position of the graph of a function of the form f (x) = ab(x) + q.
10.5.4.1 Investigation : Functions of the Form y = ab(x) + q

a. a (x) = −2 · b(x) + 1
b. b (x) = −1 · b(x) + 1
c. c (x) = −0 · b(x) + 1
d. d (x) = −1 · b(x) + 1
e. e (x) = −2 · b(x) + 1
a. f (x) = 1 · b(x) − 2
b. g (x) = 1 · b(x) − 1
c. h (x) = 1 · b(x) + 0
d. j (x) = 1 · b(x) + 1
e. k (x) = 1 · b(x) + 2
You should have found that the value of a aects whether the graph curves upwards (a > 0) or curves
downwards (a < 0).
You should have also found that the value of q aects the position of the y -intercept.
143
a>0
q>0
Figure 10.32
q<0
Figure 10.34
Table 10.11: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y = ab(x) + q .

For y = ab(x) + q , the function is dened for all real values of x. Therefore, the domain is {x : x ∈ R}.
(x)
The range of y = ab + q is dependent on the sign of a.
If a > 0 then:
b(x) ≥ 0
a · b(x) ≥ 0
(10.25)
(x)
a·b +q ≥ q
f (x) ≥ q
Therefore, if a > 0, then the range is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ [q; ∞)}.
If a<0 then:
b(x) ≤ 0
(x)
a·b ≤ 0
(10.26)
(x)
a·b +q ≤ q
f (x) ≤ q
145
Therefore, if a < 0, then the range is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞; q]}.

For example, the domain of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2 is {x : x ∈ R}. For the range,
2x ≥ 0
x
3·2 ≥ 0 (10.27)
x
3·2 +2 ≥ 2
Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ [2; ∞)}.
10.5.4.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = ab(x) + q , the intercepts with the x and y axis is calculated by setting x=0
y -intercept and by
for the setting y = 0 for the x-intercept.
y = ab(x) + q
yint = ab(0) + q
(10.28)
= a (1) + q
= a+q
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
y = 3 · 2x + 2
yint = 3 · 20 + 2
(10.29)
= 3+2
= 5
The x-intercepts are calculated by setting y=0 as follows:
y = ab(x) + q
0 = ab(xint ) + q
(10.30)
ab(xint ) = −q
b(xint ) = − aq
Which only has a real solution if either a < 0 or q < 0. Otherwise, the graph of the function of form
y = ab(x) + q does not have any x-intercepts.
For example, the x-intercept of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2 is given by setting y=0 to get:
y = 3 · 2x + 2
0 = 3 · 2xint + 2
(10.31)
−2 = 3 · 2xint
−2
2xint = 3
which has no real solution. Therefore, the graph of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2 does not have any x-intercepts.
10.5.4.4 Asymptotes
There is one asymptote for functions of the form y = ab(x) + q . The asymptote can be determined by
examining the range.
We saw that the function was undened at y = q . Therefore the asymptote is y = q .
g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2 is {x : x ∈ R} because g (x) is dened for all x.
For example, the domain of We also see
that g (x) is undened at y = 2. Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞; 2) ∪ (2; ∞)}.
From this we deduce that the asymptote is at y = 2.
10.5.4.5 Sketching Graphs of the Form f (x) = ab(x) + q

In order to sketch graphs of functions of the form, f (x) = ab(x) + q , we need to calculate determine four
characteristics:
1. domain and range

2. y -intercept
3. x-intercept
For example, sketch the graph of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2. Mark the intercepts.
We have determined the domain to be {x : x ∈ R} and the range to be {g (x) : g (x) ∈ [2, ∞)}.
The y -intercept is yint = 5 and there are no x-intercepts.
Figure 10.36: Graph of g (x) = 3 · 2x + 2.

147
10.5.4.5.1 Exponential Functions and Graphs

1 x
y = 2x y=

1. Draw the graphs of and on the same set of axes.
2
a. Is the x-axis and asymptote or and axis of symmetry to both graphs ? Explain your answer.
b. Which graph is represented by the equation y = 2−x ? Explain your answer.
x 1 x
2 =

c. Solve the equation graphically and check that your answer is correct by using substi-
2
tution.
d. Predict how the graph y = 2.2x will compare to y = 2x and then draw the graph of y = 2.2x on
the same set of axes.
21
2. The curve of the exponential function f in the accompanying diagram cuts the y-axis at the point A(0;
1) and B(2; 4) is on f.
B(2,4)
4 b
1 b
A(0,1)
0 1 2 x
Figure 10.37
a. Determine the equation of the function f.

b. Determine the equation of h, the function of which the curve is the reection of the curve of f in
the x-axis.
c. Determine the range of h.
22

1. Given the functions f (x) = −2x2 − 18 and g (x) = −2x + 6
a. Draw f and g on the same set of axes.
b. Calculate the points of intersection of f and g.
c. Hence use your graphs and the points of intersection to solve for x when:
i. f (x) > 0
f (x)
ii.
g(x) ≤ 0
21 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxk>
d. Give the equation of the reection of f in the x-axis.

23
x
2. After a ball is dropped, the rebound height of each bounce decreases. The equation y = 5·(0, 8) shows
the relationship between x, the number of bounces, and y, the height of the bounce, for a certain ball.
What is the approximate height of the fth bounce of this ball to the nearest tenth of a unit ?
24
3. Mark had 15 coins in ve Rand and two Rand pieces. He had 3 more R2-coins than R5-coins. He
wrote a system of equations to represent this situation, letting x represent the number of ve rand
coins and y represent the number of two rand coins. Then he solved the system by graphing.
a. Write down the system of equations.

b. Draw their graphs on the same set of axes.
c. What is the solution?
25

24 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m35968/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lxX>
149

Step 1.
f (n) = n2 − 6n + 9
(10.32)
2
f (k − 1) = (k − 1) − 6 (k − 1) + 9
Step 2.
= k 2 − 2k + 1 − 6k + 6 + 9
(10.33)
= k 2 − 8k + 16
We have now simplied the function in terms of k.
Step 1.
f (b) = b2 − 4
(10.34)
u≈f (b) = 45
Step 2.
b2 − 4 = 45
b2 − 49 = 0 (10.35)
b = +7 or −7

Step 1. To nd the intercept on the y-axis, let x=0
y = 2 (0) + 2
(10.36)
= 2
Step 2. For the intercept on the x-axis, let y=0
0 = 2x + 2
2x = −2 (10.37)
x = −1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
+2
−2
2x
y=
Step 3.
Figure 10.38
Chapter 11
Average Gradient 1
11.1 Introduction
The gradient of a straight line graph is calculated as:
y2 − y1
(11.1)
x2 − x1
for two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the graph.
We can now dene the average gradient between two points even if they are dened by a function which
is not a straight line, (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) as:
y2 − y1
. (11.2)
x2 − x1
This is the same as (11.1).
11.2 Straight-Line Functions

11.2.1 Investigation : Average Gradient - Straight Line Function
Fill in the table by calculating the average gradient over the indicated intervals for the function f (x) = 2x−2.
Note that (x1 ;y1 ) is the co-ordinates of the rst point and (x2 ;y2 ) is the co-ordinates of the second point. So
for AB, (x1 ;y1 ) is the co-ordinates of point A and (x2 ;y2 ) is the co-ordinates of point B.
y2 −y1
x1 x2 y1 y2 x2 −x1
A-B
A-C
B-C
Table 11.1
151
152 CHAPTER 11. AVERAGE GRADIENT
y C(2,2)
2 b
1
B(1,0)
b
x
−1 1
−1
−2
−3
A(-1,-4)
b
−4
Figure 11.1
What do you notice about the gradients over each interval?

The average gradient of a straight-line function is the same over any two intervals on the function.
11.3 Parabolic Functions

11.3.1 Investigation : Average Gradient - Parabolic Function
Fill in the table by calculating the average gradient over the indicated intervals for the function f (x) = 2x−2:
y2 −y1
x1 x2 y1 y2 x2 −x1
A-B
B-C
C-D
D-E
E-F
F-G
Table 11.2
What do you notice about the average gradient over each interval? What can you say about the average
gradients between A and D compared to the average gradients between D and G?
153
Figure 11.2
The average gradient of a parabolic function depends on the interval and is the gradient of a straight line
that passes through the points on the interval.
For example, in Figure 11.3 the various points have been joined by straight-lines. The average gradients
between the joined points are then the gradients of the straight lines that pass through the points.
Figure 11.3: The average gradient between two points on a curve is the gradient of the straight line
that passes through the points.
11.3.2 Method: Average Gradient

Given the equation of a curve and two points (x1 , x2 ):
1. Write the equation of the curve in the form y = ....

2. Calculate y1 by substituting x1 into the equation for the curve.
3. Calculate y2 by substituting x2 into the equation for the curve.
4. Calculate the average gradient using:
y2 − y1
(11.3)
x2 − x1
Exercise 11.1: Average Gradient (Solution on p. 156.)
Find the average gradient of the curve y = 5x2 − 4 between the points x = −3 and x=3

1. An object moves according to the function d = 2t2 + 1 , where d is the distance in metres and t the
time in seconds. Calculate the average speed of the object between 2 and 3 seconds. The speed is the
155
gradient of the function d Click here for the solution

2
2. Given: f (x) = x3 − 6x. Determine the average gradient between the points where x=1 and x = 4.
3
2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31490/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llP>

3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31490/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llE>

Step 1. Label the points as follows:
x1 = −3 (11.4)
x2 = 3 (11.5)
to make it easier to calculate the gradient.

Step 2. We use the equation for the curve to calculate the y -value at x1 and x2 .
y1 = 5x21 − 4
2
= 5(−3) − 4
(11.6)
= 5 (9) − 4
= 41
y2 = 5x22 − 4
2
= 5(3) − 4
(11.7)
= 5 (9) − 4
= 41
Step 3.
y2 −y1 41−41
x2 −x1 = 3−(−3)
0
= 3+3
(11.8)
0
= 6
= 0
Step 4. The average gradient between x = −3 and x=3 on the curve y = 5x2 − 4 is 0.
Chapter 12
Geometry Basics 1
12.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to recap some of the ideas that you learned in geometry and trigonometry in
earlier grades. You should feel comfortable with the work covered in this chapter before attempting to move
onto the Grade 10 Geometry Chapter (Chapter 13) or the Grade 10 Trigonometry Chapter (Chapter 14).
This chapter revises:
1. Terminology: quadrilaterals, vertices, sides, angles, parallel lines, perpendicular lines, diagonals, bisec-
tors, transversals
2. Similarities and dierences between quadrilaterals
3. Properties of triangles and quadrilaterals
4. Congruence
5. Classication of angles into acute, right, obtuse, straight, reex or revolution
6. Theorem of Pythagoras which is used to calculate the lengths of sides of a right-angled triangle
12.2 Points and Lines

The two simplest objects in geometry are points and lines.
A point is a coordinate that marks a position in space (on a number line, on a plane or in three dimensions
or even more) and is denoted by a dot. Points are usually labelled with a capital letter. Some examples of
how points can be represented are shown in Figure 12.1.
A line is a continuous set of coordinates in space and can be thought of as being formed when many
points are placed next to each other. Lines can be straight or curved, but are always continuous. This
means that there are never any breaks in the lines. The endpoints of lines are labelled with capital letters.
Examples of two lines are shown in Figure 12.1.
157
158 CHAPTER 12. GEOMETRY BASICS
b
S
b
R B C
b
Q
b
P D E
Some points Some lines
Figure 12.1: Examples of some points (labelled P , Q, R and S ) and some lines (labelled BC and DE
).
Lines are labelled according to the start point and end point. We call the line that starts at a point A
and ends at a point B , AB . Since the line from point B to point A is the same as the line from point A to
point B, we have that AB = BA.
The length of the line between points A and B is AB . So if we say AB = CD we mean that the length
of the line between A and B is equal to the length of the line between C and D.
A line is measured in units of length. Some common units of length are listed in Table 12.1.
Unit of Length Abbreviation

kilometre km
metre m
centimetre cm
millimetre mm
Table 12.1: Some common units of length and their abbreviations.
12.3 Angles
An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point. The point at which two lines meet is known as
a vertex. Angles are labelled with a ^ called a caret on a letter. For example, in Figure 12.2 the angle
^
is at B. Angles can also be labelled according to the line segments that make up the angle. For example, in
Figure 12.2 the angle is made up when line segments CB and BA meet. So, the angle can be referred to as
∠CBA or ∠ABC . The ∠ symbol is a short method of writing angle in geometry.
Angles are measured in degrees which is denoted by
◦
, a small circle raised above the text in the same
fashion as an exponent (or a superscript).
note: Angles can also be measured in radians. At high school level you will only use degrees, but
if you decide to take maths at university you will learn about radians.
159
B
A
^
Figure 12.2: Angle labelled as B , ∠CBA or ∠ABC
^ ^
Figure 12.3: Examples of angles. A=E , even though the lines making up the angles are of dierent
lengths.
12.3.1 Measuring angles

The size of an angle does not depend on the length of the lines that are joined to make up the angle, but
depends only on how both the lines are placed as can be seen in Figure 12.3. This means that the idea of
length cannot be used to measure angles. An angle is a rotation around the vertex.
12.3.1.1 Using a Protractor

A protractor is a simple tool that is used to measure angles. A picture of a protractor is shown in Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4: Diagram of a protractor.
Method:
Using a protractor
1. Place the bottom line of the protractor along one line of the angle so that the other line of the angle
points at the degree markings.
2. Move the protractor along the line so that the centre point on the protractor is at the vertex of the
two lines that make up the angle.
3. Follow the second line until it meets the marking on the protractor and read o the angle. Make sure
◦
you start measuring at 0 .
12.3.1.1.1 Measuring Angles : Use a protractor to measure the following angles:
Figure 12.5
161
12.3.2 Special Angles

What is the smallest angle that can be drawn? The gure below shows two lines (CA and AB ) making an
angle at a common vertex A. If line CA is rotated around the common vertex A, down towards line AB ,
then the smallest angle that can be drawn occurs when the two lines are pointing in the same direction.
◦
This gives an angle of 0 . This is shown in Figure 12.6
C swing point C down

towards AB
0◦ C C b
180◦
A B A B A B
Figure 12.6
If line CA is now swung upwards, any other angle can be obtained. If line CA and line AB point in
◦
opposite directions (the third case in Figure 12.6) then this forms an angle of 180 .
◦
tip: If three points A, B and C lie on a straight line, then the angle between them is 180 .
◦
Conversely, if the angle between three points is 180 , then the points lie on a straight line.
An angle of 90
◦
is called a right angle. A right angle is half the size of the angle made by a straight line
◦
(180 ). We say CA is perpendicular to AB or CA ⊥ AB . An angle twice the size of a straight line is 360 .
◦
◦ ◦
An angle measuring 360 looks identical to an angle of 0 , except for the labelling. We call this a revolution.
90◦ 360◦
B A b
B
A C
Figure 12.7: An angle of 90◦ is known as a right angle.
12.3.2.1 Angles larger than 360◦

◦
All angles larger than 360 also look like we have seen them before. If you are given an angle that is larger
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
than 360 , continue subtracting 360 from the angle, until you get an answer that is between 0 and 360 .
◦
Angles that measure more than 360 are largely for mathematical convenience.
tip:
• Acute angle : An angle ≥ 0◦ < 90◦ .

and
• Right angle : An angle
◦
measuring 90 .
• Obtuse angle : An angle > 90◦ and < 180◦ .

• Straight angle : An angle measuring 180◦ .
• Reex angle : An angle > 180◦ and < 360◦ .
• Revolution: An angle measuring 360◦ .
These are simply labels for angles in particular ranges, shown in Figure 12.8.
reflex
C
C A
b
acute obtuse C
A b
B A b
Figure 12.8: Three types of angles dened according to their ranges.
◦
Once angles can be measured, they can then be compared. For example, all right angles are 90 , therefore
all right angles are equal and an obtuse angle will always be larger than an acute angle.
The following video summarizes what you have learnt so far about angles.
Khan Academy video on angles - 1

<http://www.youtube.com/v/2439OIVBgPg&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.9
Note that for high school trigonometry you will be using degrees, not radians as stated in the video.
Radians are simply another way to measure angles. At university level you will learn about radians.
12.3.3 Special Angle Pairs

^ ^
In Figure 12.10, straight lines AB and CD intersect at point X, forming four angles: X1 or ∠BXD , X2 or
^ ^
∠BXC , X3 or ∠CXA and X4 or ∠AXD .
163
C 2 B
X
3 b
A 4 D
^ ^ ^ ^
Figure 12.10: Two intersecting straight lines with vertical angles X1 , X3 and X2 , X4 .
The table summarises the special angle pairs that result.
Special Angle Property Example

! !
^ ^ ^ ^
adjacent angles share a common vertex and a X1 , X2 , X2 , X3 ,
common side ! !
^ ^ ^ ^
X3 , X4 , X4 , X1
^ ^ ^ ^
linear pair (adjacent angles on a adjacent angles formed by two in- X1 + X2 = 180◦ ; X2 + X3 =
straight line) tersecting straight lines that by ^ ^ ^
denition add to 180
◦ 180◦ ; X3 + X4 = 180◦ ; X4
^
+ X1 = 180◦
^ ^ ^ ^
opposite angles angles formed by two intersecting X1 =X3 ; X2 =X4
straight lines that share a vertex
but do not share any sides
◦
supplementary angles two angles whose sum is 180
◦
complementary angles two angles whose sum is 90
Table 12.2
tip: The opposite angles formed by the intersection of two straight lines are equal. Adjacent angles
on a straight line are supplementary.
The following video summarises what you have learnt so far

<http://www.youtube.com/v/zrqzG6xKa1A&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.11
12.3.4 Parallel Lines intersected by Transversal Lines

Two lines intersect if they cross each other at a point. For example, at a trac intersection two or more
streets intersect; the middle of the intersection is the common point between the streets.
Parallel lines are lines that never intersect. For example the tracks of a railway line are parallel. We
wouldn't want the tracks to intersect as that would be catastrophic for the train!
Figure 12.12
All these lines are parallel to each other. Notice the pair of arrow symbols for parallel.
note: A section of the Australian National Railways Trans-Australian line is perhaps one of the
longest pairs of man-made parallel lines.
Longest Railroad Straight (Source: www.guinnessworldrecords.com) The Australian

National Railways Trans-Australian line over the Nullarbor Plain, is 478 km (297 miles)
dead straight, from Mile 496, between Nurina and Loongana, Western Australia, to Mile
793, between Ooldea and Watson, South Australia.
A transversal of two or more lines is a line that intersects these lines. For example in Figure 12.13, AB and
CD are two parallel lines and EF is a transversal. We say AB k CD. The properties of the angles formed
by these intersecting lines are summarised in the table below.
h
g
C D
a
b
d
c
A B
e
f
E
Figure 12.13: Parallel lines intersected by a transversal

165
Name of angle Denition Examples Notes

interior angles the angles that lie in Figure 12.13 a, b, the word interior means inside
inside the parallel c and d are interior
lines angles
adjacent angles the angles share in Figure 12.13 (a,

a common vertex h) are adjacent and
point and line so are (h, g ); (g , b);
(b, a)
exterior angles the angles that lie in Figure 12.13 e, f , the word exterior means outside
outside the parallel g and h are exterior
lines angles
alternate interior the interior angles in Figure 12.13

angles that lie on oppo- (a, c) and (b,d) are
site sides of the pairs of alternate
transversal interior angles, Figure 1
a = c, b = d
co-interior angles co-interior angles in Figure 12.13

on the same side that lie on the (a,d) and (b,c)
same side of the are interior angles
transversal on the same side. Figure 1
a + d = 180◦ ,
b + c = 180◦
corresponding an- the angles on the in Figure 12.13

gles same side of the (a, e), (b, f ), (c, g)
transversal and the and (d, h) are pairs
same side of the of corresponding Figure 1
parallel lines angles. a = e,
b = f , c = g, d = h
Table 12.3
The following video summarises what you have learnt so far

<http://www.youtube.com/v/NLg6hfoKKlE&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.17
note: If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the two interior angles on the same
◦
side less than two right angles (180 ), the two straight lines, if produced indenitely, will meet on
that side. This postulate can be used to prove many identities about the angles formed when two
parallel lines are cut by a transversal.
tip:
1.If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, the sum of the co-interior angles on the
◦
same side of the transversal is 180 .
2.If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, the alternate interior angles are equal.
3.If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, the corresponding angles are equal.
4.If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that any pair of co-interior angles on the same
side is supplementary, then the two lines are parallel.
5.If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that a pair of alternate interior angles are
equal, then the lines are parallel.
6.If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that a pair of alternate corresponding angles
are equal, then the lines are parallel.
12.3.4.1 Angles
1. Use adjacent, corresponding, co-interior and alternate angles to ll in all the angles labeled with letters
in the diagram below:
a 30◦
b c
d e
g
f
Figure 12.18
2
2. Find all the unknown angles in the gure below:
E
A
1
1
B 30◦ 2
F
3
1
2
C 3
2
1 G
3
100◦
D 1 H
Figure 12.19
2 http://www.fhsst.org/lxF
167
3
3. Find the value of x in the gure below:
A D
X
4x
x
Y
x+20◦
Z
B C
Figure 12.20
4
4. Determine whether there are pairs of parallel lines in the following gures.
O Q
S
115◦
1
2
A 3
55◦
2
B1 3
P T
a. R
Figure 12.21
3 http://www.fhsst.org/lxL
4 http://www.fhsst.org/lxM
M O
K
Q 1 2 2
45◦ R
◦ 3 1 3
35 L
b. P
Figure 12.22
T 85◦ 2
Y
3 1
U
M 2 1 N
V
3
85◦
c. L
Figure 12.23
5
5. If AB is parallel to CD and AB is parallel to EF, prove that CD is parallel to EF:
C
D
A B
E F
Figure 12.24
6
5 http://www.fhsst.org/lxe
6 http://www.fhsst.org/lxt
169
The following video shows some problems with their solutions

<http://www.youtube.com/v/kqU_ymV581c&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.25
12.4 Polygons
If you take some lines and join them such that the end point of the rst line meets the starting point of the
last line, you will get a polygon. Each line that makes up the polygon is known as a side. A polygon has
interior angles. These are the angles that are inside the polygon. The number of sides of a polygon equals
the number of interior angles. If a polygon has equal length sides and equal interior angles, then the polygon
is called a regular polygon. Some examples of polygons are shown in Figure 12.26.
Figure 12.26: Examples of polygons. They are all regular, except for the one marked *
12.4.1 Triangles
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. There are four types of triangles: equilateral, isosceles, right-angled and
scalene. The properties of these triangles are summarised in Table 12.4.
Name Diagram
equilateral
C
b
60◦
60◦ 60◦
b b
A B
Figure 12.27
isosceles
C
b
b b
A B
Figure 12.28
continued on next page

171
right-angled
B
b
hy
po
te
nu
se
b b
A C
Figure 12.29
scalene (non-syllabus)
Figure 12.30
Table 12.4: Types of Triangles
If the corners of a triangle are denoted A, B and C - then we talk about [U+25B5]ABC .
12.4.1.1 Properties of Triangles

12.4.1.1.1 Investigation : Sum of the angles in a triangle
1. Draw on a piece of paper a triangle of any size and shape
^ ^ ^
2. Cut it out and label the angles A, B and C on both sides of the paper
3. Draw dotted lines as shown and cut along these lines to get three pieces of paper
^ ^ ^
4. Place them along your ruler as shown to see that A + B + C = 180◦
B C
Figure 12.31
B
C
A
Figure 12.32
◦
tip: The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 .
Figure 12.33: In any triangle, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180◦
tip: Any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. An
exterior angle is formed by extending any one of the sides.
173
Figure 12.34: In any triangle, any exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles.
12.4.1.2 Congruent Triangles
Label Description Diagram

RHS If the hypotenuse and one side of
a right-angled triangle are equal
to the hypotenuse and the respec-
tive side of another triangle, then
the triangles are congruent.
Figu
SSS If three sides of a triangle are

equal in length to the same sides
of another triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent
Figu

SAS If two sides and the included an-

gle of one triangle are equal to the
same two sides and included an-
gle of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.
Figu
AAS If one side and two angles of one

triangle are equal to the same one
side and two angles of another tri-
angle, then the two triangles are
congruent.
Figu
Table 12.5
12.4.1.3 Similar Triangles
Description Diagram
If all three pairs of corresponding angles of two tri-
angles are equal, then the triangles are similar.
a
a
b c b c
Figure 12.39
If all pairs of corresponding sides of two triangles

are in proportion, then the triangles are similar.
x y q
p
z r
Figure 12.40
x y z
p = q = r
Table 12.6
175
12.4.1.4 The theorem of Pythagoras
A
c
b
c
B a C
Figure 12.41
^
If [U+25B5]ABC is right-angled (B = 90◦ ) then b2 = a2 + c2
^
Converse: If b2 = a2 + c2 , then [U+25B5]ABC is right-angled (B = 90◦ ).
12.4.1.4.1 Triangles
1. Calculate the unknown variables in each of the following gures. All lengths are in mm.
a) N N
N b) c) x
x o
30
y
y 36o 68o x 68o
P O P O P O 68o
N N
d) 19 x e)
116 R
P O x
15
76
P 20 O
f) N S
R N R
g) 15
12 14
x x
5
P 9
y
P O S 21 T
O
Figure 12.42
7
2. State whether or not the following pairs of triangles are congruent or not. Give reasons for your
answers. If there is not enough information to make a descision, say why.
7 http://www.fhsst.org/lxz
177
B E B
a) b)
A
A C D
D
B E
c) B
d) E
C C
A D
B D
e) A
b
C
A b
Figure 12.43
8
12.4.2 Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any polygon with four sides. The basic quadrilaterals are the trapezium, parallelogram,
rectangle, rhombus, square and kite.
Name of quadrilateral Figure
trapezium Figure 12.44
parallelogram Figure 12.45
rectangle Figure 12.46
rhombus Figure 12.47
square Figure 12.48
kite Figure 12.49
8 http://www.fhsst.org/lxU
Table 12.7: Examples of quadrilaterals.
12.4.2.1 Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel opposite sides. It may also be called a trapezoid. A
special type of trapezium is the isosceles trapezium, where one pair of opposite sides is parallel, the other pair
of sides is equal in length and the angles at the ends of each parallel side are equal. An isosceles trapezium
has one line of symmetry and its diagonals are equal in length.
isosceles trapezium
Figure 12.44: Examples of trapeziums.
12.4.2.2 Parallelogram
A trapezium with both sets of opposite sides parallel is called a parallelogram. A summary of the properties
of a parallelogram is:
• Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.

• Both pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
• Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
• Both diagonals bisect each other (i.e. they cut each other in half ).
179
Figure 12.45: An example of a parallelogram.
12.4.2.3 Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram that has all four angles equal to 90◦ . A summary of the properties of a
rectangle is:

• Both pairs of opposite sides are of equal length.
• Both diagonals bisect each other.
• Diagonals are equal in length.
• All angles at the corners are right angles.
D b b
C
/ /
b
/ /
A b b
B
Figure 12.46: Example of a rectangle.
12.4.2.4 Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram that has all four sides of equal length. A summary of the properties of a
rhombus is:

• All sides are equal in length.
• Both diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
• Diagonals of a rhombus bisect both pairs of opposite angles.
Figure 12.47: An example of a rhombus. A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides equal.
12.4.2.5 Square
A square ◦
is a rhombus that has all four angles equal to 90 .
A summary of the properties of a square is:

• All sides are equal in length.
• All angles are equal to 90◦ .
• Both diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
• Diagonals are equal in length.
• Diagonals bisect both pairs of opposite angles (ie. all 45◦ ).
181
Figure 12.48: An example of a square. A square is a rhombus with all angles equal to 90◦ .
12.4.2.6 Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
A summary of the properties of a kite is:
• Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal in length.

• One pair of opposite angles are equal where the angles are between unequal sides.
• One diagonal bisects the other diagonal and one diagonal bisects one pair of opposite angles.
• Diagonals intersect at right-angles.
Figure 12.49: An example of a kite.
12.4.3 Other polygons

There are many other polygons, some of which are given in the table below.
Sides Name
5 pentagon
6 hexagon
7 heptagon
8 octagon
10 decagon
15 pentadecagon
Table 12.8: Table of some polygons and their number of sides.

183
Figure 12.50: Examples of other polygons.
12.4.4 Extra
12.4.4.1 Angles of Regular Polygons
You can calculate the size of the interior angle of a regular polygon by using:
^ n−2
A= × 180◦ (12.1)
n
^
where n is the number of sides and A is any angle.
12.4.4.2 Areas of Polygons

1
1. Area of triangle:
2 × base × perpendicular height
h
base
Figure 12.51
1
2. Area of trapezium:
2 × (sum of k (parallel) sides) × perpendicular height
Figure 12.52
3. Area of parallelogram and rhombus: base × perpendicular height
Figure 12.53
4. Area of rectangle: length × breadth
b
l
Figure 12.54
5. Area of square: length of side × length of side
Figure 12.55
2
6. Area of circle: π x radius
Figure 12.56
185
Khan Academy video on area and perimeter

<http://www.youtube.com/v/kqqmJiJez6o&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.57
Khan Academy video on area of a circle

<http://www.youtube.com/v/tCrDyJsSFok&rel=0&hl=en_US&feature=player_embedded&version=3>
Figure 12.58
12.4.4.2.1 Polygons
1. For each case below, say whether the statement is true or false. For false statements, give a counter-
example to prove it:
a. All squares are rectangles

b. All rectangles are squares
c. All pentagons are similar
d. All equilateral triangles are similar
e. All pentagons are congruent
f. All equilateral triangles are congruent
9
2 2
2. Find the areas of each of the given gures - remember area is measured in square units (cm , m ,
2
mm ).
9 http://www.fhsst.org/lxJ
a) b) c)
b
5cm 5cm
10cm
10cm 10cm
d) 7cm 3cm e) f)
6cm
10cm
5cm
12cm 8cm 5cm

g) h) 16cm
10cm 15cm
9cm 21cm
Figure 12.59
10
12.5 Exercises
1. Find all the pairs of parallel lines in the following gures, giving reasons in each case.
A B
62◦
62◦
a. D C
Figure 12.60
10 http://www.fhsst.org/lxS
187
G H
120◦
60◦
K 60◦ L
b.
Figure 12.61
N
M 137 ◦
57◦
123◦ P
c. O
Figure 12.62
11
2. Find angles a, b, c and d in each case, giving reasons.
P
b
Q
a
d c
S 73◦
a. R
Figure 12.63
11 http://www.fhsst.org/lxh
K
100◦
A a B
L
b
C D
M
c
E F
d N
b. O
Figure 12.64
45◦
T
50◦ c
d a
U
V
b
c. X
Figure 12.65
12
3. Which of the following claims are true? Give a counter-example for those that are incorrect.
a. All equilateral triangles are similar.

b. All regular quadrilaterals are similar.
c. In any [U+25B5]ABC with ∠ABC = 90◦ we have AB 3 + BC 3 = CA3 .
d. All right-angled isosceles triangles with perimeter 10 cm are congruent.
e. All rectangles with the same area are similar.
13
4. Say which of the following pairs of triangles are congruent with reasons.
A D
F
C E
a. B
Figure 12.66
12 http://www.fhsst.org/laq
13 http://www.fhsst.org/lal
189
G
J L
I K
b. H
Figure 12.67
P
N
Q R
c. M O
Figure 12.68
U
R
S T
d. Q
Figure 12.69
14
5. For each pair of gures state whether they are similar or not. Give reasons.
14 http://www.fhsst.org/lai
(a) A P
√ 45◦
2 2 2
3
45◦
B C
Q 3 R
(b) 7,5 J
H W X
5 5
L K Z Y
Figure 12.70
15
12.5.1 Challenge Problem

◦
1. Using the gure below, show that the sum of the three angles in a triangle is 180 . Line DE is parallel
to BC .
15 http://www.fhsst.org/la3
191
Figure 12.71
16
16 http://www.fhsst.org/laO
Chapter 13
Geometry - Grade 10 1
13.1 Introduction
Geometry (Greek: geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the eld of knowledge dealing with spatial
relationships. It was one of the two elds of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers.
In modern times, geometric concepts have become very complex and abstract and are barely recognizable as
the descendants of early geometry.
13.1.1 Research Project : History of Geometry

Work in pairs or groups and investigate the history of the foundation of geometry. Describe the various
stages of development and how the following cultures used geometry to improve their lives. This list should
serve as a guideline and provide the minimum requirement, there are many other people who contributed to
the foundation of geometry.
1. Ancient Indian geometry (c. 3000 - 500 B.C.)
a. Harappan geometry
b. Vedic geometry
2. Classical Greek geometry (c. 600 - 300 B.C.)
a. Thales and Pythagoras

b. Plato
3. Hellenistic geometry (c. 300 B.C - 500 C.E.)
a. Euclid
b. Archimedes
13.2 Right Prisms and Cylinders

In this section we study how to calculate the surface areas and volumes of right prisms and cylinders. A right
prism is a polygon that has been stretched out into a tube so that the height of the tube is perpendicular to
the base. A square prism has a base that is a square and a triangular prism has a base that is a triangle.
193
194 CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRY - GRADE 10
square prism triangular prism cylinder
Figure 13.1: Examples of a right square prism, a right triangular prism and a cylinder.
It is relatively simple to calculate the surface areas and volumes of prisms.
13.2.1 Surface Area

The term surface area refers to the total area of the exposed or outside surfaces of a prism. This is easier to
understand if you imagine the prism as a solid object.
If you examine the prisms in Figure 13.1, you will see that each face of a prism is a simple polygon. For
example, the triangular prism has two faces that are triangles and three faces that are rectangles. Therefore,
in order to calculate the surface area of a prism you simply have to calculate the area of each face and add
it up. In the case of a cylinder the top and bottom faces are circles, while the curved surface attens into a
rectangle.
Surface Area of Prisms
Calculate the area of each face and add the areas together to get the surface area. To do this you need to
determine the correct shape of each and every face of the prism and then for each one determine the surface
area. The sum of the surface areas of all the faces will give you the total surface area of the prism.
13.2.1.1 Discussion : surface areas

In pairs, study the following prisms and the adjacent image showing the various surfaces that make up the
prism. Explain to your partner, how each relates to the other.
195
Rectangular Prism L
h h L h h
b L b
h
L h
b L b
L
S.A. = 2[(L × b) + (b × h) + (L × b)]
Triangular Prism
H
H S
S
h H b
H S
S
H
h
S.A. = 2( 21 b × h) + 2(H × S) + (H × b)
b
Cylinder
b
r
h
b
r h
2π r
S.A. = 2πr2 + 2πrh
Figure 13.2
13.2.1.2 Surface areas

1. Calculate the surface area in each of the following:
1. 2.
7 cm
10 cm
6 cm 8 cm
8 cm hint: diameter = 2 × radius
3.
10 cm
10 cm
20 cm
8 cm hint: use Pythagoras to find height of triangular face.
Figure 13.3
2
2. If a litre of paint covers an area of 2m2 , how much paint does a painter need to cover:
a. A rectangular swimming pool with dimensions 4m × 3m × 2, 5m, inside walls and oor only.
b. The inside walls and oor of a circular reservoir with diameter 4m and height 2, 5m
2,5m
4m
Figure 13.4
3
2 http://www.fhsst.org/lqH
3 http://www.fhsst.org/lq6
197
13.2.2 Volume
The volume of a right prism is calculated by multiplying the area of the base by the height. So, for a square
prism of side length a and height h the volume is a × a × h = a2 h.
Volume of Prisms
Calculate the area of the base and multiply by the height to get the volume of a prism.
13.2.2.1 Volume
1. Write down the formula for each of the following volumes:
a) b)
b
L H
h
b
c)
r b
Figure 13.5
4
2. Calculate the following volumes:
4 http://www.fhsst.org/lqF
a) b)
10 cm
7 cm
6 cm 20 cm
5 cm
10 cm
c)
10 cm
5 cm
Figure 13.6
5
3. A cube is a special prism that has all edges equal. This means that each face is a square. An example
of a cube is a die. Show that for a cube with side length a, the surface area is 6a2 and the volume is
3
a .
Figure 13.7
6
Now, what happens to the surface area if one dimension is multiplied by a constant? For example, how does
the surface area change when the height of a rectangular prism is divided by 2?
5 http://www.fhsst.org/lqL
6 http://www.fhsst.org/lqM
199
Figure 13.8: Rectangular prisms

Figure 13.9: Rectangular prisms 2
Exercise 13.1: Scaling the dimensions of a prism (Solution on p. 232.)

The size of a prism is specied by the length of its sides. The prism in the diagram has sides of
lengths L, b and h.
b
L
Figure 13.10
1. Consider enlarging all sides of the prism by a constant factor x, where x > 1. Calculate the
volume and surface area of the enlarged prism as a function of the factor x and the volume
of the original volume.
2. In the same way as above now consider the case, where 0 < x < 1. Now calculate the
reduction factor in the volume and the surface area.
When the length of one of the sides is multiplied by a constant the eect is to multiply the original volume
by that constant, as for the example in Figure 13.8.
13.3 Polygons
Polygons are all around us. A stop sign is in the shape of an octagon, an eight-sided polygon. The honeycomb
of a beehive consists of hexagonal cells. The top of a desk is a rectangle.
In this section, you will learn about similar polygons.
13.3.1 Similarity of Polygons

13.3.1.1 Discussion : Similar Triangles
Fill in the table using the diagram and then answer the questions that follow.
^ ^
AB ...cm
DE = ...cm = ... A=...◦ D...◦
^ ^
BC ...cm
EF = ...cm = ... B =...◦ E =...◦
^ ^
AC ...cm
DF = ...cm = ... C ...◦ F =...◦
201
Table 13.1
Figure 13.11
AB BC AC
1. What can you say about the numbers you calculated for:
DE , EF , DF ?
^ ^
2. What can you say about A and D?
^ ^
3. What can you say about B and E?
^ ^
4. What can you say about C and F?
If two polygons are similar, one is an enlargement of the other. This means that the two polygons will have
the same angles and their sides will be in the same proportion.
We use the symbol ≡ to mean is similar to.
Denition 13.1: Similar Polygons
Two polygons are similar if:
1. their corresponding angles are equal, and

2. the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.
Exercise 13.2: Similarity of Polygons (Solution on p. 232.)

Show that the following two polygons are similar.
Figure 13.12
tip: All squares are similar.
Exercise 13.3: Similarity of Polygons (Solution on p. 233.)

If two pentagons ABCDE and GHJKL are similar, determine the lengths of the sides and angles
labelled with letters:
D J
4,5 3
6 1,5
120◦ C K
◦ ◦
98 f 92 H
E 40◦ c
b d
a e g
L 2 G
A 3 B
Figure 13.13
13.3.1.2 Similarity of Equilateral Triangles

Working in pairs, show that all equilateral triangles are similar.
203
13.3.1.3 Polygons-mixed
1. Find the values of the unknowns in each case. Give reasons.
Figure 13.14
7
2. Find the angles and lengths marked with letters in the following gures:
7 http://www.fhsst.org/liD
a) b) c)
X Y
a
WY=130
a 10◦
XZ=60
70 b
a
W Z d
120◦
35 c
b
d) e)
5
f)
a a 15 b−2
4
6 a+3
9
b 100
Figure 13.15
8
13.4 Analytical Geometry

13.4.1 Introduction
Analytical geometry, also called co-ordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry, is the
study of geometry using the principles of algebra, and the Cartesian co-ordinate system. It is concerned with
dening geometrical shapes in a numerical way, and extracting numerical information from that representa-
tion. Some consider that the introduction of analytic geometry was the beginning of modern mathematics.
13.4.2 Distance between Two Points

One of the simplest things that can be done with analytical geometry is to calculate the distance between
two points. Distance is a number that describes how far apart two point are. For example, point P has
co-ordinates (2, 1) and point Q has co-ordinates (−2, −2). How far apart are points P and Q? In the gure,
this means how long is the dashed line?
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205
Figure 13.16
In the gure, it can be seen that the length of the line P R is 3 units and the length of the line QR is
four units. However, the [U+25B5]P QR, has a right angle at R. Therefore, the length of the side P Q can
be obtained by using the Theorem of Pythagoras:
P Q2 = P R2 + QR2
∴ P Q2 = 3 2 + 42 (13.1)
√
∴ PQ = 32 + 42 =5
The length of PQ is the distance between the points P and Q.
In order to generalise the idea, assume A is any point with co-ordinates (x1 ; y1 ) and B is any other point
with co-ordinates (x2 ; y2 ).
Bb
(x2 ; y2 )
(x1 ; y1 ) b
A C
Figure 13.17
The formula for calculating the distance between two points is derived as follows. The distance between
the points A and B is the length of the line AB . According to the Theorem of Pythagoras, the length of
AB is given by:
p
AB = AC 2 + BC 2 (13.2)
However,
BC = y2 − y1
(13.3)
AC = x2 − x1
Therefore,
√
AB = AC 2 + BC 2
q (13.4)
2 2
= (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
Therefore, for any two points,
q (x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 ), the formula is:
2 2
Distance= (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
Using the formula, distance between the points P and Q with co-ordinates (2;1) and (-2;-2) is then found
as follows. Let the co-ordinates of point P be (x1 ; y1 ) and the co-ordinates of point Q be (x2 ; y2 ). Then the
distance is:
q
2 2
Distance = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
q
2 2
= (2 − (−2)) + (1 − (−2))
q
2 2
= (2 + 2) + (1 + 2)
(13.5)
√
= 16 + 9
√
= 25
= 5
The following video provides a summary of the distance formula.
207
Khan academy video on distance formula

<http://www.youtube.com/v/nyZuite17Pc&rel=0>
Figure 13.18
13.4.3 Calculation of the Gradient of a Line

The gradient of a line describes how steep the line is. In the gure, line PT is the steepest. Line PS is less
steep than PT but is steeper than P R, and line PR is steeper than P Q.
Figure 13.19
The gradient of a line is dened as the ratio of the vertical distance to the horizontal distance. This can
be understood by looking at the line as the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. Then the gradient is the
ratio of the length of the vertical side of the triangle to the horizontal side of the triangle. Consider a line
between a point A with co-ordinates (x1 ; y1 ) and a point B with co-ordinates (x2 ; y2 ).
Bb
(x2 ; y2 )
(x1 ; y1 ) b
A C
Figure 13.20
y2 −y1
Gradient=
x2 −x1
We can use the gradient of a line to determine if two lines are parallel or perpendicular. If the lines are
parallel (Figure 13.21a) then they will have the same gradient, i.e. mAB = mCD . If the lines are perpendicular
(Figure 13.21b) than we have: − m1AB = mCD
Figure 13.21
For example the gradient of the line between the points P and Q, with co-ordinates (2;1) and (-2;-2)
209
(Figure 13.16) is:
y2 −y1
Gradient = x2 −x1
−2−1
= −2−2
(13.6)
−3
= −4
3
= 4
The following video provides a summary of the gradient of a line.
Gradient of a line
<http://www.youtube.com/v/R948Tsyq4vA&rel=0>
Figure 13.22
13.4.4 Midpoint of a Line

Sometimes, knowing the co-ordinates of the middle point or midpoint of a line is useful. For example, what
is the midpoint of the line between point P with co-ordinates (2; 1) and point Q (−2; −2).
with co-ordinates
The co-ordinates of the midpoint of any line between any two points A and B with co-ordinates (x1 ; y1 )
and (x2 ; y2 ), is generally calculated as follows. Let the midpoint of AB be at point S with co-ordinates
(X; Y ). The aim is to calculate X and Y in terms of (x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 ).
(x2 ; y2 ) b B
(X; Y ) b S
A b (x1 ; y1 )
Figure 13.23
x1 +x2
X = 2
y1 +y2
Y = 2
(13.7)
x1 +x2 y1 +y2
S ; 2

∴ 2
Then the co-ordinates of the midpoint (S ) of the line between point P with co-ordinates (2; 1) and point Q
with co-ordinates (−2; −2) is:
x1 +x2
X = 2
−2+2
= 2
= 0
y1 +y2
Y = 2
(13.8)
−2+1
= 2
= − 12
∴ S is at 0; − 21

It can be conrmed that the distance from each end point to the midpoint is equal. The co-ordinate of the
midpoint S is (0; −0, 5).
q
2 2
PS = (x − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
q 1
2 2
= (0 − 2) + (−0.5 − 1)
q
2 2 (13.9)
= (−2) + (−1.5)
√
= 4 + 2.25
√
= 6.25
and
q
2 2
QS = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
q
2 2
= (0 − (−2)) + (−0.5 − (−2))
2 2
= (0 + 2) + (−0.5 + 2)
p
p 2 (13.10)
2
= (2) + (−1.5)
√
= 4 + 2.25
√
= 6.25
It can be seen that P S = QS as expected.
211
2
(2;1)
1 b P
−2 −1 S b 1 2
midpoint
−1
Q b
−2
(-2;-2)
Figure 13.24
The following video provides a summary of the midpoint of a line.
Khan academy video on midpoint of a line

<http://www.youtube.com/v/Ez_-RwV9WVo&rel=0>
Figure 13.25
13.4.4.1 Co-ordinate Geometry

1. In the diagram given the vertices of a quadrilateral are F(2;0), G(1;5), H(3;7) and I(7;2).
7 H(3;7)
G(1;5)
5
2
I(7;2)
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F(2;0)
-1
Figure 13.26
a. What are the lengths of the opposite sides of FGHI?

b. Are the opposite sides of FGHI parallel?
c. Do the diagonals of FGHI bisect each other?
d. Can you state what type of quadrilateral FGHI is? Give reasons for your answer.
9
2. A quadrialteral ABCD with vertices A(3;2), B(1;7), C(4;5) and D(1;3) is given.
a. Draw the quadrilateral.

b. Find the lengths of the sides of the quadrilateral.
10
3. ABCD is a quadrilateral with verticies A(0;3), B(4;3), C(5;-1) and D(-1;-1).
a. Show that:
i. AD = BC
ii. AB k DC
b. What name would you give to ABCD?

c. Show that the diagonals AC and BD do not bisect each other.
11
4. P, Q, R and S are the points (-2;0), (2;3), (5;3), (-3;-3) respectively.
a. Show that:
i. SR = 2PQ
ii. SR k PQ
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213
b. Calculate:
i. PS
ii. QR
c. What kind of a quadrilateral is PQRS? Give reasons for your answers.
5. EFGH is a parallelogram with verticies E(-1;2), F(-2;-1) and G(2;0). Find the co-ordinates of H by
using the fact that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
12
13.5 Transformations
In this section you will learn about how the co-ordinates of a point change when the point is moved hori-
zontally and vertically on the Cartesian plane. You will also learn about what happens to the co-ordinates
of a point when it is reected on the x-axis, y -axis and the line y = x.
13.5.1 Translation of a Point

When something is moved in a straight line, we say that it is translated. What happens to the co-ordinates
of a point that is translated horizontally or vertically?
13.5.1.1 Discussion : Translation of a Point Vertically

Complete the table, by lling in the co-ordinates of the points shown in the gure.
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Figure 13.27
Point x co-ordinate y co-ordinate

A
Table 13.2
What do you notice about the x co-ordinates? What do you notice about the y co-ordinates? What
would happen to the co-ordinates of point A, if it was moved to the position of point G?
When a point is moved vertically up or down on the Cartesian plane, the x co-ordinate of the point
remains the same, but the y co-ordinate changes by the amount that the point was moved up or down.
For example, in Figure 13.28 Point A is moved 4 units upwards to the position marked by G. The new
x co-ordinate of point A is the same (x=1), but the new y co-ordinate is shifted in the positive y direction
4 units and becomes y =-2+4=2. The new co-ordinates of point A are therefore G(1;2). Similarly, for point
215
B that is moved downwards by 5 units, the x co-ordinate is the same (x = −2, 5), but the y co-ordinate is
shifted in the negative y -direction by 5 units. The new y co-ordinate is therefore y =2,5 -5=-2,5.
3
b B (-2.5;2.5)
2 b
G
4 units
5 units
−2 −1 1 2
−1
−2 b A (1;-2)
b
H
−3
Figure 13.28: Point A is moved 4 units upwards to the position marked by G. Point B is moved 5 units
downwards to the position marked by H.
tip: If a point is shifted upwards, the new y co-ordinate is given by adding the shift to the old y
co-ordinate. If a point is shifted downwards, the new y co-ordinate is given by subtracting the shift
from the old y co-ordinate.
13.5.1.2 Discussion : Translation of a Point Horizontally

Complete the table, by lling in the co-ordinates of the points shown in the gure.
Figure 13.29
Point x co-ordinate y co-ordinate

A
Table 13.3
What do you notice about the x co-ordinates? What do you notice about the y co-ordinates?
What would happen to the co-ordinates of point A, if it was moved to the position of point G?
When a point is moved horizontally left or right on the Cartesian plane, the y co-ordinate of the point
remains the same, but the x co-ordinate changes by the amount that the point was moved left or right.
For example, in Figure 13.30 Point A is moved 4 units right to the position marked by G. The new y
co-ordinate of point A is the same (y =1), but the new x co-ordinate is shifted in the positive x direction 4
units and becomes x=-2+4=2. The new co-ordinate of point A at G is therefore (2;1). Similarly, for point
B that is moved left by 5 units, the y co-ordinate is the same (y = −2, 5), but the x co-ordinate is shifted in
the negative x-direction by 5 units. The new x co-ordinate is therefore x=2,5 -5=-2,5. The new co-ordinates
of point B at H is therefore (-2,5;1).
217
Figure 13.30: Point A is moved 4 units to the right to the position marked by G. Point B is moved 5
units to the left to the position marked by H.
tip: If a point is shifted to the right, the new x co-ordinate is given by adding the shift to the old
x co-ordinate. If a point is shifted to the left, the new x co-ordinate is given by subtracting the
shift from the old x co-ordinate.
13.5.2 Reection of a Point

When you stand in front of a mirror your reection is located the same distance (d) behind the mirror as
you are standing in front of the mirror.
Figure 13.31
We can apply the same idea to a point that is reected on the x-axis, the y -axis and the line y = x.
13.5.2.1 Reection on the x-axis

If a point is reected on the x-axis, then the reection must be the same distance below the x-axis as the
point is above the x-axis and vice-versa, as though it were a mirror image.
219
Figure 13.32: Points A and B are reected on the x-axis. The original points are shown with • and
the reected points are shown with ◦.
tip: When a point is reected about the x-axis, only the y co-ordinate of the point changes.
Exercise 13.4: Reection on the x-axis (Solution on p. 234.)

Find the co-ordinates of the reection of the point P, if P is reected on the x-axis. The co-ordinates
of P are (5;10).
13.5.2.2 Reection on the y-axis

If a point is reected on the y -axis, then the reection must be the same distance to the left of the y -axis as
the point is to the right of the y -axis and vice-versa.
Figure 13.33: Points A and B are reected on the y-axis. The original points are shown with • and
the reected points are shown with ◦.
tip: When a point is reected on the y -axis, only the x co-ordinate of the point changes. The y
co-ordinate remains unchanged.
Exercise 13.5: Reection on the y-axis (Solution on p. 234.)

Find the co-ordinates of the reection of the point Q, if Q is reected on the y -axis. The co-ordinates
of Q are (15;5).
13.5.2.3 Reection on the line y = x

The nal type of reection you will learn about is the reection of a point on the line y = x.
221
13.5.2.3.1 Casestudy : Reection of a point on the line y = x
3
A’ (1;2)
2 bc
b
1 b
C (-1;1) A (2;1)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
B’ (-2;-1 21 ) −1
bc
b
−2
B (-1 21 ;-2)
−3 b
D (2;-3)
Figure 13.34
Study the information given and complete the following table:
Point Reection
A (2;1) (1;2)
1 1
B (-1 ;-2) (-2;-1 )
2 2
C (-1;1)
D (2;-3)
Table 13.4
What can you deduce about the co-ordinates of points that are reected about the line y = x?
The x and y co-ordinates of points that are reected on the line y =x are swapped around, or inter-
changed. This means that the x co-ordinate of the original point becomes the y co-ordinate of the reected
point and the y co-ordinate of the original point becomes the x co-ordinate of the reected point.
3 bc
A’ (1;3)
2
1 b
A (3;1)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
b
−1
B (-2;-1)
bc
−2
B’ (-1;-2)
−3
Figure 13.35: Points A and B are reected on the line y = x. The original points are shown with •
and the reected points are shown with ◦.
tip: The x and y co-ordinates of points that are reected on the line y=x are interchanged.
Exercise 13.6: Reection on the line y = x (Solution on p. 234.)

Find the co-ordinates of the reection of the point R, if R is reected on the line y = x. The
co-ordinates of R are (-5;5).
Rules of Translation
A quick way to write a translation is to use a 'rule of translation'. For example (x; y) → (x + a; y + b)
means translate point (x;y) by moving a units horizontally and b units vertically.
So if we translate (1;2) by the rule (x; y) → (x + 3; y − 1) it becomes (4;1). We have moved 3 units right
and 1 unit down.
Translating a Region
To translate a region, we translate each point in the region.
Example
Region A has been translated to region B by the rule: (x; y) → (x + 4; y + 2)
223
(1;3) (2;3)
(1;2) (2;2)
(-3;1) (-2;1)
AA
(-3;0) (-2;0)
Figure 13.36
13.5.2.3.2 Discussion : Rules of Transformations

Work with a friend and decide which item from column 1 matches each description in column 2.
Column 1 Column 2
. (x; y) → (x; y − 3) a reection on x-y line
. (x; y) → (x − 3; y) a reection on the x axis
. (x; y) → (x; −y) a shift of 3 units left
. (x; y) → (−x; y) a shift of 3 units down
. (x; y) → (y; x) a reection on the y-axis
Table 13.5
13.5.2.3.3 Transformations
1. Describe the translations in each of the following using the rule (x;y)→ (...;...)
Figure 13.37
a. From A to B
b. From C to J
c. From F to H
d. From I to J
e. From K to L
f. From J to E
g. From G to H
13
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225
2. A is the point (4;1). Plot each of the following points under the given transformations. Give the
co-ordinates of the points you have plotted.
a. B is the reection of A in the x-axis.

b. C is the reection of A in the y-axis.
c. D is the reection of B in the line x=0.
d. E is the reection of C is the line y=0.
e. F is the reection of A in the line y= x
14
3. In the diagram, B, C and D are images of polygon A. In each case, the transformation that has been
applied to obtain the image involves a reection and a translation of A. Write down the letter of each
image and describe the transformation applied to A in order to obtain the image.
Figure 13.38
15
13.5.2.3.4 Investigation : Calculation of Volume, Surface Area and scale factors of objects
1. Look around the house or school and nd a can or a tin of any kind (e.g. beans, soup, cooldrink, paint
etc.)
2. Measure the height of the tin and the diameter of its top or bottom.
3. Write down the values you measured on the diagram below:
15 http://www.fhsst.org/lar
227
side top bottom
Figure 13.39
2
4. Using your measurements, calculate the following (in cm , rounded o to 2 decimal places):
a. the area of the side of the tin (i.e. the rectangle)

b. the area of the top and bottom of the tin (i.e. the circles)
c. the total surface area of the tin
2
5. If the tin metal costs 0,17 cents/cm , how much does it cost to make the tin?
3
6. Find the volume of your tin (in cm , rounded o to 2 decimal places).
7. What is the volume of the tin given on its label?
8. Compare the volume you calculated with the value given on the label. How much air is contained in
the tin when it contains the product (i.e. cooldrink, soup etc.)
9. Why do you think space is left for air in the tin?
10. If you wanted to double the volume of the tin, but keep the radius the same, by how much would you
need to increase the height?
11. If the height of the tin is kept the same, but now the radius is doubled, by what scale factor will the:
a. area of the side surface of the tin increase?

b. area of the bottom/top of the tin increase?

1. Using the rules given, identify the type of transformation and draw the image of the shapes.
a. (x;y)→(x+3;y-3)
6
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
Figure 13.40
b. (x;y)→(x-4;y)
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
Figure 13.41
c. (x;y)→(y;x)
229
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Figure 13.42
d. (x;y)→(-x;-y)
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Figure 13.43
16
2. PQRS is a quadrilateral with points P(0; −3) ; Q(−2;5) ; R(3;2) and S(3;2) in the Cartesian plane.
a. Find the length of QR.

b. Find the gradient of PS.
c. Find the midpoint of PR.

d. Is PQRS a parallelogram? Give reasons for your answer.
17
3. A(2;3) and B(2;6) are points in the Cartesian plane. C(a;b) is the midpoint of AB. Find the values
of a and b.
18
4. Consider: Triangle ABC with vertices A (1; 3) B (4; 1) and C (6; 4):
a. Sketch triangle ABC on the Cartesian plane.

b. Show that ABC is an isoceles triangle.
c. Determine the co-ordinates of M, the midpoint of AC.
d. Determine the gradient of AB.
e. Show that the following points are collinear: A, B and D(7;-1)
19
5. In the diagram, A is the point (-6;1) and B is the point (0;3)
Figure 13.44
a. Find the equation of line AB

b. Calculate the length of AB
c. A' is the image of A and B' is the image of B. Both these images are obtain by applying the
transformation: (x;y)→(x-4;y-1). Give the coordinates of both A' and B'
d. Find the equation of A'B'
e. Calculate the length of A'B'
f. Can you state with certainty that AA'B'B is a parallelogram? Justify your answer.
20
6. The vertices of triangle PQR have co-ordinates as shown in the diagram.
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231
Figure 13.45
a. Give the co-ordinates of P', Q' and R', the images of P, Q and R when P, Q and R are reected
in the line y=x.
b. Determine the area of triangle PQR.
21
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Step 1. The volume of a prism is given by: V =L×b×h
The surface area of the prism is given by: A = 2 × (L × b + L × h + b × h)
Step 2. If all the sides of the prism get rescaled, the new sides will be:
L' = x×L
b '
= x×b (13.11)
h '
= x×h
The new volume will then be given by:
V' = L' × b' × h'

= x×L×x×b×x×h
(13.12)
= x3 × L × b × h
= x3 × V
The new surface area of the prism will be given by:
A' = 2 × L' × b' + L' × h' + b' × h'

= 2 × (x × L × x × b + x × L × x × h + x × b × x × h)
(13.13)
= x2 × 2 × (L × b + L × h + b × h)
= x2 × A
Step 3. a. We found above that the new volume is given by: V ' = x3 × V Since x > 1, the volume of the
3
prism will be increased by a factor of x . The surface area of the rescaled prism was given by:
A' = x2 × A Again, since x > 1, the surface area will be increased by a factor of x2 . Surface areas
which are two dimensional increase with the square of the factor while volumes, which are three
dimensional, increase with the cube of the factor.
b. The answer here is based on the same ideas as above. In analogy, since here 0 < x < 1, the
volume will be reduced by a factor of x3 and the surface area will be decreased by a factor of x2
Step 1. We are required to show that the pair of polygons is similar. We can do this by showing that the ratio
of corresponding sides is equal and by showing that corresponding angles are equal.
Step 2. We are given the angles. So, we can show that corresponding angles are equal.
◦
Step 3. All angles are given to be 90 and
^ ^
A = E
^ ^
B = F
(13.14)
^ ^
C = G
^ ^
D = H
Step 4. We rst need to see which sides correspond. The rectangles have two equal long sides and two equal
short sides. We need to compare the ratio of the long side lengths of the two dierent rectangles as
well as the ratio of the short side lenghts.
233
Long sides, large rectangle values over small rectangle values:
2L
Ratio = L
(13.15)
= 2
Short sides, large rectangle values over small rectangle values:
L
Ratio =
2L
1
1
= 1 (13.16)
2
= 2
The ratios of the corresponding sides are equal, 2 in this case.
Step 5. Since corresponding angles are equal and the ratios of the corresponding sides are equal the polygons
ABCD and EFGH are similar.

Step 1. We are given that ABCDE and GHJKL are similar. This means that:
AB BC CD DE EA
= = = = (13.17)
GH HJ JK KL LG
and
^ ^
A = G
^ ^
B = H
^ ^
C = J (13.18)
^ ^
D = K
^ ^
E = L
Step 2. We are required to determine the
a. a, b, c and d, and
b. e, f and g .
Step 3. The corresponding angles are equal, so no calculation is needed. We are given one pair of sides DC
DC 4,5
and KJ that correspond. KJ = 3 = 1, 5 so we know that all sides of KJHGL are 1,5 times smaller
than ABCDE .
Step 4.
a
2 = 1, 5 ∴ a = 2 × 1, 5 = 3
b
1,5 = 1, 5 ∴ b = 1, 5 × 1, 5 = 2, 25
(13.19)
6
c = 1, 5 ∴ c = 6 ÷ 1, 5 = 4
3
d= 1,5 ∴ d=2
Step 5.
e = 92◦ (correspondstoH)
f = 120◦ (correspondstoD) (13.20)
g = 40◦ (correspondstoE)
Step 6.
a = 3
b = 2, 25
c = 4
d = 2 (13.21)
e = 92◦
f = 120◦
g = 40◦

Step 1. We are given the point P with co-ordinates (5;10) and need to nd the co-ordinates of the point if it
is reected on the x-axis.
Step 2. The point P is above the x-axis, therefore its reection will be the same distance below the x-axis as
the point P is above the x-axis. Therefore, y =-10.
For a reection on the x-axis, the x co-ordinate remains unchanged. Therefore, x=5.
Step 3. The co-ordinates of the reected point are (5;-10).

Step 1. We are given the point Q with co-ordinates (15;5) and need to nd the co-ordinates of the point if it
is reected on the y -axis.
Step 2. The point Q is to the right of the y -axis, therefore its reection will be the same distance to the left of
the y -axis as the point Q is to the right of the y -axis. Therefore, x=-15.
For a reection on the y -axis, the y co-ordinate remains unchanged. Therefore, y =5.
Step 3. The co-ordinates of the reected point are (-15;5).

Step 1. We are given the point R with co-ordinates (-5;5) and need to nd the co-ordinates of the point if it is
reected on the line y = x.
Step 2. The x co-ordinate of the reected point is the y co-ordinate of the original point. Therefore, x=5.
The y co-ordinate of the reected point is the x co-ordinate of the original point. Therefore, y =-5.
Step 3. The co-ordinates of the reected point are (5;-5).
Chapter 14
Trigonometry - Grade 10 1
14.1 Introduction
In geometry we learn about how the sides of polygons relate to the angles in the polygons, but we have
not learned how to calculate an angle if we only know the lengths of the sides. Trigonometry (pronounced:
trig-oh-nom-eh-tree) deals with the relationship between the angles and the sides of a right-angled triangle.
We will learn about trigonometric functions, which form the basis of trigonometry.
14.1.1 Investigation : History of Trigonometry

Work in pairs or groups and investigate the history of the foundation of trigonometry. Describe the various
stages of development and how the following cultures used trigonometry to improve their lives.
The works of the following people or cultures can be investigated:
1. Cultures
a. Ancient Egyptians
b. Mesopotamians
c. Ancient Indians of the Indus Valley
2. People
a. Lagadha (circa 1350-1200 BC)

b. Hipparchus (circa 150 BC)
c. Ptolemy (circa 100)
d. Aryabhata (circa 499)
e. Omar Khayyam (1048-1131)
f. Bhaskara (circa 1150)
g. Nasir al-Din (13th century)
h. al-Kashi and Ulugh Beg (14th century)
i. Bartholemaeus Pitiscus (1595)
note: You should be familiar with the idea of measuring angles from geometry but have you ever
stopped to think why there are 360 degrees in a circle? The reason is purely historical. There are
360 degrees in a circle because the ancient Babylonians had a number system with base 60. A base
is the number at which you add another digit when you count. The number system that we use
everyday is called the decimal system (the base is 10), but computers use the binary system (the
base is 2). 360 = 6 × 60 so for them it made sense to have 360 degrees in a circle.
235
236 CHAPTER 14. TRIGONOMETRY - GRADE 10
14.2 Where Trigonometry is Used

There are many applications of trigonometry. Of particular value is the technique of triangulation, which
is used in astronomy to measure the distance to nearby stars, in geography to measure distances between
landmarks, and in satellite navigation systems. GPSs (global positioning systems) would not be possible
without trigonometry. Other elds which make use of trigonometry include astronomy (and hence navigation,
on the oceans, in aircraft, and in space), music theory, acoustics, optics, analysis of nancial markets,
electronics, probability theory, statistics, biology, medical imaging (CAT scans and ultrasound), pharmacy,
chemistry, number theory (and hence cryptology), seismology, meteorology, oceanography, many physical
sciences, land surveying and geodesy, architecture, phonetics, economics, electrical engineering, mechanical
engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics, cartography, crystallography and game development.
14.2.1 Discussion : Uses of Trigonometry

Select one of the uses of trigonometry from the list given and write a 1-page report describing how trigonom-
etry is used in your chosen eld.
14.3 Similarity of Triangles

If [U+25B5]ABC is similar to [U+25B5]DEF , then this is written as:
[U+25B5]ABC ∼ [U+25B5]DEF (14.1)
C b
F b
b
B
b
E
b b
A D
Figure 14.1
Then, it is possible to deduce ratios between corresponding sides of the two triangles, such as the following:
AB DE
BC = EF
AB DE
AC = DF
(14.2)
AC DF
BC = EF
AB BC AC
DE = EF = DF
The most important fact about similar triangles ABC and DEF is that the angle at vertex A is equal to
the angle at vertex D, the angle at B is equal to the angle at E, and the angle at C is equal to the angle at
237
F.
∠A = ∠D
∠B = ∠E (14.3)
∠C = ∠F
14.3.1 Investigation : Ratios of Similar Triangles

^ ^
In your exercise book, draw three similar triangles of dierent sizes, but each with A= 30◦ ; B = 90◦ and
^
C = 60◦ . Measure angles and lengths very accurately in order to ll in the table below (round answers to
one decimal place).
A′′
A′
A 30
30
30
60 60 60
C B C ′
B ′
C ′′
B ′′
Figure 14.2
Dividing lengths of sides (Ratios)

AB AB CB
BC = AC = AC =
A' B ' A' B ' C ' B'
B' C '
= A' C '
= A' C '
=
A'' B '' A'' B '' C '' B ''
B '' C ''
= A'' C ''
= A'' C ''
=
Table 14.1
What observations can you make about the ratios of the sides?
These equal ratios are used to dene the trigonometric functions.
Note: In algebra, we often use the letter x for our unknown variable (although we can use any other
letter too, such as a, b, k , etc). In trigonometry, we often use the Greek symbol θ for an unknown angle (we
also use α,β,γ etc).
14.4 Denition of the Trigonometric Functions

We are familiar with a function of the form f (x) where f is the function and x is the argument. Examples
are:
f (x) = 2x (exponential function)
g (x) = x+2 (linear function) (14.4)
h (x) = 2x2 (parabolic function)
The basis of trigonometry are the trigonometric functions. There are three basic trigonometric functions:
1. sine
2. cosine
3. tangent
These are abbreviated to:
1. sin
2. cos
3. tan
These functions are dened from a right-angled triangle, a triangle where one internal angle is 90 ◦ .
Consider a right-angled triangle.
B
b
hy
po
te n
opposite
us
e
θ
b b
A C
adjacent
Figure 14.3
In the right-angled triangle, we refer to the lengths of the three sides according to how they are placed
in relation to the angle θ. The side opposite to the right angle is labelled the hypotenus, the side opposite
θ is labelled opposite, the side next to θ is labelled adjacent. Note that the choice of non-90 degree internal
angle is arbitrary. You can choose either internal angle and then dene the adjacent and opposite sides
accordingly. However, the hypotenuse remains the same regardless of which internal angle you are referring
to.
We dene the trigonometric functions, also known as trigonometric identities, as:
opposite
sinθ = hypotenuse
adjacent
cosθ = hypotenuse
(14.5)
opposite
tanθ = adjacent
These functions relate the lengths of the sides of a right-angled triangle to its interior angles.
One way of remembering the denitions is to use the following mnemonic that is perhaps easier to
remember:
239
Silly Old Hens Sin = Opposite

Hypotenuse
Cackle And Howl Cos = Hypotenuse
Adjacent
Till Old Age Tan = Adjacent

Opposite
Table 14.2
You may also hear people saying Soh Cah Toa. This is just another way to remember the trig functions.
tip: The denitions of opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse are only applicable when you are working
with right-angled triangles! Always check to make sure your triangle has a right-angle before you
use them, otherwise you will get the wrong answer. We will nd ways of using our knowledge of
right-angled triangles to deal with the trigonometry of non right-angled triangles in Grade 11.
14.4.1 Investigation : Denitions of Trigonometric Functions

1. In each of the following triangles, state whether a, b and c are the hypotenuse, opposite or adjacent
sides of the triangle with respect to the marked angle.
c
a a
c
a θ b
θ b θ
b c
b
θ c
b a c
θ
c
a
θ b
b
a
Figure 14.4
2. Complete each of the following, the rst has been done for you
C B
Figure 14.5
^
opposite CB
a sin A = hypotenuse = AC
^
b cos A = (14.6)
^
c tan A =
^
d sin C =
^
e cos C = (14.7)
^
f tan C =
3. Complete each of the following without a calculator:
30o
2
√
3
60o
1
Figure 14.6
sin60 =
cos30 = (14.8)
tan60 =
241
45o
√
2
1
45o
1
Figure 14.7
sin45 =
cos45 = (14.9)
tan45 =
For most angles θ, it is very dicult to calculate the values of sinθ, cosθ and tanθ. One usually needs to use
a calculator to do so. However, we saw in the above Activity that we could work these values out for some
special angles. Some of these angles are listed in the table below, along with the values of the trigonometric
functions at these angles. Remember that the lengths of the sides of a right angled triangle must obey
Pythagoras' theorum. The square of the hypothenuse (side opposite the 90 degree angle) equals the sum of
the squares of the two other sides.
0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦

√
3 √1 1
cosθ 1
2 2 2 0 −1
√
1 √1 3
sinθ 0
2 2 2 1 0
√
tanθ 0 √1 1 3 − 0
3
Table 14.3
These values are useful when asked to solve a problem involving trig functions without using a calculator.
Exercise 14.1: Finding Lengths (Solution on p. 265.)
Find the length of x in the following triangle.
100m
x
50◦
Figure 14.8
Exercise 14.2: Finding Angles (Solution on p. 265.)

Find the value of θ in the following triangle.
50m
θ
100m
Figure 14.9
The following videos provide a summary of what you have learnt so far.
Trigonometry - 1
<http://www.youtube.com/v/F21S9Wpi0y8&rel=0>
Figure 14.10
Khan academy video on trigonometry - 2

<http://www.youtube.com/v/QS4r_mqs-rY&rel=0>
Figure 14.11
243
14.4.2 Finding Lengths

Find the length of the sides marked with letters. Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
a) b)
a 37◦
b
62
23◦
21
c) d)
49◦
c 33
19 d
55◦
Figure 14.12
e) f)
12
e
31
22◦
17◦ f
g) h)
30◦
32
20 h
23◦
g
Figure 14.13
2
Click here for the solution.
14.5 Simple Applications of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometry was probably invented in ancient civilisations to solve practical problems such as building
construction and navigating by the stars. In this section we will show how trigonometry can be used to solve
some other practical problems.
14.5.1 Height and Depth
38.7◦
100m
Figure 14.14: Determining the height of a building using trigonometry.
One simple task is to nd the height of a building by using trigonometry. We could just use a tape measure
lowered from the roof, but this is impractical (and dangerous) for tall buildings. It is much more sensible to
measure a distance along the ground and use trigonometry to nd the height of the building.
Figure 14.14 shows a building whose height we do not know. We have walked 100 m away from the
building and measured the angle from the ground up to the top of the building. This angle is found to be
38, 7◦ . We call this angle the angle of elevation. As you can see from Figure 14.14, we now have a right-angled
triangle. As we know the length of one side and an angle, we can calculate the height of the triangle, which
is the height of the building we are trying to nd.
If we examine the gure, we see that we have the opposite and the adjacent of the angle of elevation and
we can write:
opposite
tan38, 7◦ = adjacent
height
= 100 m
(14.10)
⇒ height = 100 m × tan38, 7◦
= 80 m
Exercise 14.3: Height of a tower (Solution on p. 265.)

A block of ats is 100m away from a cellphone tower. Someone stands at B. They measure the
◦
angle from B up to the top of the tower E to be 62 . This is the angle of elevation. They then
◦
measure the angle from B down to the bottom of the tower at C to be 34 . This is the angle of
depression.What is the height of the cellph one tower correct to 1 decimal place?
2 http://www.fhsst.org/lc1
245
E
b
B 62◦
D
34◦
A
C
100m
Figure 14.15
14.5.2 Maps and Plans

Maps and plans are usually scale drawings. This means that they are an exact copy of the real thing, but
are usually smaller. So, only lengths are changed, but all angles are the same. We can use this idea to make
use of maps and plans by adding information from the real world.
Exercise 14.4: Scale Drawing (Solution on p. 266.)

A ship approaching Cape Town Harbour reaches point A on the map, due south of Pretoria and
due east of Cape Town. If the distance from Cape Town to Pretoria is 1000km, use trigonometry
to nd out how far east the ship is from Cape Town, and hence nd the scale of the map.
Pretoria
b
Cape Town
b b
A
Figure 14.16
Exercise 14.5: Building plan (Solution on p. 266.)

Mr Nkosi has a garage at his house, and he decides that he wants to add a corrugated iron roof to
the side of the garage. The garage is 4m high, and his sheet for the roof is 5m long. If he wants the
roof to be at an angle of 5◦ , how high must he build the wall BD, which is holding up the roof ?
Give the answer to 2 decimal places.
C 5m
b
Roof
b
5◦ b
B
A
4m
Garage
Wall
Figure 14.17
247
14.5.2.1 Applications of Trigonometric Functions

1. A boy ying a kite is standing 30 m from a point directly under the kite. If the string to the kite is
50 m long, nd the angle of elevation of the kite.
3
2. What is the angle of elevation of the sun when a tree 7,15 m tall casts a shadow 10,1 m long?
4
14.6 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

This section describes the graphs of trigonometric functions.
14.6.1 Graph of sinθ

14.6.1.1 Graph of sinθ
Complete the following table, using your calculator to calculate the values. Then plot the values with sinθ
on the y -axis and θ on the x-axis. Round answers to 1 decimal place.
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 0 30 60 90 120 150
sinθ
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
sinθ
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
−1
Figure 14.18
Table 14.4
Let us look back at our values for sinθ
θ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦

√
1 √1 3
sinθ 0
2 2 2 1 0
Table 14.5
3 http://www.fhsst.org/lcY
4 http://www.fhsst.org/lcr
As you can see, the function sinθ has a value of 0 at θ = 0◦ . Its value then smoothly increases until
θ = 90◦ when its value is 1. We also know that it later decreases to 0 when θ = 180◦ . Putting all this
together we can start to picture the full extent of the sine graph. The sine graph is shown in Figure 14.19.
Notice the wave shape, with each wave having a length of 360◦ . We say the graph has a period of 360◦ . The
height of the wave above (or below) the x-axis is called the wave's amplitude. Thus the maximum amplitude
of the sine-wave is 1, and its minimum amplitude is -1.
−360 −180 180 360 Degrees

−1
Figure 14.19: The graph of sinθ.
14.6.2 Functions of the form y = asin (x) + q

In the equation, y = asin (x) + q , a and q are constants and have dierent eects on the graph of the
function. The general shape of the graph of functions of this form is shown in Figure 14.20 for the function
f (θ) = 2sinθ + 3.
249
Figure 14.20: Graph of f (θ) = 2sinθ + 3
14.6.2.1 Functions of the Form y = asin (θ) + q :

a. a (θ) = sinθ − 2
b. b (θ) = sinθ − 1
c. c (θ) = sinθ
d. d (θ) = sinθ + 1
e. e (θ) = sinθ + 2
a. f (θ) = −2 · sinθ
b. g (θ) = −1 · sinθ
c. h (θ) = 0 · sinθ
d. j (θ) = 1 · sinθ
e. k (θ) = 2 · sinθ
You should have found that the value of a aects the height of the peaks of the graph. As the magnitude of
a increases, the peaks get higher. As it decreases, the peaks get lower.
q is called the vertical shift. If q = 2, then the whole sine graph shifts up 2 units. If q = −1, the whole
sine graph shifts down 1 unit.
a>0
q>0
Degrees
Figure 14.21
q<0
Degrees
Figure 14.23
Table 14.6: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
y = asin (x) + q .

For f (θ) = asin (θ) + q , the domain is {θ : θ ∈ R} because there is no value of θ ∈R for which f (θ) is
undened.
The range of f (θ) = asinθ + q depends on whether the value for a is positive or negative. We will
consider these two cases separately.
If a>0 we have:
−1 ≤ sinθ ≤ 1−a ≤ asinθ ≤ a (M ultiplication by a positive number maintains the nature

(14.11) of the inequal
a + q ≤ asinθ + q ≤ a + q − a + q ≤ f (θ) ≤ a + q
This tells us that for all values of θ, f (θ) is always between −a + q and a + q . Therefore if a > 0, the
range of f (θ) = asinθ + q {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [−a + q, a + q]}.
is
Similarly, it can be shown that if a < 0, the range of f (θ) = asinθ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [a + q, −a + q]}.
This is left as an exercise.
tip: The easiest way to nd the range is simply to look for the "bottom" and the "top" of the
graph.
251
14.6.2.3 Intercepts
The y -intercept, yint , of f (θ) = asin (x) + q is simply the value of f (θ) at θ = 0◦ .
yint = f (0◦ )
= asin (0◦ ) + q
(14.12)
= a (0) + q
= q
14.6.3 Graph of cosθ

14.6.3.1 Graph of cosθ :
Complete the following table, using your calculator to calculate the values correct to 1 decimal place. Then
plot the values with cosθ on the y -axis and θ on the x-axis.
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 0 30 60 90 120 150
cosθ
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
cosθ
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
−1
Figure 14.25
Table 14.7
Let us look back at our values for cosθ
θ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦

√
3 √1 1
cosθ 1
2 2 2 0 −1
Table 14.8
If you look carefully, you will notice that the cosine of an angle θ is the same as the sine of the angle
90◦ − θ. Take for example,
1
cos60◦ = = sin30◦ = sin (90◦ − 60◦ ) (14.13)
2
This tells us that in order to create the cosine graph, all we need to do is to shift the sine graph 90◦ to the
left. The graph of cosθ is shown in Figure 14.26. As the cosine graph is simply a shifted sine graph, it will
have the same period and amplitude as the sine graph.
−360 −180 180 360 Degrees

−1
Figure 14.26: The graph of cosθ.
14.6.4 Functions of the form y = acos (x) + q

In the equation, y = acos (x) + q , a and q are constants and have dierent eects on the graph of the
function. The general shape of the graph of functions of this form is shown in Figure 14.27 for the function
f (θ) = 2cosθ + 3.
253
Figure 14.27: Graph of f (θ) = 2cosθ + 3
14.6.4.1 Functions of the Form y = acos (θ) + q :

a. a (θ) = cosθ − 2
b. b (θ) = cosθ − 1
c. c (θ) = cosθ
d. d (θ) = cosθ + 1
e. e (θ) = cosθ + 2
a. f (θ) = −2 · cosθ
b. g (θ) = −1 · cosθ
c. h (θ) = 0 · cosθ
d. j (θ) = 1 · cosθ
e. k (θ) = 2 · cosθ
You should have found that the value of a aects the amplitude of the cosine graph in the same way it did
for the sine graph.
You should have also found that the value of q shifts the cosine graph in the same way as it did the sine
graph.
a>0
q>0
Figure 14.28
q<0
Figure 14.30
y = acos (x) + q .

For f (θ) = acos (θ) + q , the domain is {θ : θ ∈ R} because there is no value of θ ∈R for which f (θ) is
undened.
It is easy to see that the range of f (θ) will be the same as the range of asin (θ) + q . This is because the
maximum and minimum values of acos (θ) + q will be the same as the maximum and minimum values of
asin (θ) + q .
14.6.4.3 Intercepts
The y -intercept of f (θ) = acos (x) + q is calculated in the same way as for sine.
yint = f (0◦ )
= acos (0◦ ) + q
(14.14)
= a (1) + q
= a+q
255
14.6.5 Comparison of Graphs of sinθ and cosθ
90◦ shift
1
−360 −180 180 360 Degrees

−1
Figure 14.32: The graph of cosθ (solid-line) and the graph of sinθ (dashed-line).
Notice that the two graphs look very similar. Both oscillate up and down around the x-axis as you move
along the axis. The distances between the peaks of the two graphs is the same and is constant along each
graph. The height of the peaks and the depths of the troughs are the same.
◦
The only dierence is that the sin graph is shifted a little to the right of the cos graph by 90 . That
means that if you shift the whole cos graph to the right by 90 ◦ it will
overlap perfectly with the sin graph.
You could also move the sin graph by 90 ◦ to the left and it would overlap perfectly with the cos graph. This
means that:
sinθ = cos (θ − 90) (shift thecosgraph to the right)

and (14.15)
cosθ = sin (θ + 90) (shift thesingraph to the left)
14.6.6 Graph of tanθ

14.6.6.1 Graph of tanθ
Complete the following table, using your calculator to calculate the values correct to 1 decimal place. Then
plot the values with tanθ on the y -axis and θ on the x-axis.
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 0 30 60 90 120 150
tanθ
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

tanθ
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
−1
Figure 14.33
Table 14.10
Let us look back at our values for tanθ
θ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦

√
tanθ 0 √1 1 3 ∞ 0
3
Table 14.11
Now that we have graphs for sinθ and cosθ, there is an easy way to visualise the tangent graph. Let us
look back at our denitions of sinθ and cosθ for a right-angled triangle.
opposite
sinθ hypotenuse opposite
= adjacent
= = tanθ (14.16)
cosθ hypotenuse
adjacent
This is the rst of an important set of equations called trigonometric identities. An identity is an equation,
which holds true for any value which is put into it. In this case we have shown that
sinθ
tanθ = (14.17)
cosθ
for any value of θ.
So we know that for values of θ for which sinθ = 0, we must also have tanθ = 0. Also, if cosθ = 0 our
value of tanθ is undened as we cannot divide by 0. The graph is shown in Figure 14.34. The dashed vertical
lines are at the values of θ where tanθ is not dened.
257
Figure 14.34: The graph of tanθ.
14.6.7 Functions of the form y = atan (x) + q

In the gure below is an example of a function of the form y = atan (x) + q .
Figure 14.35: The graph of 2tanθ + 1.
14.6.7.1 Functions of the Form y = atan (θ) + q :

a. a (θ) = tanθ − 2
b. b (θ) = tanθ − 1
c. c (θ) = tanθ
d. d (θ) = tanθ + 1
e. e (θ) = tanθ + 2
a. f (θ) = −2 · tanθ
b. g (θ) = −1 · tanθ
c. h (θ) = 0 · tanθ
d. j (θ) = 1 · tanθ
e. k (θ) = 2 · tanθ
You should have found that the value of a aects the steepness of each of the branches. The larger the
absolute magnitude of a, the quicker the branches approach their asymptotes, the values where they are not
dened. Negative a values switch the direction of the branches. You should have also found that the value
of q aects the vertical shift as for sinθ and cosθ. These dierent properties are summarised in Table 14.12.
259
a>0
q>0
Figure 14.36
q<0
Figure 14.38
y = atan (x) + q .

The domain of f (θ) = atan (θ) + q is all the values of θ such that cosθ is not equal to 0. We have already
seen that when cosθ = 0, tanθ = sinθ
cosθ is undened, as we have division by zero. We know that cosθ = 0 for
◦ ◦
all θ = 90 + 180 n, where n is an integer. So the domain of f (θ) = atan (θ) + q is all values of θ , except
◦ ◦
the values θ = 90 + 180 n.
The range of f (θ) = atanθ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ (−∞, ∞)}.
14.6.7.3 Intercepts
The y -intercept, yint , of f (θ) = atan (x) + q is again simply the value of f (θ) at θ = 0◦ .
yint = f (0◦ )
= atan (0◦ ) + q
(14.18)
= a (0) + q
= q
14.6.7.4 Asymptotes
As θ 90◦ , tanθ approaches innity. But as θ is undened at 90◦ , θ can only approach 90◦ , but
approaches
◦
never equal it. Thus the tanθ curve gets closer and closer to the line θ = 90 , without ever touching it.
◦ ◦ ◦
Thus the line θ = 90 is an asymptote of tanθ . tanθ also has asymptotes at θ = 90 + 180 n, where n is an
integer.
14.6.7.4.1 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

1. Using your knowldge of the eects of a and q, sketch each of the following graphs, without using a
table of values, for θ ∈ [0◦ ; 360◦ ]
a. y = 2sinθ
b. y = −4cosθ
c. y = −2cosθ + 1
d. y = sinθ − 3
e. y = tanθ − 2
f. y = 2cosθ − 1
5
2. Give the equations of each of the following graphs:
Figure 14.40
Figure 14.41
261
Figure 14.42
6
The following presentation summarises what you have learnt in this chapter. Ignore the last slide.

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grade10-trigonometry-100930084905-phpapp01&stripped_title=wynberg-girls-highlouise-
keeganmathsgrade10trigonometry>
Figure 14.43

1. Calculate the unknown lengths
c 5m e
50◦ 60◦
b
20◦
a 25◦
d g
30◦
16 cm 80◦
f
Figure 14.44
7
^
2. In the triangle P QR, P R = 20 cm, QR = 22 cm and P R Q = 30◦ . The perpendicular line from P to
QR intersects QR at X . Calculate
a. the length XR,
b. the length P X, and
^
c. the angle QP X
8
3. A ladder of length 15 m is resting against a wall, the base of the ladder is 5 m from the wall. Find the
angle between the wall and the ladder?
9
4. A ladder of length 25 m is resting against a wall, the ladder makes an angle 37◦ to the wall. Find the
distance between the wall and the base of the ladder?
10
^
5. In the following triangle nd the angle ABC
8 http://www.fhsst.org/laX
9 http://www.fhsst.org/lal
263
41◦
D C B
17
Figure 14.45
11
6. In the following triangle nd the length of side CD
15◦
35◦
D C B
Figure 14.46
12
7. A (5; 0) and B (11; 4). Find the angle between the line through A and B and the x-axis.
13
8. C (0; −13) and D (−12; 14). Find the angle between the line through C and D and the y-axis.
14
9. A 5m ladder is placed 2m from the wall. What is the angle the ladder makes with the wall?
15
^
10. Given the points: E(5;0), F(6;2) and G(8;-2), nd angle F E G.
16
11 http://www.fhsst.org/laN
12 http://www.fhsst.org/laR
13 http://www.fhsst.org/lan
14 http://www.fhsst.org/laQ
15 http://www.fhsst.org/laU
16 http://www.fhsst.org/lap
11. An isosceles triangle has sides 9 cm, 9 cm and 2 cm. Find the size of the smallest angle of the triangle.
17
12. A right-angled triangle has hypotenuse 13 mm. Find the length of the other two sides if one of the
angles of the triangle is 50◦ .
18
13. One of the angles of a rhombus ( rhombus - A four-sided polygon, each of whose sides is of equal
length) with perimeter 20 cm is 30◦ .
a. Find the sides of the rhombus.
b. Find the length of both diagonals.
19
14. Captain Hook was sailing towards a lighthouse with a height of 10 m.
a. If the top of the lighthouse is 30 m away, what is the angle of elevation of the boat to the nearest
integer?
b. If the boat moves another 7m towards the lighthouse, what is the new angle of elevation of the
boat to the nearest integer?
20
15. (Tricky) A triangle with angles 40◦ , 40◦ and 100◦ has a perimeter of 20 cm. Find the length of each
side of the triangle.
21
17 http://www.fhsst.org/laV
18 http://www.fhsst.org/laP
19 http://www.fhsst.org/laE
20 http://www.fhsst.org/lam
21 http://www.fhsst.org/lay
265

◦
Step 1. In this case you have an angle (50 ), the opposite side and the hypotenuse.
So you should use sin
x
sin50◦ = (14.19)
100
Step 2.
⇒ x = 100 × sin50◦ (14.20)
Step 3. Use the sin button on your calculator
⇒ x = 76.6m (14.21)

Step 1. In this case you have the opposite side and the hypotenuse to the angle θ.
So you should use tan
50
tanθ = (14.22)
100
Step 2.
⇒ tanθ = 0.5 (14.23)
Step 3. Since you are nding the angle,

use tan−1 on your calculator
Don't forget to set your calculator to `deg' mode!
⇒ θ = 26.6◦ (14.24)

Step 1. To nd the height of the tower, all we have to do is nd the length of CD and DE . We see that
[U+25B5]BDE and
[U+25B5]BDC are both right-angled triangles. For each of the triangles, we have
an angle and we have the length AD . Thus we can calculate the sides of the triangles.
Step 2. We are given that the length AC is 100m. CABD is a rectangle so BD = AC = 100m.

^
CD
tan C B D = BD

^ (14.25)
⇒ CD = BD × tan C B D
= 100 × tan34◦
Use your calculator to nd that tan34◦ = 0, 6745. Using this, we nd that CD = 67, 45m
Step 3.

^
DE
tan D B E = BD

^
⇒ DE = BD × tan D B E (14.26)
= 100 × tan62◦
= 188, 07 m
Step 4. We have that the height of the tower CE = CD + DE = 67, 45 m + 188, 07 m = 255.5 m.

Step 1. We already know the distance between Cape Town and A in blocks from the given map (it is 5 blocks).
Thus if we work out how many kilometers this same distance is, we can calculate how many kilometers
each block represents, and thus we have the scale of the map.
Step 2. Let us denote Cape Town with C and Pretoria with P. We can see that triangle AP C is a right-angled
triangle. Furthermore, we see that the distance AC and distance AP are both 5 blocks. Thus it is an
^ ^
isoceles triangle, and so A C P = A P C = 45◦ .
Step 3.

^
CA = CP × cos A C P
(14.27)
= 1000 × cos (45◦ )
1000
= √
2
km
To work out the scale, we see that
1000
5 blocks = √ km
2 (14.28)
200
⇒ 1 block = √ km
2

Step 1. We see that the triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle. As we have one side and an angle of this
triangle, we can calculate AC . The height of the wall is then the height of the garage minus AC .
^
Step 2. If BC =5m, and angle A B C = 5◦ , then

^
AC = BC × sin A B C
= 5 × sin5◦ (14.29)
= 5 × 0, 0871
= 0.4358 m
Thus we have that the height of the wall BD = 4 m − 0.4358 m = 3.56 m.
Chapter 15
Statistics - Grade 10 1
15.1 Introduction
Information in the form of numbers, graphs and tables is all around us; on television, on the radio or in the
newspaper. We are exposed to crime rates, sports results, rainfall, government spending, rate of HIV/AIDS
infection, population growth and economic growth.
This chapter demonstrates how Mathematics can be used to manipulate data, to represent or misrepresent
trends and patterns and to provide solutions that are directly applicable to the world around us.
Skills relating to the collection, organisation, display, analysis and interpretation of information that were
introduced in earlier grades are developed further.
15.2 Recap of Earlier Work

The collection of data has been introduced in earlier grades as a method of obtaining answers to questions
about the world around us. This work will be briey reviewed.
15.2.1 Data and Data Collection

15.2.1.1 Data
Denition 15.1: Data
Data refers to the pieces of information that have been observed and recorded, from an experiment
or a survey. There are two types of data: primary and secondary. The word "data" is the plural of
the word "datum", and therefore one should say, "the data are" and not "the data is".
Data can be classied as primary or secondary, and primary or secondary data can be classied as
qualitative or quantitative. Figure 15.1 summarises the classications of data.
267
268 CHAPTER 15. STATISTICS - GRADE 10
data
primary secondary
qualitative quantitative
Figure 15.1: Classes of data.
Primary data: describes the original data that have been collected. This type of data is also known as
raw data. Often the primary data set is very large and is therefore summarised or processed to extract
meaningful information.
Qualitative data: is information that cannot be written as numbers, for example, if you were collecting
data from people on how they feel or what their favourite colour is.
Quantitative data: is information that can be written as numbers, for example, if you were collecting data
from people on their height or weight.
Secondary data: is primary data that has been summarised or processed, for example, the set of colours
that people gave as favourite colours would be secondary data because it is a summary of responses.
Transforming primary data into secondary data through analysis, grouping or organisation into secondary
data is the process of generating information.
15.2.1.2 Purpose of Collecting Primary Data

Data is collected to provide answers that help with understanding a particular situation. Here are examples
to illustrate some real world data collections scenarios in the categories of qualitative and quantitative data.
15.2.1.3 Qualitative Data

• The local government might want to know how many residents have electricity and might ask the
question: "Does your home have a safe, independent supply of electricity?"
• A supermarket manager might ask the question: What avours of soft drink should be stocked in my
supermarket?" The question asked of customers might be What is your favourite soft drink? Based
on the customers' responses, the manager can make an informed decision as to what soft drinks to
stock.
• A company manufacturing medicines might ask How eective is our pill at relieving a headache?
The question asked of people using the pill for a headache might be: Does taking the pill relieve your
headache? Based on responses, the company learns how eective their product is.
• A motor car company might want to improve their customer service, and might ask their customers:
How can we improve our customer service?
15.2.1.4 Quantitative Data

• A cell phone manufacturing company might collect data about how often people buy new cell phones
and what factors aect their choice, so that the cell phone company can focus on those features that
would make their product more attractive to buyers.
269
• A town councillor might want to know how many accidents have occurred at a particular intersection,
to decide whether a robot should be installed. The councillor would visit the local police station to
research their records to collect the appropriate data.
• A supermarket manager might ask the question: What avours of soft drink should be stocked in my
supermarket?" The question asked of customers might be What is your favourite soft drink? Based
on the customers' responses, the manager can make an informed decision as to what soft drinks to
stock.
However, it is important to note that dierent questions reveal dierent features of a situation, and that this
aects the ability to understand the situation. For example, if the rst question in the list was re-phrased
to be: "Does your home have electricity?" then if you answered yes, but you were getting your electricity
from a neighbour, then this would give the wrong impression that you did not need an independent supply
of electricity.
15.2.2 Methods of Data Collection

The method of collecting the data must be appropriate to the question being asked. Some examples of data
collecting methods are:
1. Questionnaires, surveys and interviews

2. Experiments
3. Other sources (friends, family, newspapers, books, magazines and the Internet)
The most important aspect of each method of data collecting is to clearly formulate the question that is to
be answered. The details of the data collection should therefore be structured to take your question into
account.
For example, questionnaires, interviews or surveys would be most appropriate for the list of questions in
"Purpose of Collecting Primary Data" (Section 15.2.1.2: Purpose of Collecting Primary Data).
15.2.3 Samples and Populations

Before the data collecting starts, it is important to decide how much data is needed to make sure that the
results give an accurate reection to the required answers. Ideally, the study should be designed to maximise
the amount of information collected while minimising the eort. The concepts of populations and samples
is vital to minimising eort.
The following terms should be familiar:
Population: describes the entire group under consideration in a study. For example, if you wanted to
know how many learners in your school got the u each winter, then your population would be all the
learners in your school.
Sample: describes a group chosen to represent the population under consideration in a study. For example,
for the survey on winter u, you might select a sample of learners, maybe one from each class.
Random sample: describes a sample chosen from a population in such a way that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being chosen.
Population Sample
Figure 15.2
Choosing a representative sample is crucial to obtaining results that are unbiased. For example, if we
wanted to determine whether peer pressure aects the decision to start smoking, then the results would be
dierent if only boys were interviewed, compared to if only girls were interviewed, compared to both boys
and girls being interviewed.
Therefore questions like: "How many interviews are needed?" and "How do I select the candidates for
the interviews?" must be asked during the design stage of the sampling process.
The most accurate results are obtained if the entire population is sampled for the survey, but this is
expensive and time-consuming. The next best method is to randomly select a sample of subjects for the
interviews. This means that whatever the method used to select subjects for the interviews, each subject has
an equal chance of being selected. There are various methods of doing this for example, names can be picked
out of a hat or can be selected by using a random number generator. Most modern scientic calculators
have a random number generator or you can nd one on a spreadsheet program on a computer.
So, if you had a total population of 1 000 learners in your school and you randomly selected 100, then
that would be the sample that is used to conduct your survey.
15.3 Example Data Sets

The remainder of this chapter deals with the mathematical details that are required to analyse the data
collected.
The following are some example sets of data which can be used to apply the methods that are being
explained.
15.3.1 Data Set 1: Tossing a Coin

A fair coin was tossed 100 times and the values on the top face were recorded. The data are recorded in
"Data Set 1: Tossing a coin" (Table 15.1).
271
H T T H H T H H H H
H H H H T H H T T T
T T H T T H T H T H
H H T T H T T H T T
T H H H T T H T T H
H T T T T H T T H H
T T H T T H T T H T
H T T H T T T T H T
T H T T H H H T H T
T T T H H T T T H T
Table 15.1: Results of 100 tosses of a fair coin. H means that the coin landed heads-up and T means that
the coin landed tails-up.
15.3.2 Data Set 2: Casting a die

A fair die was cast 100 times and the values on the top face were recorded. The data are recorded in "Data
Set 2: Casting a die" (Section 15.3.2: Data Set 2: Casting a die).
3 5 3 6 2 6 6 5 5 6 6 4 2 1 5 3 2 4 5 4
1 4 3 2 6 6 4 6 2 6 5 1 5 1 2 4 4 2 4 4
4 2 6 4 5 4 3 5 5 4 6 1 1 4 6 6 4 5 3 5
2 6 3 2 4 5 3 2 2 6 3 4 3 2 6 4 5 2 1 5
5 4 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 6 5 3 4 3 4 5 1 2 1 2
1 3 2 3 6 3 1 6 3 6 6 1 4 5 2 2 6 3 5 3
1 1 6 4 5 1 6 5 3 2 6 2 3 2 5 6 3 5 5 6
2 6 6 3 5 4 1 4 5 1 4 1 3 4 3 6 2 4 3 6
6 1 1 2 4 5 2 5 3 4 3 4 5 3 3 3 1 1 4 3
5 2 1 4 2 5 2 2 1 5 4 5 1 5 3 2 2 5 1 1
Table 15.2: Results of 200 casts of a fair die.
15.3.3 Data Set 3: Mass of a Loaf of Bread

There are regulations in South Africa related to bread production to protect consumers. Here is an excerpt
from a report about the legislation:
"The Trade Metrology Act requires that if a loaf of bread is not labelled, it must weigh 800g, with the
leeway of ve percent under or 10 percent over. However, an average of 10 loaves must be an exact match
to the mass stipulated. - Sunday Tribune of 10 October 2004 on page 10"
We can use measurements to test if consumers getting value for money. An unlabelled loaf of bread
should weigh 800g. The masses of 10 dierent loaves of bread were measured at a store for 1 week. The data
are shown in Table 15.3.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
802.39 787.78 815.74 807.41 801.48 786.59 799.01
796.76 798.93 809.68 798.72 818.26 789.08 805.99
802.50 793.63 785.37 809.30 787.65 801.45 799.35
819.59 812.62 809.05 791.13 805.28 817.76 801.01
801.21 795.86 795.21 820.39 806.64 819.54 796.67
789.00 796.33 787.87 799.84 789.45 802.05 802.20
788.99 797.72 776.71 790.69 803.16 801.24 807.32
808.80 780.38 812.61 801.82 784.68 792.19 809.80
802.37 790.83 792.43 789.24 815.63 799.35 791.23
796.20 817.57 799.05 825.96 807.89 806.65 780.23
Table 15.3: Masses (in g) of 10 dierent loaves of bread, from the same manufacturer, measured at the
same store over a period of 1 week.
15.3.4 Data Set 4: Global Temperature

The mean global temperature from 1861 to 1996 is listed in Table 15.4. The data, obtained from
2
http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/stats/Data/Climate/ , was converted to mean temperature in degrees Celsius.
Year Temperature Year Temperature Year Temperature Year Temperature

1861 12.66 1901 12.871 1941 13.152 1981 13.228
1862 12.58 1902 12.726 1942 13.147 1982 13.145
1863 12.799 1903 12.647 1943 13.156 1983 13.332
1864 12.619 1904 12.601 1944 13.31 1984 13.107
1865 12.825 1905 12.719 1945 13.153 1985 13.09
1866 12.881 1906 12.79 1946 13.015 1986 13.183
1867 12.781 1907 12.594 1947 13.006 1987 13.323
1868 12.853 1908 12.575 1948 13.015 1988 13.34
1869 12.787 1909 12.596 1949 13.005 1989 13.269
1870 12.752 1910 12.635 1950 12.898 1990 13.437
1871 12.733 1911 12.611 1951 13.044 1991 13.385
2 http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/stats/Data/Climate/
273
1872 12.857 1912 12.678 1952 13.113 1992 13.237
1873 12.802 1913 12.671 1953 13.192 1993 13.28
1874 12.68 1914 12.85 1954 12.944 1994 13.355
1875 12.669 1915 12.962 1955 12.935 1995 13.483
1876 12.687 1916 12.727 1956 12.836 1996 13.314
1877 12.957 1917 12.584 1957 13.139
1878 13.092 1918 12.7 1958 13.208
1879 12.796 1919 12.792 1959 13.133
1880 12.811 1920 12.857 1960 13.094
1881 12.845 1921 12.902 1961 13.124
1882 12.864 1922 12.787 1962 13.129
1883 12.783 1923 12.821 1963 13.16
1884 12.73 1924 12.764 1964 12.868
1885 12.754 1925 12.868 1965 12.935
1886 12.826 1926 13.014 1966 13.035
1887 12.723 1927 12.904 1967 13.031
1888 12.783 1928 12.871 1968 13.004
1889 12.922 1929 12.718 1969 13.117
1890 12.703 1930 12.964 1970 13.064
1891 12.767 1931 13.041 1971 12.903
1892 12.671 1932 12.992 1972 13.031
1893 12.631 1933 12.857 1973 13.175
1894 12.709 1934 12.982 1974 12.912
1895 12.728 1935 12.943 1975 12.975
1896 12.93 1936 12.993 1976 12.869
1897 12.936 1937 13.092 1977 13.148
1898 12.759 1938 13.187 1978 13.057
1899 12.874 1939 13.111 1979 13.154

1900 12.959 1940 13.055 1980 13.195
Table 15.4: Global temperature changes over the past 135 years. There has been a lot of discussion
regarding changing weather patterns and a possible link to pollution and greenhouse gasses.
15.3.5 Data Set 5: Price of Petrol

The price of petrol in South Africa from August 1998 to July 2000 is shown in Table 15.5.
Date Price (R/l)
August 1998 R 2.37
September 1998 R 2.38
October 1998 R 2.35
November 1998 R 2.29
December 1998 R 2.31
January 1999 R 2.25
February 1999 R 2.22
March 1999 R 2.25
April 1999 R 2.31
May 1999 R 2.49
June 1999 R 2.61
July 1999 R 2.61
August 1999 R 2.62
September 1999 R 2.75
October 1999 R 2.81
November 1999 R 2.86
December 1999 R 2.85
January 2000 R 2.86
February 2000 R 2.81
March 2000 R 2.89
April 2000 R 3.03
May 2000 R 3.18
June 2000 R 3.22
July 2000 R 3.36
Table 15.5: Petrol prices
15.4 Grouping Data

One of the rst steps to processing a large set of raw data is to arrange the data values together into a smaller
number of groups, and then count how many of each data value there are in each group. The groups are
275
usually based on some sort of interval of data values, so data values that fall into a specic interval, would
be grouped together. The grouped data is often presented graphically or in a frequency table. (Frequency
means how many times)
Exercise 15.1: Grouping Data (Solution on p. 296.)

Group the elements of Data Set 1 (Table 15.1) to determine how many times the coin landed
heads-up and how many times the coin landed tails-up.
15.4.1 Exercises - Grouping Data

1. The height of 30 learners are given below. Fill in the grouped data below. (Tally is a convenient way
to count in 5's. We use llll to indicate 5.)
142 163 169 132 139 140 152 168 139 150
161 132 162 172 146 152 150 132 157 133
141 170 156 155 169 138 142 160 164 168
Table 15.6
Group Tally Frequency
130 ≤h< 140
140 ≤h< 150
150 ≤h< 160
160 ≤h< 170
170 ≤h< 180
Table 15.7
3
2. An experiment was conducted in class and 50 learners were asked to guess the number of sweets in a
jar. The following guesses were recorded.
56 49 40 11 33 33 37 29 30 59
21 16 38 44 38 52 22 24 30 34
42 15 48 33 51 44 33 17 19 44
47 23 27 47 13 25 53 57 28 23
36 35 40 23 45 39 32 58 22 40
Table 15.8
Draw up a grouped frequency table using intervals 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, etc.
4
3 http://www.fhsst.org/lab
4 http://www.fhsst.org/laj
15.5 Graphical Representation of Data

Once the data has been collected, it must be organised in a manner that allows for the information to be
extracted most eciently. One method of organisation is to display the data in the form of graphs. Functions
and graphs have been studied in Functions and Graphs (Chapter 10), and similar techniques will be used
here. However, instead of drawing graphs from equations as was done in Functions and graphs (Chapter 10),
bar graphs, histograms and pie charts will be drawn directly from the data.
15.5.1 Bar and Compound Bar Graphs

A bar chart is used to present data where each observation falls into a specic category and where the
categories, this is often for qualitative data. The frequencies (or percentages) are listed along the y -axis and
the categories are listed along the x-axis. The heights of the bars correspond to the frequencies. The bars
are of equal width and should not touch neighbouring bars.
A compound bar chart (also called component bar chart) is a variant: here the bars are cut into various
components depending on what is being shown. If percentages are used for various components of a compound
bar, then the total bar height must be 100%. The compound bar chart is a little more complex but if this
method is used sensibly, a lot of information can be quickly shown in an attractive fashion.
Examples of a bar and a compound bar graph, for Data Set 1 (Table 15.1) , are shown in Figure 15.3.
According to the frequency table for Data Set 1, the coin landed heads-up 44 times and tails-up 56 times.
100 100
90 90
Total Relative Frequency (%)
Heads
Relative Frequency (%)
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
Tails
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
Heads Tails
Bar Graph Compound Bar Graph
Figure 15.3: Examples of a bar graph (left) and compound bar graph (right) for Data Set 1. The
compound bar graph extends from 0% to 100%.
15.5.2 Histograms and Frequency Polygons

It is often useful to look at the frequency with which certain values fall in pre-set groups or classes of specied
sizes. The choice of the groups should be such that they help highlight features in the data. If these grouped
values are plotted in a manner similar to a bar graph, then the resulting graph is known as a histogram.
Examples of histograms are shown in Figure 15.4 for Data Set 2, with group sizes of 1 and 2.
277
Groups 0 < n ≤1 1 < n ≤2 2 < n ≤3 3 < n ≤4 4 < n ≤5 5 < n ≤6

Frequency 30 32 35 34 37 32
Table 15.9: Frequency table for Data Set 2, with a group size of 1.
Groups 0 < n ≤2 2 < n ≤4 4 < n ≤6

Frequency 62 69 69
Table 15.10: Frequency table for Data Set 2, with a group size of 2.
Figure 15.4: Examples of histograms for Data Set 2, with a group size = 1 (left) and a group size = 2
(right). The scales on the y-axis for each graph are the same, and the values in the graph on the right
are higher than the values of the graph on the left.
The same data used to plot a histogram are used to plot a frequency polygon, except the pair of data
values are plotted as a point and the points are joined with straight lines. The frequency polygons for the
histograms in Figure 15.4 are shown in Figure 15.5.
Figure 15.5: Examples of histograms for Data Set 2, with a group size = 1 (left) and a group size = 2
(right). The scales on the y-axis for each graph are the same, and the values in the graph on the right
are higher than the values of the graph on the left.
Unlike histograms, many frequency polygons can be plotted together to compare several frequency dis-
tributions, provided that the data has been grouped in the same way and provide a clear way to compare
multiple datasets.
15.5.3 Pie Charts

A pie chart is a graph that is used to show what categories make up a specic section of the data, and what
the contribution each category makes to the entire set of data. A pie chart is based on a circle, and each
category is represented as a wedge of the circle or alternatively as a slice of the pie. The area of each wedge
is proportional to the ratio of that specic category to the total number of data values in the data set. The
wedges are usually shown in dierent colours to make the distinction between the dierent categories easier.
279
Heads
Tails
Figure 15.6: Example of a pie chart for Data Set 1. Pie charts show what contribution each group
makes to the total data set.
Method: Drawing a pie-chart

1. Draw a circle that represents the entire data set.
◦
2. Calculate what proportion of 360 each category corresponds to according to
Frequency
AngularSize = × 360◦ (15.1)
Total
3. Draw a wedge corresponding to the angular contribution.

4. Check that the total degrees for the dierent wedges adds up to close to 360◦ .
Exercise 15.2: Pie Chart (Solution on p. 296.)

Draw a pie chart for Data Set 2 (Table 15.2), showing the relative proportions of each data value
to the total.
◦
Note that the total angular size of the wedges may not add up to exactly 360 because of rounding.
15.5.4 Line and Broken Line Graphs

All graphs that have been studied until this point (bar, compound bar, histogram, frequency polygon and
pie) are drawn from grouped data. The graphs that will be studied in this section are drawn from the
ungrouped or raw data.
Line and broken line graphs are plots of a dependent variable as a function of an independent variable,
e.g. the average global temperature as a function of time, or the average rainfall in a country as a function
of season.
Usually a line graph is plotted after a table has been provided showing the relationship between the two
variables in the form of pairs. Just as in (x,y) graphs, each of the pairs results in a specic point on the
graph, and being a line graph these points are connected to one another by a line.
Many other line graphs exist; they all connect the points by lines, not necessarily straight lines. Sometimes
polynomials, for example, are used to describe approximately the basic relationship between the given pairs
of variables, and between these points.
b
b
Petrol Price (R/l)

b
b
b b b
b b
b
b b b
b
b b b
b b b
b b b
0
August 1998
October 1998
December 1998
February 1999
April 1999
June 1999
August 1999
October 1999
December 1999
February 2000
April 2000
June 2000
Figure 15.7: Example of a line graph for Data Set 5.
Exercise 15.3: Line Graphs (Solution on p. 296.)

Clawde the cat is overweight and her owners have decided to put her on a restricted eating plan.
Her mass is measured once a month and is tabulated below. Draw a line graph of the data to
determine whether the restricted eating plan is working.
Month Mass (kg)

March 4,53
April 4,56
May 4,51
June 4,41
July 4,41
August 4,36
September 4,43
October 4,37
Table 15.11
15.5.5 Exercises - Graphical Representation of Data

1. Represent the following information on a pie chart.
281
Walk 15
Cycle 24
Train 18
Bus 8
Car 35
Total 100
Table 15.12
5
2. Represent the following information using a broken line graph.
Time 07h00 08h00 09h00 10h00 11h00 12h00

◦
Temp ( C) 16 16,5 17 19 20 24
Table 15.13
6
3. Represent the following information on a histogram. Using a coloured pen, draw a frequency polygon
on this histogram.
Time in seconds Frequency
16 - 25 5
26 - 35 10
36 - 45 26
46 - 55 30
56 - 65 15
66 - 75 12
76 - 85 10
Table 15.14
7
4. The maths marks of a class of 30 learners are given below, represent this information using a suitable
graph.
82 75 66 54 79 78 29 55 68 91
43 48 90 61 45 60 82 63 72 53
51 32 62 42 49 62 81 49 61 60
Table 15.15
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5. Use a compound bar graph to illustrate the following information
Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Girls 18 15 13 12 15
Boys 15 11 18 16 10
Table 15.16
9
15.6 Summarising Data

If the data set is very large, it is useful to be able to summarise the data set by calculating a few quantities
that give information about how the data values are spread and about the central values in the data set.
15.6.1 Measures of Central Tendency

15.6.1.1 Mean or Average
The mean, (also known as arithmetic mean), is simply the arithmetic average of a group of numbers (or data
set) and is shown using the bar symbol . So the mean of the variable x is x pronounced "x-bar". The mean
of a set of values is calculated by adding up all the values in the set and dividing by the number of items in
that set. The mean is calculated from the raw, ungrouped data.
Denition 15.2: Mean

The mean of a data set, x, denoted by x, is the average of the data values, and is calculated as:
sumofallvalues x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn
x = = (15.2)
numberofvalues n
Method: Calculating the mean

1. Find the total of the data values in the data set.
2. Count how many data values there are in the data set.
3. Divide the total by the number of data values.
Exercise 15.4: Mean (Solution on p. 297.)

What is the mean of x = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}?
15.6.1.2 Median
Denition 15.3: Median
The median of a set of data is the data value in the central position, when the data set has been
arranged from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest. There are an equal number of data
values on either side of the median value.
The median is calculated from the raw, ungrouped data, as follows.

Method: Calculating the median
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1. Order the data from smallest to largest or from largest to smallest.

3. Find the data value in the central position of the set.
Exercise 15.5: Median (Solution on p. 297.)

What is the median of {10, 14, 86, 2, 68, 99, 1}?
This example has highlighted a potential problem with determining the median. It is very easy to determine
the median of a data set with an odd number of data values, but what happens when there is an even number
of data values in the data set?
When there is an even number of data values, the median is the mean of the two middle points.
tip: Finding the Central Position of a Data Set
An easy way to determine the central position or positions for any ordered data set is to take the total
number of data values, add 1, and then divide by 2. If the number you get is a whole number, then that is
the central position. If the number you get is a fraction, take the two whole numbers on either side of the
fraction, as the positions of the data values that must be averaged to obtain the median.
Exercise 15.6: Median (Solution on p. 298.)

What is the median of {11, 10, 14, 86, 2, 68, 99, 1}?
15.6.1.3 Mode
Denition 15.4: Mode
The mode is the data value that occurs most often, i.e. it is the most frequent value or most
common value in a set.
Method: Calculating the mode Count how many times each data value occurs. The mode is the
data value that occurs the most.
The mode is calculated from grouped data, or single data items.
Exercise 15.7: Mode (Solution on p. 298.)

Find the mode of the data set x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10}
A data set can have more than one mode. For example, both 2 and 3 are modes in the set 1, 2, 2, 3, 3. If
all points in a data set occur with equal frequency, it is equally accurate to describe the data set as having
many modes or no mode.
Khan academy video on statistics

<http://www.youtube.com/v/uhxtUt_-GyM&rel=0>
Figure 15.8
15.6.2 Measures of Dispersion

The mean, median and mode are measures of central tendency, i.e. they provide information on the central
data values in a set. When describing data it is sometimes useful (and in some cases necessary) to determine
the spread of a distribution. Measures of dispersion provide information on how the data values in a set are
distributed around the mean value. Some measures of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles.
15.6.2.1 Range
Denition 15.5: Range
The range of a data set is the dierence between the lowest value and the highest value in the set.
Method: Calculating the range

1. Find the highest value in the data set.
2. Find the lowest value in the data set.
3. Subtract the lowest value from the highest value. The dierence is the range.
Exercise 15.8: Range (Solution on p. 298.)

Find the range of the data set x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10}
15.6.2.2 Quartiles
Denition 15.6: Quartiles
Quartiles are the three data values that divide an ordered data set into four groups containing
equal numbers of data values. The median is the second quartile.
The quartiles of a data set are formed by the two boundaries on either side of the median, which divide
the set into four equal sections. The lowest 25% of the data being found below the rst quartile value, also
called the lower quartile. The median, or second quartile divides the set into two equal sections. The lowest
75% of the data set should be found below the third quartile, also called the upper quartile. For example:
22 24 48 51 60 72 73 75 80 88 90
↓ ↓ ↓
Lower quartile Median Upper quartile
(Q1 ) (Q2 ) (Q3 )
Table 15.17
Method: Calculating the quartiles

3. Divide the number of data values by 4. The result is the number of data values per group.
4. Determine the data values corresponding to the rst, second and third quartiles using the number of
data values per quartile.
Exercise 15.9: Quartiles (Solution on p. 298.)

What are the quartiles of {3, 5, 1, 8, 9, 12, 25, 28, 24, 30, 41, 50}?
15.6.2.3 Inter-quartile Range

Denition 15.7: Inter-quartile Range
The inter quartile range is a measure which provides information about the spread of a data set,
and is calculated by subtracting the rst quartile from the third quartile, giving the range of the
middle half of the data set, trimming o the lowest and highest quarters, i.e. Q3 − Q1 .
Q3 −Q1
The semi-interquartile range is half the interquartile range, i.e.
2
285
Exercise 15.10: Medians, Quartiles and the Interquartile Range (Solution on p. 299.)
A class of 12 students writes a test and the results are as follows: 20, 39, 40, 43, 43, 46, 53, 58, 63,
70, 75, 91. Find the range, quartiles and the Interquartile Range.
15.6.2.4 Percentiles
Denition 15.8: Percentiles
Percentiles are the 99 data values that divide a data set into 100 groups.
The calculation of percentiles is identical to the calculation of quartiles, except the aim is to divide the
data values into 100 groups instead of the 4 groups required by quartiles.
Method: Calculating the percentiles
3. Divide the number of data values by 100. The result is the number of data values per group.
4. Determine the data values corresponding to the rst, second and third quartiles using the number of
data values per quartile.
15.6.3 Exercises - Summarising Data

1. Three sets of data are given:
a. Data set 1: 9 12 12 14 16 22 24
b. Data set 2: 7 7 8 11 13 15 16 16
c. Data set 3: 11 15 16 17 19 19 22 24 27 For each one nd:
a. the range
b. the lower quartile
c. the interquartile range
d. the semi-interquartile range
e. the median
f. the upper quartile
10
2. There is 1 sweet in one jar, and 3 in the second jar. The mean number of sweets in the rst two jars
is 2.
a. If the mean number in the rst three jars is 3, how many are there in the third jar?
b. If the mean number in the rst four jars is 4, how many are there in the fourth jar?
11
3. Find a set of ve ages for which the mean age is 5, the modal age is 2 and the median age is 3 years.
12
4. Four friends each have some marbles. They work out that the mean number of marbles they have is 10.
One of them leaves. She has 4 marbles. How many marbles do the remaining friends have together?
13
Exercise 15.11: Mean, Median and Mode for Grouped Data (Solution on p. 299.)
Consider the following grouped data and calculate the mean, the modal group and the median
group.
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Mass (kg) Frequency
41 - 45 7
46 - 50 10
51 - 55 15
56 - 60 12
61 - 65 6
Total = 50
Table 15.18
15.6.3.1 More mean, modal and median group exercises.

In each data set given, nd the mean, the modal group and the median group.
1. Times recorded when learners played a game.
Time in seconds Frequency
36 - 45 5
46 - 55 11
56 - 65 15
66 - 75 26
76 - 85 19
86 - 95 13
96 - 105 6
Table 15.19
14
2. The following data were collected from a group of learners.
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287
Mass in kilograms Frequency
41 - 45 3
46 - 50 5
51 - 55 8
56 - 60 12
61 - 65 14
66 - 70 9
71 - 75 7
76 - 80 2
Table 15.20
15
15.7 Misuse of Statistics

In many cases groups can gain an advantage by misleading people with the misuse of statistics.
Common techniques used include:
• Three dimensional graphs.

• Axes that do not start at zero.
• Axes without scales.
• Graphic images that convey a negative or positive mood.
• Assumption that a correlation shows a necessary causality.
• Using statistics that are not truly representative of the entire population.
• Using misconceptions of mathematical concepts
For example, the following pairs of graphs show identical information but look very dierent. Explain why.
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20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
J F M A M J J J J M A M F J
Months Months
10 10
8
6 9
4
8
2
0 7
Figure 15.9
15.7.1 Exercises - Misuse of Statistics

1. A company has tried to give a visual representation of the increase in their earnings from one year to
the next. Does the graph below convince you? Critically analyse the graph.
289
2006 2007
Figure 15.10
16
2. In a study conducted on a busy highway, data was collected about drivers breaking the speed limit
and the colour of the car they were driving. The data were collected during a 20 minute time interval
during the middle of the day, and are presented in a table and pie chart below.
• Conclusions made by a novice based on the data are summarised as follows:

• People driving white cars are more likely to break the speed limit.
• Drivers in blue and red cars are more likely to stick to the speed limit.
• Do you agree with these conclusions? Explain.
17
3. A record label produces a graphic, showing their advantage in sales over their competitors. Identify at
least three devices they have used to inuence and mislead the readers impression.
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50 million copies
40 million copies
Our sales Competitor’s sales
Figure 15.11
18
4. In an eort to discredit their competition, a tour bus company prints the graph shown below. Their
claim is that the competitor is losing business. Can you think of a better explanation?
2400
2000
Number of tourist passengers
1600
1200
800
400
0
O N D J F M A M J
Months of 2006/2007
Figure 15.12
19
5. To test a theory, 8 dierent oces were monitored for noise levels and productivity of the employees
in the oce. The results are graphed below.
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Noise Level vs Productivity
Productivity
×
×
×
×
×
Noise Level
Figure 15.13
The following statement was then made: If an oce environment is noisy, this leads to poor produc-
tivity. Explain the aws in this thinking.
20
15.8 Summary of Denitions

mean: The mean of a data set, x, denoted by x, is the average of the data values, and is calculated as:
sumofvalues
x= (15.3)
numberofvalues
median: The median is the centre data value in a data set that has been ordered from lowest to highest
mode: The mode is the data value that occurs most often in a data set.
The following presentation summarises what you have learnt in this chapter. Ignore the chapter number and
any exercise numbers in the presentation.

<http://static.slidesharecdn.com/swf/ssplayer2.swf ?doc=p0001-wynberggirlshigh-jadegibson-maths-grade-
dataanalysisstatistics-100929095944-phpapp01&stripped_title=wynberg-girls-highjade-gibsonmathsdata-
analysis-statistics>
Figure 15.14
15.9 Exercises
1. Calculate the mean, median, and mode of Data Set 3.
21
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2. The tallest 7 trees in a park have heights in metres of 41, 60, 47, 42, 44, 42, and 47. Find the median
of their heights.
22
3. The students in Bjorn's class have the following ages: 5, 9, 1, 3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 7, 3. Find the mode of their
ages.
23
4. The masses (in kg, correct to the nearest 0,1 kg) of thirty people were measured as fol-
lows:
45,1 57,9 67,9 57,4 50,7 61,1 63,9 67,5 69,7 71,7
68,0 63,2 58,7 56,9 78,5 59,7 54,4 66,4 51,6 47,7
70,9 54,8 59,1 60,3 60,1 52,6 74,9 72,1 49,5 49,8
Table 15.21
a. Copy the frequency table below, and complete it.
Mass (in kg) Tally Number of people

45, 0 ≤ m < 50, 0
50, 0 ≤ m < 55, 0
55, 0 ≤ m < 60, 0
60, 0 ≤ m < 65, 0
65, 0 ≤ m < 70, 0
70, 0 ≤ m < 75, 0
75, 0 ≤ m < 80, 0
Table 15.22
b. Draw a frequency polygon for this information.

c. What can you conclude from looking at the graph?
24
5. An engineering company has designed two dierent types of engines for motorbikes. The two dierent
motorbikes are tested for the time it takes (in seconds) for them to accelerate from 0 km/h to 60
km/h.
Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Average
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bike 1.55 1.00 0.92 0.80 1.49 0.71 1.06 0.68 0.87 1.09
1
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Bike 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.1
2
Table 15.23
a. What measure of central tendency should be used for this information?

b. Calculate the average you chose in the previous question for each motorbike.
c. Which motorbike would you choose based on this information? Take note of accuracy of the
numbers from each set of tests.
25
6. The heights of 40 learners are given below.
154 140 145 159 150 132 149 150 138 152
141 132 169 173 139 161 163 156 157 171
168 166 151 152 132 142 170 162 146 152
142 150 161 138 170 131 145 146 147 160
Table 15.24
a. Set up a frequency table using 6 intervals.

b. Calculate the approximate mean.
c. Determine the mode.
d. How many learners are taller than your approximate average in (b)?
26
7. In a trac survey, a random sample of 50 motorists were asked the distance they drove to work daily.
This information is shown in the table below.
Distance in km 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45
Frequency 4 5 9 10 7 8 3 2 2
Table 15.25
a. Find the approximate mean.

b. What percentage of samples drove
i. less than 16 km?

ii. more than 30 km?
iii. between 16 km and 30 km daily?
27
8. A company wanted to evaluate the training programme in its factory. They gave the same task to
trained and untrained employees and timed each one in seconds.
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Trained 121 137 131 135 130
128 130 126 132 127
129 120 118 125 134
Untrained 135 142 126 148 145
156 152 153 149 145
144 134 139 140 142
Table 15.26
a. Find the medians and quartiles for both sets of data.

b. Find the Interquartile Range for both sets of data.
c. Comment on the results.
28
9. A small rm employs nine people. The annual salaries of the employers are:
R600 000 R250 000 R200 000
R120 000 R100 000 R100 000
R100 000 R90 000 R80 000
Table 15.27
a. Find the mean of these salaries.

b. Find the mode.
c. Find the median.
d. Of these three gures, which would you use for negotiating salary increases if you were a trade
union ocial? Why?
29
10. The marks for a particular class test are listed here:
67 58 91 67 58 82 71 51 60 84
31 67 96 64 78 71 87 78 89 38
69 62 60 73 60 87 71 49
Table 15.28
Complete the frequency table using the given class intervals.
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Class Tally Frequency Mid-point Freq × Midpt
30-39 34,5
40-49 44,5
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89
90-99
Sum = Sum =
Table 15.29
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Step 1. There are two unique data values: H and T. Therefore there are two groups, one for the H-data values
and one for the T-data values.
Step 2.
Data Value Frequency
H 44
T 56
Table 15.30
Step 3. There are 100 data values and the total of the frequency column is 44+56=100.

Step 1.
Total
Data Value 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 30 32 35 34 37 32 200
Table 15.31
Step 2.
Data Value Angular Size of Wedge
Frequency
1
Total × 360◦ = 30
200 × 360 = 54◦
Frequency
2
Total × 360◦ = 32
200 × 360 = 57, 6◦
Frequency
3
Total × 360◦ = 35
200 × 360 = 63◦
Frequency
4
Total × 360◦ = 34
200 × 360 = 61, 2◦
Frequency
5
Total × 360◦ = 37
200 × 360 = 66, 6◦
Frequency
6
Total × 360◦ = 32
200 × 360 = 57, 6◦
Table 15.32
2
3 1
4 6
5
Step 3. Pie Chart for Data Set 2
Figure 15.15

297
Step 1. We are required to plot a line graph to determine whether the restricted eating plan is helping Clawde
the cat lose weight. We are given all the information that we need to plot the graph.
Step 2.
Figure 15.16
Step 3. There is a slight decrease of mass from March to October, so the restricted eating plan is working, but
very slowly.

Step 1.
10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 = 150 (15.4)
Step 2. There are 5 values in the data set.

Step 3.
150 ÷ 5 = 30 (15.5)
Step 4. ∴ the mean of the data set x = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50} is 30.

Step 1. 1,2,10,14,68,86,99
Step 2. There are 7 points in the data set.
Step 3. The central position of the data set is 4.
Step 4. 14 is in the central position of the data set.
Step 5. ∴ 14 is the median of the data set {1, 2, 10, 14, 68, 86, 99}.

Step 1. 1,2,10,11,14,68,85,99
Step 2. There are 8 points in the data set.
Step 3. The central position of the data set is between positions 4 and 5.
Step 4. 11 is in position 4 and 14 is in position 5.
Step 5. ∴ the median of the data set {1, 2, 10, 11, 14, 68, 85, 99} is
(11 + 14) ÷ 2 = 12, 5 (15.6)

Step 1.
data value frequency data value frequency
1 1 6 1
2 1 7 1
3 1 8 2
4 3 9 1
5 1 10 2
Table 15.33
Step 2. 4 occurs most often.

Step 3. The mode of the data set x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10} is 4. Since the number 4 appears the
most frequently.

Step 1. 10 is the highest value and 1 is the lowest value.
Step 2.
10 − 1 = 9 (15.7)
Step 3. For the data set x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 10}, the range is 9.

Step 1. {1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 24, 25, 28, 30, 41, 50}
Step 2. There are 12 values in the data set.
Step 3.
12 ÷ 4 = 3 (15.8)
Step 4.
1 3 5 k 8 9 12 k 24 25 28 k 30 41 50
Q1 Q2 Q3
Table 15.34
The rst quartile occurs between data position 3 and 4 and is the average of data values 5 and 8. The
second quartile occurs between positions 6 and 7 and is the average of data values 12 and 24. The
third quartile occurs between positions 9 and 10 and is the average of data values 28 and 30.
Step 5. The rst quartile = 6,5. (Q1 )
The second quartile = 18. (Q2 )
The third quartile = 29. (Q3 )
299

Step 1.
20 39 40 k 43 43 46 k 53 58 63 k 70 75 91
Q1 M Q3
Table 15.35
Step 2. The range = 91 - 20 = 71. This tells us that the marks are quite widely spread.
Step 3. i.e. M = 46+53
2 = 99
2 = 49, 5
Step 4. i.e. Q1 = 2 = 83
40+43
2 = 41, 5
Step 5. i.e. Q3 = 63+70
2 = 133
2 = 66, 5
Step 6. The quartiles are 41,5, 49,5 and 66,5. These quartiles tell us that 25% of the marks are less than 41,5;
50% of the marks are less than 49,5 and 75% of the marks are less than 66,5. They also tell us that
50% of the marks lie between 41,5 and 66,5.
Step 7. The Interquartile Range = 66,5 - 41,5 = 25. This tells us that the width of the middle 50% of the data
values is 25.
25
Step 8. The Semi-interquartile Range =
2 = 12,5

Step 1. To calculate the mean we need to add up all the masses and divide by 50. We do not know actual
masses, so we approximate by choosing the midpoint of each group. We then multiply those midpoint
numbers by the frequency. Then we add these numbers together to nd the approximate total of the
masses. This is show in the table below.
Mass (kg) Midpoint Frequency Midpt × Freq
41 - 45 (41+45)/2 = 43 7 43 × 7 = 301
46 - 50 48 10 480
51 - 55 53 15 795
56 - 60 58 12 696
61 - 65 63 6 378
Total = 50 Total = 2650
Table 15.36
2650
Step 2. The mean =
50 = 53.
The modal group is the group 51 - 53 because it has the highest frequency.
The median group is the group 51 - 53, since the 25th and 26th terms are contained within this group.
Chapter 16
Probability - Grade 10 1
16.1 Introduction
Very little in mathematics is truly self-contained. Many branches of mathematics touch and interact with
one another, and the elds of probability and statistics are no dierent. A basic understanding of probability
is vital in grasping basic statistics, and probability is largely abstract without statistics to determine the
"real world" probabilities.
Probability theory is concerned with predicting statistical outcomes. A simple example of a statistical
outcome is observing a head or tail when tossing a coin. Another simple example of a statistical outcome is
obtaining the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 when rolling a die. (We say one die, many dice.)
1
For a fair coin, heads should occur for
2 of the number of tosses and for a fair die, each number should
1
occur for of the number of rolls. Therefore, the probability of observing a head on one toss of a fair coin
6
1 1
is
2 and that for obtaining a four on one roll of a fair die is 6 .
In earlier grades, the idea has been introduced that dierent situations have dierent probabilities of
occurring and that for many situations there are a nite number of dierent possible outcomes. In general,
events from daily life can be classied as either:
• certain that they will happen; or

• certain that they will not happen; or
• uncertain.
This chapter builds on earlier work and describes how to calculate the probability associated with dierent
situations, and describes how probability is used to assign a number describing the level of chance or the
odds associated with aspects of life. The meanings of statements like: `The HIV test is 85% reliable.' will
also be explained.
16.2 Random Experiments

The term random experiment or statistical experiment is used to describe any repeatable experiment or
situation.
The term random experiment or statistical experiment is used to describe ay repeatable experiment or
situation. To attain any meaningful information from an experiment we rst need to understand 3 key
concepts: outcome, event and sample space.
301
302 CHAPTER 16. PROBABILITY - GRADE 10
16.2.1 Outcomes, Sample Space and Events

We will be using 2 experiments to illustrate the concepts:
• Experiment 1 will be the value of a single die that is thrown

• Experiment 2 will be the value of 2 die that are thrown at the same time
16.2.1.1 Outcome
The outcome of an experiment is a single result of the experiment. In the case of experiment 1, throwing a
4 would be a single outcome.
16.2.1.2 Sample Space

The sample space of an experiment is the complete set of outcomes that are possible as a result of the
experiment.
• Experiment 1: the sample space is 1,2,3,4,5,6

• Experiment 2: the sample space is 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
16.2.1.3 Event
An event can be dened as the combination of outcomes that you are interested in.
• Experiment 1: The event that looks at all the even numbers is given as 2,4,6
• Experiment 2: For experiment 2 it is given as 2,4,6,8,10,12
A Venn diagram can be used to show the relationship between the outcomes of a random experiment, the
sample space and events associated with the outcomes. The Venn diagram in Figure 16.1 shows the dierence
between the universal set, a sample space and events and outcomes as subsets of the sample space.
303
Figure 16.1: Diagram to show dierence between the universal set and the sample space. The sample
space is made up of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment and an event is a subset of the
sample space.
Venn diagrams can also be used to indicate the union and intersection between events in a sample space
(Figure 16.2).
Figure 16.2: Venn diagram to show (left) union of two events, A and B , in the sample space S and
(right) intersection of two events A and B , in the sample space S . The crosshatched region indicates the
intersection.
Exercise 16.1: Random Experiments (Solution on p. 314.)

In a box there are pieces of paper with the numbers from 1 to 9 written on them.
S = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9}
16.2.1.3.1 Random Experiments

1. S = {whole numbers from1to16}, X = {even numbers from1to16} and Y =
{prime numbers from1to16}
a. Draw a Venn diagram S , X and Y .
b. Write down n (S), n (X), n (Y ), n (X ∪ Y ), n (X ∩ Y ).
2
2. There are 79 Grade 10 learners at school. All of these take either Maths, Geography or History. The
number who take Geography is 41, those who take History is 36, and 30 take Maths. The number who
take Maths and History is 16; the number who take Geography and History is 6, and there are 8 who
take Maths only and 16 who take only History.
a. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate all this information.

b. How many learners take Maths and Geography but not History?
c. How many learners take Geography only?
d. How many learners take all three subjects?
3
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3. Pieces of paper labelled with the numbers 1 to 12 are placed in a box and the box is shaken. One piece
of paper is taken out and then replaced.
a. What is the sample space, S?

b. Write down the set A, representing the event of taking a piece of paper labelled with a factor 12.
c. Write down the set B , representing the event of taking a piece of paper labelled with a prime
number.
d. Represent A, B and S by means of a Venn diagram.
e. Write down
i. n (S)
ii. n (A)
iii. n (B)
iv. n (A ∩ B)
v. n (A ∪ B)
f. Is n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) − n (A ∩ B)?

4
16.3 Probability Models

The word probability relates to uncertain events or knowledge, being closely related in meaning to likely,
risky, hazardous, and doubtful. Chance, odds, and bet are other words expressing similar ideas.
Probability is connected with uncertainty. In any statistical experiment, the outcomes that occur may be
known, but exactly which one might not be known. Mathematically, probability theory formulates incomplete
knowledge pertaining to the likelihood of an occurrence. For example, a meteorologist might say there is
a 60% chance that it will rain tomorrow. This means that in 6 of every 10 times when the world is in the
current state, it will rain tomorrow.
A probability is a real number between 0 and 1. In everyday speech, probabilities are usually given
as a percentage between 0% and 100%. A probability of 100% means that an event is certain, whereas a
probability of 0% is often taken to mean the event is impossible. However, there is a distinction between
logically impossible and occurring with zero probability; for example, in selecting a number uniformly between
0 and 1, the probability of selecting 1/2 is 0, but it is not logically impossible. Further, it is certain that
whichever number is selected will have had a probability of 0 of being selected.
Another way of referring to probabilities is odds. The odds of an event is dened as the ratio of the
probability that the event occurs to the probability that it does not occur. For example, the odds of a coin
0.5
landing on a given side are
0.5 = 1, usually written "1 to 1" or "1:1". This means that on average, the coin
will land on that side as many times as it will land on the other side.
16.3.1 Classical Theory of Probability

1. Equally likely outcomes are outcomes which have an equal chance of happening. For example when a
fair coin is tossed, each outcome in the sample space S = heads, tails is equally likely to occur.
2. When all the outcomes are equally likely (in any activity), you can calculate the probability of an
event happening by using the following denition: P(E)=number of favourable outcomes/total number
of possible outcomes P(E)=n(E)/n(S) For example, when you throw a fair dice the possible outcomes
are S = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6} i.e the total number of possible outcomes n(S)=6.
Event 1: get a 4
The only possible outcome is a 4, i.e E=4 i.e number of favourable outcomes: n(E)=1.
Probability of getting a 4 = P(4)=n(E)/n(S)=1/6.
Event 2: get a number greater than 3
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Favourable outcomes: E = {4; 5; 6}

Number of favourable outcomes: n(E)=3
Probability of getting a number more than 3 = P(more than 3) = n(E)/n(S)=3/6=1/2
Exercise 16.2: Classical Probability (Solution on p. 314.)

A standard deck of cards (without jokers) has 52 cards. There are 4 sets of cards, called suites.
The suite a card belongs to is denoted by either a symbol on the card, the 4 symbols are a heart,
club, spade and diamond. In each suite there are 13 cards (4 suites × 13 cards = 52) consisting
of one each of ace, king, queen, jack, and the numbers 2-10.
If we randomly draw a card from the deck, we can think of each card as a possible outcome.
Therefore, there are 52 possible outcomes. We can now look at various events and calculate their
probabilities:
1. Out of the 52 cards, there are 13 clubs. Therefore, if the event of interest is drawing a club,
there are 13 favourable outcomes, what is the probability of this event?
2. There are 4 kings (one of each suit). The probability of drawing a king is?
3. What is the probability of drawing a king OR a club?
16.3.1.1 Probability Models

1. A bag contains 6 red, 3 blue, 2 green and 1 white balls. A ball is picked at random. What is the
probablity that it is:
a. red
b. blue or white
c. not green
d. not green or red?
5
2. A card is selected randomly from a pack of 52. What is the probability that it is:
a. the 2 of hearts
b. a red card
c. a picture card
d. an ace
e. a number less than 4?
6
3. Even numbers from 2 -100 are written on cards. What is the probability of selecting a multiple of 5,
if a card is drawn at random?
7
16.4 Relative Frequency vs. Probability

There are two approaches to determining the probability associated with any particular event of a random
experiment:
1. determining the total number of possible outcomes and calculating the probability of each outcome
using the denition of probability
2. performing the experiment and calculating the relative frequency of each outcome
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Relative frequency is dened as the number of times an event happens in a statistical experiment divided
by the number of trials conducted.
It takes a very large number of trials before the relative frequency of obtaining a head on a toss of a
coin approaches the probability of obtaining a head on a toss of a coin. For example, the data in Table 16.1
represent the outcomes of repeating 100 trials of a statistical experiment 100 times, i.e. tossing a coin 100
times.
H T T H H T H H H H
H H H H T H H T T T
T T H T T H T H T H
H H T T H T T H T T
T H H H T T H T T H
H T T T T H T T H H
T T H T T H T T H T
H T T H T T T T H T
T H T T H H H T H T
T T T H H T T T H T
Table 16.1: Results of 100 tosses of a fair coin. H means that the coin landed heads-up and T means that
the coin landed tails-up.
The following two worked examples show that the relative frequency of an event is not necessarily equal
to the probability of the same event. Relative frequency should therefore be seen as an approximation to
probability.
Exercise 16.3: Relative Frequency and Probability (Solution on p. 315.)

Determine the relative frequencies associated with each outcome of the statistical experiment
detailed in Table 16.1.
Exercise 16.4: Probability (Solution on p. 315.)

Determine the probability associated with an evenly weighted coin landing on either of its faces.
16.5 Project Idea

Perform an experiment to show that as the number of trials increases, the relative frequency approaches the
probability of a coin toss. Perform 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 trials of tossing a coin.
16.6 Probability Identities

The following results apply to probabilities, for the sample space S and two events A and B, within S.
P (S) = 1 (16.1)
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) × P (B) (16.2)
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B) (16.3)

Exercise 16.5: Probabilty identities (Solution on p. 315.)

What is the probability of selecting a black or red card from a pack of 52 cards
Exercise 16.6: Probabilty identities (Solution on p. 315.)

What is the probability of drawing a club or an ace with one single pick from a pack of 52 cards
The following video provides a brief summary of some of the work covered so far.
Khan academy video on probability

<http://www.youtube.com/v/3ER8OkqBdpE&rel=0>
Figure 16.3
16.6.1 Probability Identities

Answer the following questions
1. Rory is target shooting. His probability of hitting the target is 0, 7. He res ve shots. What is the
probability that all ve shots miss the center?
8
2. An archer is shooting arrows at a bullseye. The probability that an arrow hits the bullseye is 0, 4. If
she res three arrows, what is the probability that all the arrows hit the bullseye?
9
3. A dice with the numbers 1,3,5,7,9,11 on it is rolled. Also a fair coin is tossed. What is the probability
that:
a. A tail is tossed and a 9 rolled?

b. A head is tossed and a 3 rolled?
10
4. Four children take a test. The probability of each one passing is as follows. Sarah: 0, 8, Kosma: 0, 5,
Heather: 0, 6, Wendy: 0, 9. What is the probability that:
a. all four pass?

b. all four fail?
11
5. With a single pick from a pack of 52 cards what is the probability that the card will be an ace or a
black card?
12
16.7 Mutually Exclusive Events

Mutually exclusive events are events, which cannot be true at the same time.
Examples of mutually exclusive events are:
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1. A die landing on an even number or landing on an odd number.

2. A student passing or failing an exam
3. A tossed coin landing on heads or landing on tails
This means that if we examine the elements of the sets that make up A and B there will be no elements in
common. Therefore, A∩B = ∅ (where ∅ refers to the empty set). Since, P (A ∩ B) = 0, equation (16.3)
becomes:
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) (16.4)
for mutually exclusive events.
16.7.1 Mutually Exclusive Events

Answer the following questions
1. A box contains coloured blocks. The number of each colour is given in the following ta-
ble.
Colour Purple Orange White Pink
Number of blocks 24 32 41 19
Table 16.2
A block is selected randomly. What is the probability that the block will be:
a. purple
b. purple or white
c. pink and orange
d. not orange?
13
2. A small private school has a class with children of various ages. The table gies the number of pupils
of each age in the class.
3 years female 3 years male 4 years female 4 years male 5 years female 5 years male
6 2 5 7 4 6
Table 16.3
If a pupil is selceted at random what is the probability that the pupil will be:
a. a female
b. a 4 year old male
c. aged 3 or 4
d. aged 3 and 4
e. not 5
f. either 3 or female?
14
3. Fiona has 85 labeled discs, which are numbered from 1 to 85. If a disc is selected at random what is
the probability that the disc number:
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a. ends with 5
b. can be multiplied by 3
c. can be multiplied by 6
d. is number 65
e. is not a multiple of 5
f. is a multiple of 4 or 3
g. is a multiple of 2 and 6
h. is number 1?
15
16.8 Complementary Events

The probability of complementary events refers to the probability associated with events not occurring. For
example, if P (A) = 0.25, then the probability of A not occurring is the probability associated with all other
events in S occurring less the probability of A occurring. This means that
P A' = 1 − P (A)

(16.5)
where A' refers to `not A' In other words, the probability of `not A' is equal to one minus the probability
of A.

If you throw two dice, one red and one blue, what is the probability that at least one of them will
be a six?

A bag contains three red balls, ve white balls, two green balls and four blue balls:
1. Calculate the probability that a red ball will be drawn from the bag.
2. Calculate the probability that a ball which is not red will be drawn
16.8.1 Interpretation of Probability Values

The probability of an event is generally represented as a real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. An
impossible event has a probability of exactly 0, and a certain event has a probability of 1, but the converses
are not always true: probability 0 events are not always impossible, nor probability 1 events certain. The
rather subtle distinction between "certain" and "probability 1" is treated at greater length in the article on
"almost surely".
Most probabilities that occur in practice are numbers between 0 and 1, indicating the event's position
on the continuum between impossibility and certainty. The closer an event's probability is to 1, the more
likely it is to occur.
For example, if two mutually exclusive events are assumed equally probable, such as a ipped or spun
coin landing heads-up or tails-up, we can express the probability of each event as "1 in 2", or, equivalently,
"50%" or "1/2".
Probabilities are equivalently expressed as odds, which is the ratio of the probability of one event to the
probability of all other events. The odds of heads-up, for the tossed/spun coin, are (1/2)/(1 - 1/2), which is
equal to 1/1. This is expressed as "1 to 1 odds" and often written "1:1".
Odds a:b for some event are equivalent to probability a/(a+b). For example, 1:1 odds are equivalent to
probability 1/2, and 3:2 odds are equivalent to probability 3/5.
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311

1. A group of 45 children were asked if they eat Frosties and/or Strawberry Pops. 31 eat both and 6 eat
only Frosties. What is the probability that a child chosen at random will eat only Strawberry Pops?
16
2. In a group of 42 pupils, all but 3 had a packet of chips or a Fanta or both. If 23 had a packet of chips
and 7 of these also had a Fanta, what is the probability that one pupil chosen at random has:
a. Both chips and Fanta

b. has only Fanta?
17
3. Use a Venn diagram to work out the following probabilities from a die being rolled:
a. A multiple of 5 and an odd number

b. a number that is neither a multiple of 5 nor an odd number
c. a number which is not a multiple of 5, but is odd.
18
4. A packet has yellow and pink sweets. The probability of taking out a pink sweet is 7/12.
a. What is the probability of taking out a yellow sweet

b. If 44 if the sweets are yellow, how many sweets are pink?
19
5. In a car park with 300 cars, there are 190 Opals. What is the probability that the rst car to leave
the car park is:
a. an Opal
b. not an Opal
20
6. Tamara has 18 loose socks in a drawer. Eight of these are orange and two are pink. Calculate the
probability that the rst sock taken out at random is:
a. Orange
b. not orange
c. pink
d. not pink
e. orange or pink
f. not orange or pink
21
7. A plate contains 9 shortbread cookies, 4 ginger biscuits, 11 chocolate chip cookies and 18 Jambos. If
a biscuit is selected at random, what is the probability that:
a. it is either a ginger biscuit of a Jambo?

b. it is NOT a shortbread cookie.
22
8. 280 tickets were sold at a rae. Ingrid bought 15 tickets. What is the probability that Ingrid:
a. Wins the prize

b. Does not win the prize?
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9. The children in a nursery school were classied by hair and eye colour. 44 had red hair and not brown
eyes, 14 had brown eyes and red hair, 5 had brown eyes but not red hair and 40 did not have brown
eyes or red hair.
a. How many children were in the school

b. What is the probility that a child chosen at random has:
1. Brown eyes
2. Red hair
c. A child with brown eyes is chosen randomly. What is the probability that this child will have red
hair
24
10. A jar has purple, blue and black sweets in it. The probability that a sweet, chosen at random, will be
purple is 1/7 and the probability that it will be black is 3/5.
a. If I choose a sweet at random what is the probability that it will be:
i. purple or blue
ii. Black
iii. purple
b. If there are 70 sweets in the jar how many purple ones are there?
c. 1/4 if the purple sweets in b) have streaks on them and rest do not. How many purple sweets
have streaks?
25
11. For each of the following, draw a Venn diagram to represent the situation and nd an example to
illustrate the situation.
a. A sample space in which there are two events that are not mutually exclusive
b. A sample space in which there are two events that are complementary.
26
12. Use a Venn diagram to prove that the probability of either event A or B occuring is given by: (A and
B are not exclusive) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
27
13. All the clubs are taken out of a pack of cards. The remaining cards are then shued and one card
chosen. After being chosen, the card is replaced before the next card is chosen.
a. What is the sample space?

b. Find a set to represent the event, P, of drawing a picture card.
c. Find a set for the event, N, of drawing a numbered card.
d. Represent the above events in a Venn diagram
e. What description of the sets P and N is suitable? (Hint: Find any elements of P in N and N in
P.)
28
14. Thuli has a bag containing ve orange, three purple and seven pink blocks. The bag is shaken and a
block is withdrawn. The colour of the block is noted and the block is replaced.
a. What is the sample space for this experiment?

b. What is the set describing the event of drawing a pink block, P?
c. Write down a set, O or B, to represent the event of drawing either a orange or a purple block.
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d. Draw a Venn diagram to show the above information.

29
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Step 1. • Drawing a prime number: P = {2; 3; 5; 7}
• Drawing an even number: E = {2; 4; 6; 8}
Step 2.
Figure 16.4
Step 3. The union of P E

is the set of all elements in P or in E (or in both). P or E = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
and
P or E is also writtenP ∪ E.
Step 4. The intersection of P and E is the set of all elements in both P and E . P and E = 2. P and E is
also written as P ∩ E .
Step 5. We use n (S) to refer to the number of elements in a set S , n (X) for the number of elements in X , etc.
∴ n (S) = 9
n (P ) = 4
n (E) = 4 (16.6)
n (P ∪ E) = 7
n (P ∩ E) = 2

13 1
Step 1. The probability of this event is
52 = 4.
315
4 1
Step 2.
52 = 13 .
Step 3. This example is slightly more complicated. We cannot simply add together the number of number of
outcomes for each event separately (4 + 13 = 17) as this inadvertently counts one of the outcomes
16
twice (the king of clubs). The correct answer is
52 .

Step 1. There are two unique outcomes: H and T.
Step 2.
Outcome Frequency
H 44
T 56
Table 16.4
Step 3. The statistical experiment of tossing the coin was performed 100 times. Therefore, there were 100
trials, in total.
Step 4.
frequency of outcome
Probability of H = number of trials
44
= 100
= 0, 44
(16.7)
frequency of outcome
Relative Frequency of T = number of trials
56
= 100
= 0, 56
The relative frequency of the coin landing heads-up is 0,44 and the relative frequency of the coin
landing tails-up is 0,56.

Step 1. There are two unique outcomes: H and T.
Step 2. There are two possible outcomes.
Step 3.
number of favourable outcomes
Relative Frequency of H = total number of outcomes
1
= 2
= 0, 5
(16.8)
number of favourable outcomes

Relative Frequency of T = total number of outcomes
1
= 2
= 0, 5
The probability of an evenly weighted coin landing on either face is 0, 5.
Step 1. P(S)=n(E)/n(S)=52/52=1. because all cards are black or red!

Step 1.
P (club ∪ ace) = P (club) + P (ace) − P (club ∩ ace) (16.9)
Step 2.
1 1 1 1
= + − ×

4 13 4 13
1 1 1
= 4 + 13 − 52
(16.10)
16
= 52
4
= 13
Notice how we have used P (C ∪ A) = P (C) + P (A) − P (C ∩ A).

Step 1. To solve that kind of question, work out the probability that there will be no six.
Step 2. The probability that the red dice will not be a six is 5/6, and that the blue one will not be a six is also
5/6.
Step 3. So the probability that neither will be a six is 5/6 × 5/6 = 25/36.
Step 4. So the probability that at least one will be a six is 1 − 25/36 = 11/36.

Step 1. Let R be the event that a red ball is drawn:
• P(R)-n(R)/n(S)=3/14
• R and R' are complementary events
Step 2. ∴ P(R') = 1 - P(R) = 1 -3/14 = 11/14

Step 3. • Alternately P(R') = P(B) + P(W) + P(G)
• P(R') = 4/14 + 5/14 + 2/14 = 11/14
GLOSSARY 317
Glossary
C Compound Interest
Compound interest is the interest payable on the principal and its accumulated interest.
D Data
Data refers to the pieces of information that have been observed and recorded, from an
experiment or a survey. There are two types of data: primary and secondary. The word "data"
is the plural of the word "datum", and therefore one should say, "the data are" and not "the
data is".
E Equality for Exponential Functions

If a is a positive number such that a > 0, (except when a=1 ) then:
ax = ay (9.16)
if and only if:
x=y (9.17)
(If a = 1, then x and y can dier)
Exponential Notation
Exponential notation means a number written like
an (3.1)
where n is an integer and a can be any real number. a is called the base and n is called the
exponent or index.
I Inter-quartile Range
The inter quartile range is a measure which provides information about the spread of a data set,
and is calculated by subtracting the rst quartile from the third quartile, giving the range of the
middle half of the data set, trimming o the lowest and highest quarters, i.e. Q3 − Q1 .
M Mean
The mean of a data set, x, denoted by x, is the average of the data values, and is calculated as:
sumofallvalues x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn
x = = (15.2)
numberofvalues n
Median
The median of a set of data is the data value in the central position, when the data set has been
arranged from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest. There are an equal number of data
values on either side of the median value.
Mode
318 GLOSSARY
The mode is the data value that occurs most often, i.e. it is the most frequent value or most
common value in a set.
P Percentiles
Percentiles are the 99 data values that divide a data set into 100 groups.
Q Quartiles
Quartiles are the three data values that divide an ordered data set into four groups containing
equal numbers of data values. The median is the second quartile.
R Range
The range of a data set is the dierence between the lowest value and the highest value in the set.
Rational Number
a
(2.2)
b
S Similar Polygons
Two polygons are similar if:
• their corresponding angles are equal, and

• the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.
Simple Interest
Simple interest is where you earn interest on the initial amount that you invested, but not
interest on interest.
INDEX 319
Index of Keywords and Terms

Keywords are listed by the section with that keyword (page numbers are in parentheses). Keywords
do not necessarily appear in the text of the page. They are merely associated with that section. Ex.
apples, 1.1 (1) Terms are referenced by the page they appear on. Ex. apples, 1
A Average Gradient, 11(151) 11(151), 12(157), 13(193), 15(267),
C
16(301)
Compound Interest, 61
maths, 14(235)
D Data, 267
Mean, 282
Median, 282
E Equality for Exponential Functions, 92 Mode, 283
Equations, 9(85)
Estimating Surds, 4(37)
N Number Patterns, 6(45)
Exponential Notation, 27
P Percentiles, 285
Exponentials, 3(27)
probability, 16(301)
Extension, 11(151)
Products, 8(71)
F Factors, 8(71)
Q Quartiles, 284
FHSST, 9(85), 10(111), 14(235)
Finance, 7(53) R Range, 284
Functions, 10(111) Rational Number, 21
G
Rational Numbers, 2(19)
Geometry, 12(157), 13(193)
Rounding O, 5(41)
Grade 10, 1(1), 2(19), 3(27), 4(37),
5(41), 6(45), 7(53), 8(71), 9(85), S Similar Polygons, 201
10(111), 11(151), 12(157), 13(193), Simple Interest, 59
14(235), 15(267), 16(301) South Africa, 1(1), 2(19), 3(27), 4(37),
Graphs, 10(111) 5(41), 6(45), 7(53), 8(71), 9(85),
I
10(111), 11(151), 12(157), 13(193),
Inequalities, 9(85)
14(235), 15(267), 16(301)
Inter-quartile Range, 284
Statistics, 15(267), 16(301)
Introduction, 12(157)
Surds, 4(37)
Irrational Numbers, 5(41)
T
M Mathematics, 1(1), 3(27), 7(53), 8(71),
Triginometry, 14(235)
320 ATTRIBUTIONS
Attributions
Collection: FHSST: Grade 10 Maths
Edited by: Free High School Science Texts Project
URL: http://cnx.org/content/col11239/1.1/
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: "Review of Past Work"

By: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Mark Horner, Heather Williams
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m31330/1.4/
Pages: 1-18
Copyright: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Mark Horner, Heather Williams
Module: "Rational Numbers"

Pages: 19-25
Module: "Exponentials"
Pages: 27-35
Module: "Estimating Surds"

Pages: 37-40
Module: "Irrational Numbers and Rounding O"

Pages: 41-44
Module: "Number Patterns"

Pages: 45-52
ATTRIBUTIONS 321
Module: "Finance - Grade 10"

By: Rory Adams, Heather Williams, Free High School Science Texts Project
Pages: 53-70
Copyright: Rory Adams, Heather Williams, Free High School Science Texts Project
Module: "Products and Factors"

Pages: 71-84
Module: "Equations and Inequalities - Grade 10"

By: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
Pages: 85-110
Copyright: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
Module: "Functions and graphs - Grade 10"

By: Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
Pages: 111-150
Copyright: Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
Module: "Average Gradient"

Pages: 151-156
Module: "Geometry Basics"

Pages: 157-191
Module: "Geometry - Grade 10"

Pages: 193-234
Module: "Trigonometry - Grade 10"

Pages: 235-266
322 ATTRIBUTIONS
Module: "Statistics - Grade 10"

Pages: 267-299
Module: "Probability - Grade 10"

By: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Sarah Blyth, Heather Williams
Pages: 301-316
Grade 10 maths textbook
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FHSST: Grade 10 Maths

Rice University, Houston, Texas

Review of Past Work 1

1.2 What is a number?

(1, 3] ∪ [6, 10) (1.1)

1.4 Letters and Arithmetic

2 Arithmetic is derived from the Greek word arithmos meaning number.

1.5 Addition and Subtraction

1.5.1 Commutativity for Addition

1.6 Multiplication and Division

1.6.1 Commutativity for Multiplication

5 × (5 + 20) = 125 (1.13)

It can happen with letters too

3 (4a − 3a) = 3 × (a) = 3a (1.18)

3 Sometimes people say parentheses instead of brackets.

1.8 Negative Numbers

1.8.2 Working with Negative Numbers

Table 1.1: Table of signs for multiplying or dividing two numbers.

Table 1.2: Table of signs for adding two numbers.

1.8.3 Living Without the Number Line

1.8.3.1 Negative Numbers Tip 1

1.8.3.2 Negative Numbers Tip 2

1.8.3.3 Negative Numbers Tip 3

1.8.3.3.1 Negative Numbers

(a) (−5) − (−3) (b) (−4) + 2 (c) (−10) ÷ (−2)

2. Say whether the sign of the answer is + or −

(a) −5 + 6 (b) −5 + 1 (c) −5 ÷ −5

1.9 Rearranging Equations

6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3K>

1.9.1 Method: Rearranging Equations

So for our example we could subtract y from both sides

1.9.1.1 Rearranging Equations

1.10 Fractions and Decimal Numbers

1.10.1 Denition - Fraction

1.10.2 Denition - Multiplicative Inverse

Fraction Decimal Form

1.11 Scientic Notation

1.12 Real Numbers

1.12.1 Non-Real Numbers

1.12.2 Natural Numbers

... − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4... (1.35)

1.12.4 Rational Numbers

A rational number is any number which can be written as:

1.12.4.1 Notation Tip

1.12.4.2 Rational Numbers

1.12.4.3 Notation Tip

3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, ... (1.39)

and the following all have factors of 4

4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ... (1.40)

13 Some people say divisor instead of factor.

1.12.4.4 Converting Rationals into Decimal Numbers

1.12.5 Irrational Numbers

1.12.5.1 Real Numbers

1.13 Mathematical Symbols

Sign or Symbol Meaning

> greater than

< less than

≥ greater than or equal to

≤ less than or equal to

3 Sometimes people say parentheses instead of brackets.

6 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3K>

1.10.1 Denition - Fraction

1.10.2 Denition - Multiplicative Inverse

1.11 Scientic Notation

17 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31330/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3D>

Denition 2.1: Rational Number

9 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31331/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/l3f>

Denition 3.1: Exponential Notation

Our denition of exponential notation shows that

2 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOG>

4 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lcx>

5 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOA>

7 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lO6>

8 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOJ>

10 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31332/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/lOS>

Irrational Numbers and Rounding O 1

Exercise 5.1: Rounding-O (Solution on p. 44.)

3 See the le at <http://cnx.org/content/m31341/latest/http://www.fhsst.org/llR>