DEPARTMENT OF EARTHSCIENCES

(BS GEOLOGY)
ASSIGNMENT TOPIC: ECONOMIC MINERAL AND
FUEL DEPOSITS OF PAKISTAN
SUBJECT: GEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN
TEACHER: SIR, SAJID
SUBMITTED BY: SALAHUDIN KHURSHEED
ROLL NO: 5641
SEMESTER: 07

DATE:25-11-20

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ECONOMIC MINERAL AND FUEL
DEPOSITS OF PAKISTAN
MINERAL RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN PROVINCES AND
BASINS WISE:
Introduction:
The convergence of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent (northward moving) plate with Asian (stable)
plate created many tectonometallic zones, basins and consequently significant mineralizations
in the area. Pakistan includes tectonometallic and sedimentary basins like Hindukush-
Karakoram basin of Laurasian heritage, Balochistan basin and Kohistan-Ladakh arc basin of
Tethyan heritage, Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (Uppermost Indus), Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus),
Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kirthar (Lower Indus) basins of Gondwanan heritage. The
Karakoram suture separates the Hindukush-Karakoram basin in the north and the Kohistan-
Ladakh magmatic arc in the south, northern Indus suture separates the Kohistan-Ladakh arc in
the north and Uppermost Indus basin in the south while the western Indus suture separates the
Balochistan basin in the west from the Indus Super Basin in the east.
Pakistan has high potential of minerals/rocks like indigenous iron, ochre, copper, gold-silver,
lead, zinc, barite, chromite, bauxite, radioactive minerals, rock phosphate, coal, gypsum, rock
salt, laterite and ochre, silica sand, granite, quartzite, nepheline syenite, natural gas and oil,
limestone, dolomite, marble, quartzite, slatstone, serpentine, sandstone, gravel, sand, silt and
different type of clays, igneous and metamorphic rocks, etc, and low potential of antimony,
asbestos, celestite, fluorite, magnesite, soapstone, mica, feldspar, graphite, potash salt, arsenic,
tungsten, platinum group, nickel, cobalt, vanadium, thorium, rubidium, rare metals and rare
earth elements, etc. Pakistan also contains precious gem minerals like emerald, ruby,
tourmaline, aquamarine, spinel, garnet, moonstone, pargasite, peridot, quartz, topaz (pink
topaz), fluorite, kyanite, etc.
Pakistan contains vast mineral and other natural resources; some are prominent in the world.
Some commodities are being utilized and some are being exported but most of the
commodities are waiting for their utilization and developments. Cement raw materials are
common and also at one place, so the installation of more than dozen cement industries in
D.G.Khan, Rajan Pur and D.I.Khan areas of Sulaiman Range can help in improving the socio-
economic condition of the area. In Azad Kashmir some cement industries can be installed at
Muzaffarabad and Kotli regions, especially pozalana cement in Nosehri (Neelam) and Lamnian-
Reshian (Hattian) areas. Further water resources are two much and water is going into sea after

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creating flood and loss in the agricultural lands and population, so small, large dams and
diversion type dams for hydel power plants and water storage are necessary due to population
increasing. The first and huge gypsum deposits of Pakistan are found in Sulaiman foldbelt of
Balochistan and Punjab but not utilizing for well development of provinces and Pakistan. Most
of the coal in Pakistan is lignitic but not being exploited. Only metallic coal is being mined and
used. So there is a need to develop technology to mix lignitic and metallic coal. Pakistan is rich
in energy and natural resources like coal, solar, wind, biomass, terrestrial and marine water but
deficient in development. Pakistan is spending more than 100 billion rupees for importing glass,
glass wares, pottery, iron raw materials and product, copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, manganese,
gold, nickel, sulphur, tools, clay, etc. Optimum utilization of local resources is key to economic
development of a nation. Try should be made to cease the imports and use own country raw
materials and minerals, and to increase the production and export like cement, gypsum,
marble, gems, jewelry, iron, etc. In short Pakistan should cease the imports of these
commodities and to save foreign exchange for development. The development of mineral
resources is vital for the development of Pakistan due to increasing population.

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MINERAL RESOURCES OF BALOCHISTAN BASIN,
PAKISTAN:
Islam et al., (2010) reported the production from Balochistan Province during 2007-08, 36, 583
tons (t) copper, 245t antimony, 49,268t barite, 331t basalt, 33,815t chromite, 25t clay,
2,325,220t coal, 291t granite, 259t rhyolite, 134t diorite, 183t gabbro, 2,431t serpentinite, 98t
gneiss, 323t quartzite, 360t sulphur, 176t dolomite, 424t fluorite, 75t galena, 15,808t iron ore,
727,951t limestone, 70,740t marble (onyx), 267,312t marble (ordinary), 790t magnesite, 1,385t
manganese, 5,060t pumice and 1,306,764t shale. Mineral resources of Balochistan Province
(Table 2) has large proven reserves of iron, copper (associated some gold, silver, molybdenum),
lead, zinc, barite, chromite, coal, gypsum, limestone (marble), ochre, silica sand, etc, small
deposits of antimony, asbestos, celestite, fluorite, magnesite, soapstone, sulphur, vermiculite,
etc. Some commodities are being utilized and some are being exported but most of the
commodities are waiting for their utilization and developments. Mineral potential of different
areas under the Balochistan province are being described here.

MINERAL POTENTIAL OF CHAGAI MAGMATIC ARC:

The Chaghi arc is economically most important mountain belts of Pakistan. Many important
minerals including porphyry (Cu-Mo-Au), manto and vein type copper, stratiform and skarn
type iron, volcanogenic gold-silver and sulphur, Kuroko type lead-zinc-silver-copper are
intimately associated with the magmatic rocks of this arc (Siddiqui, 1996).

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Copper: The copper deposits and showings occur extensively at several localities in the
Chagai magmatic arc (White, undated; HSC, 1961). Dasht Kain copper deposit is 35km NW of
Chagai village (290 33’N; 640 29’E) is porphyry type copper prospect associated with two
tonalite porphyry stocks. The stocks are intruded into a diorite cupola which is a part of a large
batholith comprised of quartz monzonite and diorite. The batholith has intruded the
Cretaceous Sinjrani volcanic group. The host rock tonalite porphyry is centered by potassium
silicate alteration and followed outwardly by quartz sericite and porphyritic alterations. There is
a moderate to weak K zone and the hypogene mineralization has developed in two phases, the
first phase produced pyrite, chalcopyrite, enargite and pyrrhotite and the second one
introduced magnetite, molybdenite and chalcopyrite (Siddiqui 1984). Three bore holes have
been drilled in western stock. Average copper values in quartz sericite zone vary from 0.1-
0.17% and in the potassium silicate zone from 0.25 to 0.54 %. The breccia pipe zone in the
eastern stock contains surface values upto 4.5% copper but not drilled (Kazmi and Abbas,
2001). Talaruk copper deposit is 64km NW of Saindak in Chagai District. It is a massive Kuroko
type deposit and mineralization is of submarine exhalative origin. The copper ore occurs in two
zones, one in rhyolite intrusives in which chalcocite is the main copper mineral and the other in
volcanic breccia associated with gypsum, with malachite as the main copper mineral. Six bore
holes were drilled at this deposits and its copper content has been about 0.65% (Saigus 1977).
Saindak copper deposit is located about 9.4km SE of Fort Saindak (290 18’N; 610 33’E) in
Chagai district. The ore is hydrothermally altered and the mineralized zone is known as Saindak
alteration zone (Sillitoe and Khan, 1977). It is developed in siltstone, sandstone, and tuff of
Amalaf Formation. The mineralization is related two small patterns centered on three porphyry
stocks of Mid-Miocene age and consequently there are three main ore bodies, the North, South
and East ore bodies. The north ore body is developed along vein zones though oxide
mineralization is also present in patches. Nineteen bore holes were drilled on this body and
19mt of ore averaging 0.498% copper (cut off grade 0.3%) has been proved. The south ore body
lies 2km south of north ore body. Here the oxide zone is developed in patches. The ore is
developed within a few meter of the surface and has been proved to a depth of 328m. 27 holes
were drilled and reserves of 54mt of ore averaging 0.488% (cut off grade 0.3%) including 27 mt
of 0.64% copper at cut off grade of 0.4% have been proved. Significant gold and molybdenum
values are associated with this ore body. The east ore body is 1km SE of the south ore body. A
lean, patchy copper oxides zone with 0.4-0.5% copper is developed over the ore body. In this
area 37 bore holes have established indicating reserves of 264mt averaging 0.388% copper at
cut off grade 0.3%. The total reserves at Saidak comprised 412mt of ore containing average
0.38% copper and 0.3228gm/to of gold. At Saindak an open cast mine with infrastructure,
crushing plant, concentrators and smelter has been developed and trial production of blister
copper has been done. It is planned to produce annually 15,800 tons of copper, 1.47 tons of
gold and 2.76 tons of silver (Bizenjo, 1994). Other porphyry copper deposits in Chagai district
were explored and evaluated by BHP. Their results suggest that the western part of the district
has great potential for development of porphyry copper deposits. Based on the results of 80
test holes, it is estimated that this region has reserves of 550mt (Razique 2001) of averaging 0.4
to 0.6% copper and 0.2 to 0.5gm/ton of gold. According to BHP besides Rekodiq, Buzzi Mashi
and western Ware Chah, other localities such as Parrah Koh, Borghar Koh, Koh Dalil, Koh Sultan
and Ting Daragaun look promising and merit detailed exploration. Tethyan Copper Company

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has recently drilled 30 holes at Rekodiq (Koh Dalil) and has encountered a chalcocite blanket
and hypogene zone. In this zone reserves of 70mt of ore with 0.85% copper are indicated.
Chagai areas like Talaruk, Saindak, Rekodiq, Max. G. White, Koh-e-Dalil (Sam Koh), Mashki Chah,
Darband Chah, Amuri, Yakmach, Kangord, Galtori, Omi, Ziarat Pir Sultan, Kabul Koh, Missi,
Humai, Dasht Kain, Koh-i-Marani, Pakus nala, Nok Chah, Dalbandin, Amir Chah, Ziarat Malik
Karkam, Bazgawanan, Kundi Balochap, 5 Robat, Buzzi Mashi, Western War Chah porphyries,
Parrah Koh, Bor Ghar Koh, Malaik Koh, Ting Daragun, Machi and Kirtaka (White, undated; HSC,
1961; Kazmi and Abbas, 2001) seem to be significant.

Gold-Silver: The production of copper along with gold will be started soon from Saindak
porphyry copper deposits. GSP has discovered a number of porphyry copper deposits with gold
and silver mineralization (Ahmad, 1986). Telethermal vein type and skarn deposits are also
reported. Broken Hill Propriety (BHP) of Australia in collaboration with BDA has discovered
world class gold deposits. Lake Resources (Australia) also explored copper and associated gold
deposits and their alteration zones (Kazmi and Abbas, 2001).
Iron ore: Balochistan Basin show iron from Saindak, Mashki Chah, Durban Chah, Amir Chah,
Chilghazi, Gorband, Kasanen Chapar, Kundi Baluchap, Pachin Koh, Chigendik, Bandegan and Nok
Chah areas (Ahmed, 1969). Pachin Koh-Chigendik iron deposits are located 88km and
Chigendik 40 km NW of Nokundi town. It is comprised of magnetite and hematite. It is
volcanogenic and occurs as intercalations with andesites of Sinjrani volcanics. The ore contains
Fe2 O3 767-82%, SiO2 9-22%, Al2O3 1.4-4.4% and CaO 1.2-2.2% (Asrarullah 1978; Kazmi and
Abbas, 1991). There are 27 small magnetite-hematite bodies at this area. At Pachin Koh 62
holes, where as 29 holes in Chigendik drilled. The estimated ore reserves of Pachin Koh is 45mt
and of Chigendik is 5mt of which 30mt are proved. The geological and geophysical
investigations show that the deposit may be increased upto 100mt. Steel mills process this ore
with 46% substitute of the imported ore. Hussain (1983) has suggested the ore is suitable for
direct reduction plus electric arc furnace process combination. This process can produce steel
billets at about 30% lower cast. Chilghazi iron deposits are located 52km NW of Dalbandin
town. The area is underlain by Cretaceous Sinjrani volcanics, which are intruded by small bodies
of diorite, quartz monzonite and granodiorite. The deposit sis found in Sinjrani which forms
asymmetrical gently dipping anticline. The iron ore is comprised of massive magnetite and
layers of disseminated magnetite. The ore occurs at three horizons. The upper one near the top
contains main deposits. The other two are 166 and 500m below the first one. The lower ore
bodies are largely comprised of magnetite disseminations in volcanic rocks and are lean in their
iron content (10-12%). The deposit has been drilled and indicates the main ore body contains
iron 32-52% (average 45%), copper 0.1-1.96% (in one hole upto 7%), phosphorous upto 0.1%.
Some portion of the ore body contains upto 1 oz/ton of gold (Farooq and Rahman 1970;
Ahmad, 1975). It has high grade ore with 3.36mt (2.46 proven and 0.90 probable). The low
grade reserves with 25-30% iron are estimated 20mt (Schmitz 1968).

Tungston: The tungsten ore has been recorded by Siddiqui et al. (1986) from Amalaf (290
18’N; 610 37’E) in Chagai district. The ore is found in pyroclastic rocks of Saindak formation
intruded by quartz porphyry. The ore minerals are sheelite and tungstite associated with

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molybdenum and tin minerals. The mineralization is attributed to xenothermal alterations in
the host rock.

Sulphur: Sulphur deposit is located in the Koh-i-Sultan volcano. Massive layers and lenses are
interbedded with the Pleistocene volcanic ash. The ore contains 50% sulphur and reserves of
738,000 tons (Muslim, 1973b). Potential source of sulphur are Kohi-Dimak dome,
desulphurization 6 plants in the coalfields, sour gas (gas containing hydrogen sulphide in
Natural gas, anhydrite and gypsum.

Marble: The marble (Ahmad W., 1965), various types of limestones and igneous rocks, mainly
granite are found from Chagai area can be used for buildings, construction and Decorative
stones

Others: Lead-zinc (Ahmed,1943) is reported from Saindak, Koh Marani, Dirang Kalat, Makki
Chah (4km SE of Talaruk) and Ziarat Balanosh (100kn NE of Dalbandin). Manganese from Nushki
(9km north of town), Barite from Chagai area (Koh Sultan), Barite from Chagai area (Koh
Sultan), tourmaline from many sites from Chagai area, Zinc from Makki Chah area is reported
(Kazmi and Abbas, 2001

MINERAL POTENTIAL OF RASKOH MAGMATIC ARC

The Raskoh arc includes many minerals like Chromite, vermiculite, manganese, copper etc.
Chromite: It is associated with ultramafic rocks as layered intrusions or as ophiolitic sequences.
It occurs as extensive layer in layered intrusives while irregular and podiform/lenses in dunite of
ophiolitic rocks (Alpine type). Dunite occurs in the basal part of ophiolites i.e., in ultramafic
tectonites and ultramafic cumulates (Kazmi and Abbas, 2001). Bunap and Rayo Ras Koh

chromite (Kharan District) occurs in Nag-Bunap and Rayo Nai valley within a distance of
3km, located 30km NW of Kharan Kalat town. Chromite occurs as lenticular bodies or
disseminations in the dunites. Nine small deposits with total reserves of 9,664 tons near Bunap
and 7 deposits with reserves of 355 tons near Rayo Nai were reported by HSC (1960). These
deposits have been mined out and exhausted (Ahmad, 1969) but still mining are continuing
indicating more deposits.

Vermiculite: It is mica like mineral that expands on heating to produce low density materials.
It is used as light weight aggregate, thermal insulator, as a fertilizer carrier, soil conditioner in
agriculture and as a filler and texturiser for plastics and rubber. It is not being used in Pakistan
but can be exploited due to its availability. Vermiculite deposits are reported from Doki River on
the northern edge of the western Raskoh. It occurs in cliff 160m long, 140m wide and 40m high
with reserves of 11 mt (Grundstoff-Technik, 1993). The vermiculite contents vary from 5-20%.
Exfoliation tests at 7750 C resulted in tenfold increase in the particle size (Hussain, 1970). The
average analyses includes 42% SiO2, 13.16% Fe2 O3, 119.05 % Al2 O3, 1.38% TiO2 and 10.75%
H2 O and 10.30% MgO (Bakr, 1965b).

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Others: Manganese is reported from Sotkinoh hill (Ras Koh) (Kazmi and Abbas, 2001). The
small deposit of gypsum (3.3m thick) is reported from the red shale of Eocene Gawalishtap
formation (HSC, 1961; Ahmad, 1975). Copper is reported from Tor Tangi of Ras Koh areas
(White, undated). Various types of limestones and igneous rocks can be used for this
construction and decorative stones. .
MINERAL POTENTIAL OF WAZHDAD (WASHUK) MAGMATIC
ARC 7
The ophiolitic and volcaniclastic rocks in the Wazhdad area and its vicinity show minor
chromite, copper, soapstone and asbestos mineralizations (Malkani 2004c,f). This magmatic arc
show Washuk ophiolite (including ultrabasic to acidic granitic rocks) and Wazhdad volcaniclastic
group including mostly tuffaceous rocks. Granite of Washuk ophiolite is best for dimension and
décor stones, besides this the best green to grey tuffaceous rocks of Wazhdad range are also
significant for cu mineralization, decorative and dimension stones resources.
MINERAL POTENTIAL OF KAKER-KHURASAN (BACK ARC) BASIN
Some economic minerals/commodities like antimony, ochre, saline springs, and mud flows with
methane-nitrogen gas are found. Antimony deposit like the stibnite veins are hosted in Khojak
group of Qila Abdullah which is 24 km NE of Qila Abdullah town, and smaller deposits in the
Qila Viala area 40 km east of Qila Abdullah (LeMessurier, 1844; HSC, 1961; Klinger et al,
undated; Ahmad, 1969; 1975). Ochre deposits are found in the Shaigalu sandstone of Kaker
Khurasan area (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a). Many Saline springs are found in the Qila
Saifullah area especially in the Nisai formation. Salt springs running and dry are reported from
the red shale at the base of Nisai limestone and so far active mud volcano in the Spara Manda
and its vicinity areas of Qila Saif Ullah district (39 B/5,9; verbal communication with Zahid
Hussain).
MINERAL POTENTIAL OF MAKRAN AND SIAHAN RANGES
(SOUTHERN BALOCHISTAN BASIN)
Malkani (2004a,d) reported first time some new findings of Makran and Siahan ranges. The
details are being provided here.

Antimony and associated gold and silver mineralizations: The stibnite in the Qila
Abdullah is located in the back arc basin (northern Balochistan) and all other stibnite localities
(show very small deposits) are found in the fore arc (arc-trench gap) basin (Southern
Balochistan). Presence of antimony mineral stibnite and chalcedonic (cryptocrystalline texture)
quartz show the epithermal type of mineralization. But the fluid inclusion studies
(homogenizing temperature) of some samples were analyzed by Rehan ul Haq Geoscience lab.
Islamabad and show the possibility of mesothermal mineralization, only one sample of Grawag
(31 M/8) show the homogenizing temperature upto 3330 C, so it may be hypothermal.
Antimony is found mostly in the strike slip faults, except the Jauder locality where it is found in
thrust fault. The antimony mineralization originated due to dynamic (tectonic) activities and
shearing in host rocks and deposited their lodes in the fractures, cavities, faults and gash
fractures. This idea is proved by the metamorphism of shale into slates and intense faulting and

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folding in Siahan range and north Makran. According to Shcheglov (1969), the antimony
mineralization of Makran range is of epithermal origin. According to Sillitoe (1975), the
circulation of connate fluids in the flysch succession during dynamo thermal metamorphism
related directly to the faulting is proposed as an origin for the antimony deposits. Stibnite
(antimony trisulphide, Sb2S3) is coated by yellowish mineral like sulphur. Gold, silver and
sulphur mineralization are also enriched in this zone. Stibnite is shining lead grey, fine grained
to fibrous and blady, metallic, subconchoidal to irregular and hardness is low (2 to 3). Gold and
silver mineralizations associated with stibnite have been detected by the chemical analyses.

Coal Deposits:
Ahmed et al. (1986), Ghaznavi (2002), Malkani (2012a) and Malkani and Mahmood (2016a,c)
reported coal of Pakistan whereas Malkani (2011a) reported coal of Balochistan. Share of coal
in energy sector of Pakistan has increased from 6.5% (2003-04) to 7.6% (2008-09) and but later
fell back to 6.7% (2010-11). Considering growing energy needs, this figure should have been

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more than its predecessor. Balochistan province tops coal production with a 58% share.
Pakistan is ranked 7th internationally regarding lignitic coal reserves but, unluckily, Pakistan
steel industry has imported from 2.84mt to 4.27mt coal per year between 2006 and 2011
(Pakistan Energy Year Book 2011, published in 2012). This expenditure can be saved and spent
on research and technology development.

Khost-Shahrig-Harnai Coalfields :
cover 500 km2. It is found in the limbs (low to moderate dips) of Gochina syncline. However the
Shahrig areas have high dips (60-800) and are faulted. GSP drilled two successful holes which
encountered subsurface coal during 1988-1990. The host is 120m of Toi Formation. There are
several coal seams varying from few cm to 1.3m in thickness. However, only 2-3 coal seams are
being mined due to enough thickness and lateral extension. The top seam is mostly consistent
and shows better coal quality. The average coal seams vary from 0.5-0.9m in thickness but a
few mines in Khost area show 3.5m thickness of a coal seam. The roof and floor rock is
claystone but at places is sandstone. The overburden is increasing toward axis of Gochina
syncline and Sibi trough. Ahmed et al. (1986) estimated 47mt with 8mt measured, 16mt
indicated and 23mt inferred. Shah (1990) estimated 86mt of coal with 16.7mt proven reserves
and 69.7mt inferred reserves upto mineable depth of 1200m. The present modification of 86mt
of Shah (1990) resulted in a figure of 86.4mt with detail as 20.9mt of measured reserves
(exposure to 0.4km depth), 41.8mt of indicated reserves (0.4-1.2km depth) and 23.7mt of
inferred reserves (1.2km to 1800m depth).

Sor Range-Sinjidi-Deghari Coalfields :

show the deepest coalmines in Pakistan. It is 28km east of Quetta. The coal is hosted by Early
Eocene Ti Formation (30-75m) which shows conglomerate bed (marker bed) at the top of this
formation and also coal seam. It is located in the Sor Range-Deghari syncline with low to
moderate dips. There are only two workable seams. The roof and floor rock is claystone with
occasional sandstone.

Pir Ismail Ziarat-Margar-Narwar Coalfields:

are 60km east of Quetta led from a partially metalled and partially unmetalled road with
development initiated in 1950. The host is Toi formation located on the eastern limb of Sibi
trough. 3-4 coal seams are found but only top (0.6-0.7m) and lower (0.4-0.45m) seams are
being mined. The roof and floor rocks are mostly claystone with minor sandstone. Chemical
Consultant Ltd (1985) estimated 15.5mt (strike extension 20km with 0.6m average coal
thickness and 1km workable depth). The present estimation (Malkani, in process) resulted as
15.8mt with detail as 3.6mt of measured reserves (exposure to 0.4km depth), 7.2mt indicated
reserves (0.4-1.2km depth) and 5mt inferred reserves (1.2km depth to minable 1.8km depth).
Duki-Anambar Coalfields:
are found in Loralai district of Zhob Division. It is also accessible via Loralai toward south 80km.
It is located in the Duki and Anambar synclines. Toi is the host formation which is about 300m
thick in Duki and its vicinity areas, with 200m the coal bearing strata. 17 coal seams are known
while 15 coal seams (0.15-2.30m) are being mined. The sandstone and shale lithology of coal

10
host show back barrier environments. Khan et al. (1987) estimated 49mt with 13.7mt
measured, 10.8mt indicated and 24.5mt inferred reserves. Ahmed et al. (1986) estimated 13mt
with 3mt proved but 3mt has already been mined in the last 3 years of the end of the 20th
century (Ghaznavi, 2002). The present investigations show Duki-Anambar coalfields reserves
80.4mt. Out of these, Duki coalfield show 74.8mt and Takhri-Anambar coalfield show 5.6mt.
Duki coalfields show measured reserves 21.6mt with indicated reserves at 43.2mt and inferred
reserves at 20mt; Takhri-Anambar coalfield reserves 5.6mt with detail of measured reserves as
1.2mt, indicated reserves at 2.4mt inferred reserves at 2mt. In this way, total reserve of Duki-
Anambar coalfields is 80.4mt.

Kingri-Shikar-Tor Shah Coalfields (Early Eocene coal)

is reported by Malkani (2010a, 2011a). This coal is promising due to extensive and moderately
thick exposures of carbonaceous shale alongwith some coals and availability of road. These
areas are most significant for further exploration, study and development. This promising coal
from Early Eocene Toi Formation is observed in the Kingri area on the vicinity of metal led road
from Kingri to Kot Khan Mohd (Musakhel). It is an anticline with Shaheed Ghat formation in the
core and Toi, Kingri and Drug formations in the flanks. This anticline is followed in the west by
Tor Shah syncline and also in the east by Gandhera syncline. There are 5 main coal seams with
more than 1 foot thick carbonaceous shale and some associated coal.

PETROLEUM DIVERSE HORIZONS IN THE HARNAI SOUTH-SIBBI TROUGH AREA,

BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN:

11
The Harnai South area shows petroleum systems at different levels due to presence of multiple
source, reservoir and cap/seal rocks. Structurally the Harnai South area/block which is located
in the northern part of Harnai-Sibi synclinorium/trough, Balochistan Province, Pakistan. The
Petroleum prospectivity in the Harnai South area/block is being concluded as follows. The first
petroleum reservoir interval/horizon is the Cainozoic strata. Although the Pleistocene-Holocene
Sakhi Sarwar Group, Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Groups (Siwalik Group) are being ignored for
petroleum prospectivity due to some technical properties. The Middle Eocene Kahan Group
(=Kirthar Formation) includes Habib Rahi and Pirkoh limestones and Domanda and Drazinda
shales. The thickness of shale formations like Domanda and Drazinda shales are being
considerable reduced here; however the limestone formations like Habib Rahi and Pirkoh are
encouraging for petroleum reservoir and Chitarwata and Vihowa shale may act as sealing rocks.
The Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group in generally consists of Shaheed Ghat, Toi, Kingri,
Drug and Baska formations but here in the Harnai South area the thickness of Baska gypsum is
highly reduced upto a few meters. The thickness of Kingri and Drug formations are relatively
reduced. The Shaheed Ghat and Drug formations can act as moderate to poor source rocks. Toi
and Kingri sandstones and Drug rubbly limestone can also act as reservoir rock. Baska gypsum
may act as cap but here its thickness is very less, so Kahan/Kirthar shale may act for sealing
rocks. The Paleocene Sangiali Group (Ranikot Group) include here Rakhi Gaj shales and Dungan
limestones. The Rakhi Gaj formation here shows only shale lithology and may act as source
rock. However the Paleocene Dungan limestone is promising, prolific and very significant for
petroleum. Because in the southeastern vicinity at Khatan the Dungan limestone is yielding
petroleum and further the type locality of Dungan is also located nearby in the north and it
consists of thick bedded and massive, conglomeratic and fractured limestones (encouraging
secondary porosity) which is very significant for petroleum reservoir. Further the results of
Zarghoon well verify above interpretations.
The second petroleum reservoir horizons (shallow to deep) are Late Cretaceous Fort Munro
Group. As I mentioned earlier this group consists of Mughalkot, Fort Munro, Pab and Vitakri
formations. The Mughalkot Formation shows here only shale lithology, however in the west
volcanics are also included. Mughalkot shale is very significant for petroleum source. Fort
Munro and Pab may have negligible thickness and not much significant for petroleum here.
Further Vitakri Formation here called as Ziarat laterite is less than a meter thick, so not
significant for petroleum.
The third petroleum intervals/reservoir horizons (deep) are Early Cretaceous Parh Group
consisting of Sembar shale, Goru shale and marl, and Parh limestones. The Sembar and Goru
shales act as resource rock, while Goru marl, and Parh limestone act as reservoir rocks. The cap
rock for Goru marl and Parh limestone is Mughalkot shale.
The fourth petroleum level/interval (very deep) is Jurassic Sulaiman Group consisting of
Spingwar (shale, marl and limestones), Loralai (thin to thick bedded limestones) and Chiltan
(mainly thick bedded to massive limestone). The Spingwar shale act as resource rock while
Spingwar marl/limestone and Loralai and Chiltan limestones act as reservoir rocks. The cap rock
for this level is Sembar shales.
The last petroleum level/interval (very deep) is Khanozai Group consisting of Gwal (shale, thin
bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium bedded limestone) formations. The shale of
this group act as source and cap rocks while the marl/limestone can act as reservoir rocks

12
MINERAL RESOURCES OF KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
AND FATA
Mineral resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and FATA are divided into northern and
southern parts for easy approach and understanding of readers, researchers, mine owners and
planners. The northern area includes different tectonometallic and sedimentary basins like
Chitral-Tirich Mir zones (Hindukush-Karakoram block), Kohistan magmatic arc; northern Indus
Suture and Khyber-Hazara (NW Himalayas). The southern areas of KP and FATA includes
different tectonometallic and sedimentary basins like northern part of western Indus Suture,
Kohat sub-basin (western Upper Indus basin), northwestern Sulaiman basin (upper part of
Middle Indus basin) and interfingering of Sulaiman and Kohat sub-basin (Pezu to Kohat)

MINERAL AND GEMSTONE RESOURCES OF NORTHERN KHYBER

PAKHTUNKHWA AND FATA REGIONS (CHITRAL-TIRICH MIR
ZONES/HINDUKUSH-KARAKORAM BLOCK, KOHISTAN MAGMATIC
ARC, NORTHERN INDUS SUTURE AND KHYBER-HAZARA/ NW
HIMALAYAS)
The Chitral-Tirich Mir zone represents antimony from Krinj, Partsan and Awireth Gol; arsenic
from Lundkhu-Mirgasht of Tirich Gol valley; copper and gossan/red iron oxide coloration near
Drosh located in the Karakoram Suture/Shyok Suture like Gawuch Gol, Kaldam Gol, Gorin Gol
and Langer; Yarkhun valley (near Kunhar); Chapali, Chapchirag, Pakhturi and Rain of Mastuj;
Imirdin, Madashi, Shoghot, Prince Burhanuddin, Koghozi, Mogh and Kokil Gahirat; gold and
associated other minerals from Kaldam Gol, Shishi, Madashil, Shoghot, Pir Burhanuddin, Kogazi,
Baig and Awireth-Shogor-Sewakht-Krinj; lead-zinc from Parabeck, Imirdin, Muzhigram, Tashker
and Pakhturi of Tirich Mir zone, and Baig, Madashil, Awireth of Chitral; fluorite from Mirgasht
Gol and Yarkhun valley (NE part of Chitral); graphite from Shah Salim, Momi, Muzhigram village
and Burzin valley; mica/muscovite from Mogh village in Lutkho valley, Simik Gol, Gabar-o-Boch,
Imirdin, Kesu-Shera Shing north of Drosh and Kahdujal; potash and sodic feldspar from
pegmatites; tungsten from Miniki Gol area; mercury/cinnabar in the river sands; sulphur from
Muzhigram; aquamarine, tourmaline, garnet and quartz from Gobar-o-Bakh (Hindukush) and
aquamarine and garnet from Dao Ghari (Hindukush); indicolite (blue tourmaline) from
pegmatite of Garam Chashma (Chitral); large reserves of recrystallised limestone, marble,
quartzite, schist, slate stones and attractive granite.
The Kohistan magmatic arc includes the copper from Ashnamal, Lal Qila, Barwa Kambat,
Dommel Nissar (volcanogenic magnetite deposits), Mirkhani, Pana Kot, Usheri region and
Bekarai-Rokhan of Dir; iron ores from Ghazanosar, Shah Dheri, Mamarai-Saidu, Munda and
Dammer Nissar; gold from shear zone/Indus Suture, from porphyry type intrusives or altered
carbonates, and from Nomal, Gawuch, Drosh and Dir (Zaluka); fluorite from Chakdara (Dir)
comprise fluorite quartz veins cutting two mica granite gneiss; ruby /corundum from
Timurgarha (Dir); mica/muscovite from Khadan village north of Chakdara in Dir state; Bagarian
west of Belega near Hawa Gali, Gidarpur in Indus Kohistan and Khandong Banda (near Dir);
china clay from Shah Dheri (Swat); nickel from Malam Jabba; gold-silver-copper from Dir

13
District; gossans along MKT; large reserves of attractive granite, marble, recrystallised
limestone, quartzite, schist and slate stones.
The northern Indus Suture represents the Chromite from Kot-Pranghar (Mohmand), Bucha
chromite (Mohmand Agency); Harichand-Sakhakot-Qila west of Dargai, Jijal north of Besham,
and Chilas; iron from Besham, Sherkot Kolai and Jijal; nickel from Souch (Kaghan) and Swat and
Shangla-Alpurai areas; asbestos from Sakhakot-Qila (Malaknd); magnesite from Sakhakot
(Malakand) and Pran Ghar (Mohmand); manganese (ophiolite related) mineralization in Kassai
area of Lower Mohmand Agency, Sakhakot-Qila, Prang Ghar, Qila, Behram Dheri, Narai Obe,
Bucha, Newe Kili and Hero Shah and Shangla area of Swat; Lahor-Pazang area, near Besham;
graphite from Norang and Babusar pass; PGE associated with gold in the Jijal layered
ultramafic complex of Besham area; niobium and platinum from Chilas, Jijal, Sakhakot Qila
(west of Dargai)

mica/muscovite from Bagarian west of Belega near Hawa Gali and Gidarpur in Indus Kohistan;
peridot from Sapat-Kaghan-Naran; Tsavolite or green grossularite (garnet) is associated with
granitic schist in Jambil area of Swat, near Kot in Malakand and near Targhao in Bajaur agency;
beautiful honey yellow euhedral hessonite (garnet) are found in quartz-mica-schist near
Targhao in Bajaur agency; emerald occurs in northern Indus suture like from Mingora, Gujarkili
and Shamozai (Swat); other localities are Dandao, Kandao, Nawe Dand, Gandao, Kot and Mor
Dara in Mohmand Agency; Mamola and Mor Dara region (Arang Barang) in Bajaur agency;
Makhad and Charbagh in Swat; schorl (black tourmaline) and other precious gemstones; large
reserves of recrystallised limestone, marble, quartzite, schist, slate stones and attractive
granite, intermediate, basic and ultrabasic rocks.

14
COAL RESOURCES

The coal potential Coal potential of Kali Mati (Harnoi/Bagnotar)-Kala Pani coalfields (Hazara
area) is being reported first time by a reconnaissance visit of present authors and it needs
follow up for further detailed information. It is a newly developed coalfield. This Hazara
Coalfield (Fig. 5) is located on the eastern vicinity of Abbottabad town. The Hazara Coalfield is
hosted by K-T boundary and Early Paleocene Hangu Formation. The Patala Formation is being
considered here as synonym of Hangu Formation because both are lateral facies and same
basin and also continuous same stratigraphic horizon. The coal quality is interpolated like
Cherat coalfields due to its nearby location. The tentative reserves estimated are 3.75mt
because no detail work is done so far. The break up of estimated coal reserves show 0.25mt
measured, 0.5mt indicated and 3mt inferred (Table 5). One thick horizon of carbonaceous shale
with some coal/graphite (Fig.5) is also found on the Mansehra-Besham road, Mansehra district,
Hazara.

Hangu Coalfields
are found in the Kohat and Hangu districts and tribal Orakzai agency. Most of the mines are in
tribal agency while some are in other settled areas. Hangu is connected with Peshawar via
Kohat and Dara Adam Khel. Hangu Formation consists of predominantly terrestrial reddish
brown, cross-bedded and bioturbated sandstone interbedded with bluish grey shale, coal,
carbonaceous clay and limestone. The coal seems to be directly proportional to clay. In
Darwazai and Dauli areas, the clay is maximum (8-10m) and coal is also maximum as more than
1m. In the southern part the clay and coal are relatively less.

Cherat Coalfield
was considered in Patala formation from previous literature but now in K-T Hangu Formation.
The localities are Shekhai, Jabba Khattak, Bakhtai and Shah Kot areas of Cherat Range,
Nowshera District. Bakhtai area produces lower and upper coal seams whilst Shah Kot Bala and
Jabba Khattak are producing only lower main coal seam. Shekhai area is abandoned now. The
heating value of Jabba Khattak coal is 6400BTU/lb (Hussain et al., 1990; Ahmed, 1953). GSP
drilled a hole in 1990 in Bakhtai area but encountered carbonaceous shale/lignitic coal. Here,
the sulphur is mostly pyretic with some organic sulphur. Coal is associated with calcareous
argillites, indicating lagoonal environment. Hussain et al. (1990) estimated reserves like 6mt of
Bakhtai-Shahkot, 0.7mt of Shekhai and 1.04mt of Jabba Khattak with total 7.74mt of Cherat
Range coal field. The mining water and roof collapse due to argillatites are the main problems.

Gula Khel coalfields

are hosted by K-T to Early Paleocene Hangu Formation in Gulakhel area of Karak district which
is the subsurface extension of Makerwal and Surghar range coal. The quality of coal,
environment and other details are mentioned in Makerwal coalfields. According to present
investigation, the total reserves of Gulakhel coalfields are 30mt (Table 3) with detail as 25mt
inferred and 5mt hypothetical whilst the measured and indicated reserves are mentioned in
Makerwal coalfields of Mianwali district (Malkani 2012a).

15
PETROLEUM RESOURCES
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is now contributing significant amount of hydrocarbons (18.32% oil and
2.14% gas) in the primary energy supply of Pakistan (Hanif et al. 2012), after the first discovery
well in 1999 which is recent and new relative to adjoining Potwar basin. Indus Basin (533,500
km2) subdivided in to northernmost (uppermost) Indus, northern (upper) Indus, Central/middle
Indus and southern/lower Indus basins. The rectangle shape Sulaiman Basin is the largest basin
of main Indus Basin and consists of more than 170,000 km2, while the triangle shape Kirthar
basin more than 120,000 km2, square shape Kohat and Potwar basin more than 100,000
km2and almost square shape Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin more than 100,000 km2. The
western Indus suture (Lasbela-Khuzdar-Quetta-Muslimbagh-Zhob-Waziristan-Kuram) and
northern Indus suture Mohmand-Swat-Besham-Sapat-Chila-Haramosh-Astor-Shontar-Burzil
Pass-Kargil), Kirana and Nagar Parkar areas shows more than 50,000 km2.

MINERAL RESOURCES OF PUNJAB PROVINCE,

PAKISTAN
METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERAL RESOURCES:
ABRASIVES:
Abrasive type red/yellow ochre is reported from Uchchali area of Salt range and Kutki village
red ochre of Isa Khel. There is 300ton of ochre (Crookshank 1953; Ahmad 1969).

CELESTITE DEPOSITS:
It is reported from Daud Khel, Punjab (Heron and Crookshank 1954). The estimated reserves of
celestite in Eocene limestone of Daudkhel areas (3km west, 0.7km NW, 2km NW of Jabba and
1.5km NE of Khairabad) are 10,000 ton (Heron 1954). It is reported from Daud Khel (Punjab)
and Barkhan (Balochistan). The celestite deposits are found in the Eocene limestone of Punjab,
Sindh and Balochistan, so the Eocene limestone of Sulaiman foldbelt and Potwar basins are also
significant for further exploration because the celestite show associated with extensive gypsum
beds/deposits which show further exploration for celestite.

ROCK SALT:
Christie, W.A.K. (1914) reported salt deposits of the saline series in the Salt Range Punjab.
Chemical analyses of Khewra rock salt show NaCl 98.65%, CaSO4 0.41%, MgSo4 0.40%, Na2 SO4
0.24%, moisture 0.11%, insolubles 0.03%, undetermined 0.16% (Griffiths, 1987). Its large
deposits from Jutana to Mari Indus (Asrarullah 1963) in Slat Range Formation of Precambrian
age in Punjab (Asrarullah 1963). GSP proved inexhaustible reserves of rock salt in Salt Range
(Asrarullah 1962). The present annual production is more than 106,000 ton. About 40% is used
for Soda ash, caustic soda and leather industries and rest is marketed for human consumption.
It is used in the country. A certain amount of rock salt has been exported to Afghanistan and
India from time to time. It is being produced from Punjab and KP.

GOLD-SILVER-PLATINUM:
Kirana group (Sargodha District) shows traces of gold from volcanogenic hematite iron ore near
Chiniot (Shah 1973). The Precambrian Indo-Pakistan shield rocks of Kirana group are also

16
significant for gold (Kazmi and Abbas, 2001). The explorations for Placer gold in Indus river
deposits are significant.

COAL RESOURCES
Permian and Paleocene are two main horizons for coal in Punjab. Permian coal was mined near
the Buri Khel in Mianwali district in western Salt Range. A discontinuous coal seam found
between the conglomerates tillite of Tobra Formation and cross bedded sandstone of Warcha
formation. Bhatti in 1967, Shah in 1990, Warwick and Shakoor in 1988, Malkani in 2012 and
Malkani and Zafar in 2016 reported the limited extent and found only limited nalah cuttings.
However the significant Latest Cretaceous-Early Paleocene Hangu coal (Patala is the junior
synonym) is found in Punjab. Tertiary coal is being exploited in one horizon in northern Punjab
like Hangu Formation (Patala is the junior synonym) in Makerwal and Surghar areas and also
Central and Eastern Salt Range. Warwick and Shakoor in 1988 reported that the Patala
formation grades laterally towards west into Lockhart limestone and Hangu Formation, so it is
also in the favour of using only one name as Hangu Formation.

SALT RANGE COALFIELDS:

These are found in the Chakwal, Khushab, Jhelum and Mianwali districts. Wynne (1878)
reported geology of Salt range and Hassan (1985) investigated coal in Sammewala mine area of
central Salt range. The Hangu Formation ranges from 5-90m and comprises of darkgrey shale
interbedded with quartzose sandstone, siltstone, marl and limestone. Coal and carbonaceous
shale deposits are found as single discontinuous bed (<1m) overlie and laterally associated with

17
sandstone bodies 1-20m thick are interpreted as back barrier and near shore environments
(Warwick and Shakoor 1988).

MAKARWAL COALFIELDS:
These are found on western bank of Indus River and are being mined as early as in 1903
(Simpson 1904). The coal exposures are located on the escarpment (eastern part; Makerwal
coalfields) of Surghar Range in Mianwali district and deeper part of subsurface coal located in
the western slope (Gulakhel coalfields) of Surghar range is the territory of Karak District (KPK).
This coal is found in Early Paleocene Hangu Formation. The lower contact is marked on the coal
when coal is missing on the lateritic clay of Indus Formation where it is again missing then
quartzose sandstone of Lumshiwal Formation. It is 2-2.5m thick in Lumshiwal section. This coal
is being mined from the western limb (dipping 30-400) of Surghar thrust faulted anticline
(Makarwal anticline) and may exist in the subsurface in the eastern plain areas of Surghar
range. The main coal seam varies from 0.5-3.5m averaging about 1m (Ahmed et al. 1986).

PETROLEUM RESOURCES:
The first commercial oil discovery was done in 1920 when Attack Oil Company discover the
Khaur oil field in Potwar Plateau. By the time of independence (1947) three more oil fields
(Dhulian, Joya Mair and Balkassar) were in production. In 1879 survey for petroleum in Punjab
reported many oil seepage (Heron and Crookshank 1954). Since early to now many oil and gas
seepage have been reported in various localities of Punjab, KP, Sindh and Balochistan. In the
early oil shows were considered significant for petroleum exploration though now lost their
importance, they are still of interest to search for petroleum (Kazmi and Abbas 2001). Oil
resources are frequently being developed from upper Indus basin, while gas resources are
being developed from middle and lower Indus basin.

Indus Basin (533,500 km2) subdivided in to northernmost (uppermost) Indus, northern (upper)
Indus, Central/middle Indus and southern/lower Indus basins. The rectangle shape Sulaiman
Basin is the largest basin of main Indus Basin and consists of more than 170,000 km2, while the
triangle shape Kirthar basin more than 120,000 km2, square shape Kohat and Potwar basin
more than 100,000 km2and almost square shape Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin more than
100,000 km2. The western Indus suture (Lasbela-Khuzdar-Quetta-Muslimbagh-Zhob-
Waziristan-Kuram) and northern Indus suture Mohmand-Swat-Besham-Sapat-Chila-Haramosh-
Astor-Shontar-Burzil Pass-Kargil), Kirana and Nagar Parkar areas shows more than 50,000 km2.

Kohat Potwar Basin (Northern/upper Indus) consists of Precambrian to recent sequence more
than 15km thick. It consists of eastern Kohat and Potwar fold and thrust belts. It shows a large
number of oilfields. The revised stratigraphic set up of Kohat Potwar Basin represents
Precambrian Kirana Group (a part of Indo-Pak shield) and Salt Range Formation (marl, salt and
gypsum; =Hazara/Salkhala slates), Cambrian Khewra group consists of Khewra (sandstone),
Kussak (dolomite, siltstone and sandstone), Jutana (dolomite) and Baghanwala (red shale
alternated with flaggy sandstone) and Khisor Formation (thick gypsum in the base and shale in
the upper part); Early Permian Nilawahan Group consists of Tobra (Tillitic facies in eastern Salt
Range, fresh water facies of siltstone and shale with pollen and spore flora, and a complex

18
facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds increase in westernsalt range and Khisor
range), Warcha (speckled sandstone with some shale, Dandot is synonym) and Sardhi (greenish
grey clay with some sandstone, siltstone and limestone); Late Permian Zaluch Group Amb
(sandstone), Wargal (limestone) and Chidru (shale, quartzose sandstone with minor limestone).
The Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks may extends into middle (Sulaiman) and Lower (Kirthar
basins). The Triassic Musakhel Group consists of Mianwali (marl, limestone, sandstone,
siltstone and dolomite), Tredian (terrestrial sandstone) and Kingriali (dolomite, limestone,
dolomitic limestone, marl, sandstone and shale; Chak Jabbi is synonym) formations. The
Jurassic Surghar Group comprises of Datta (terrestrial sandstone), Shinawari (shale, limestone)
and Samanasuk (Limestone and minor shale) formations. The Cretaceous Chichali Group
represents Chichali (green shale and sandstone), Lumshiwal (cross bedded sandstone and shale
of continental origin), Kawagarh (marl and limestone- lateral facies of Lumshiwal Formation in
downward slope) and Indus (laterite and bauxite, pisolitic, oolitic and green chamositic/
glauconitic materials, ironstone, ferruginous and quartzose sandstone and claystone and fire
clay) formations. The Paleocene Hangu Group consists of Hangu (synonym Patala; shale,
sandstone and coal) and Lockhart (relatively fine nodular limestone as compared to Sakesar
limestone) formations. The Early Eocene Nammal Group of Potwar sub-basin and eastern Kohat
sub-basin consists of Nammal

(green shale and muds) and Sakesar (coarse nodular/rubbly limestone) formations. The Panoba
Group of western Kohat sub-basin consists Panoba (shale; equivalent to Shaheed Ghat shale of
Sulaiman basin), Chashmai (green shale and sandstone; equivalent to Toi Formation of
Sulaiman basin), Gurguri (brown shale and sandstone; equivalent to Kingri Formation of
Sulaiman basin), Shekhan (limestone, shale; equivalent to Drug rubbly limestone of Sulaiman
basin), Bahadurkhel salt and Jatta gypsum. Actually in the western Kohat the stratigraphy of
Sulaiman basin is extending. So the terms of Chamalang/Ghazij and Kahan groups should be
used in the western Kohat sub-basin. Chamalang (Ghazij) Group of Sulaiman basin represents
Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud,
grey and white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and shale), and Baska (gypsum beds
and shale) formations. The Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana Group consists of Chorgali (shale and
limestone and dolomite) and Kuldana (shale and marl with minor sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and bleached dolomite) formations. The Miocene-Pliocene Potwar Group
(=Siwalik Group) include the Chinji (red and maroon muds), Nagri (sandstone) and Dhok Pathan
(alternation of sandstone and red/maroon/brown muds) formations. The Pleistocene-Holocene
Soan Group for the Pleistocene coarse clastic Lei (/Mirpur/Kakra) Conglomerate (massive
conglomerate) and then Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic of Soan Formation, concealed
at places especially in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian
and colluvial deposits.

Kirthar Basin: (Southern/lower Indus) consists of exposed Precambrian to recent rocks (Malkani
2010a,2012k; Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) more than 15km thick. It consists of Kirthar fold
and thrust belts, Jacobabad-Khairpur high/horst (Sukkur Rift), Kirthar depressions and Sindh
monocline. The main reservoir rocks in Sindh monocline are Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (Lower Goru sandstone) and from Karachi Depressions

19
production is from Paleocene Ranikot group limestone and sandstone. The Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (commonly called lower Goru sandstone) was named by
Malkani (2010a) as member but Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) upgraded it as Mekhtar
Formation (Mekhtar Sandstone) for sandstone well exposed in Mekhtar area of Loralai District,
Balochistan (Sulaiman foldbelt). It is found in subsurface in Sindh as Lower Goru sandstone. In
Kirthar depressions and Jacobabad-Khairpur high/Sukkur rift zone it may be from Eocene Habib
Rahi and Paleocene Dungan limestone. This basin contains best reservoir
(sandstone/limestone), source (mostly shale) and cap rocks (shale) briefly mentioned here.
Triassic Khanozai Group represents Gwal (shale, thin bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with
medium bedded limestone), Jurassic Sulaiman Group represents Spingwar (shale, marl and
limestone), Loralai/Anjira (limestone with minor shale), Chiltan(Zidi/Takatu; limestone) and
Dilband (iron stone) formations, Early Cretaceous Parh Group represents Sembar (shale with a
sandstone body), Mekhtar (sandstone, commonly called lower Goru), Goru (shale and marl),
and Parh (limestone) formations, and Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group represents Mughal
Kot (shale/mudstone, sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro (limestone), Pab (sandstone
with subordinate shale) and Vitakri (red muds and greyish white sandstone) formations.
Paleocene Ranikot Group represents Khadro (sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics), Bara
(sandstone with minor limestone, coal and volcanics) and Lakhra (limestone and shale)
formations; Early Eocene Laki Group represents Sohnari (lateritic clay and shale, yellow
arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignite seams) and Laki (shale, limestone, sandstone,
lateritic clay and coal) formations, Early-Middle-Late Eocene Kirthar Group represents Kirthar
(limestone, marl and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone with negligible
shale and marl) formations, Oligocene Gaj Group represents Nari (sandstone, shale, limestone)
and Gaj (shale with subordinate sandstone and limestone) formations, Miocene-Pliocene
Manchar Group/Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone,
conglomerate and mud), Vihowa (red ferruginous shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate),
Litra ( greenish grey sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan
(mud, conglomerate and sandstone) formations, and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group
represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone) and
Sakhi Sarwar Formation (poorly developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone,
while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) which are concealed in the valleys and plain
areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. Thar is represented by
eolian sand dune deposits.

MINERAL RESOURCES OF SINDH PROVINCE,

PAKISTAN

Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Resources:

Abrasives
Abrasive type red ochre is found in Eocene Sohnari beds, nodular flints between Rohri and Kot
diji; in west of Jhol Dhaund, around Harmon Mohatta coal mine west of Sohnari Dhand (west of

20
Jhimpir), west of Ongar Jhol Dhand (north of Thatta) and Sohnari 15km east of Jhimpir; Grity
Pab sandstone of Khadro and Bara areas (can be used for abrasive purposes); Quartz deposits
of Cretaceous Pab Formation from eastern slope of Lakhi range district Dadu (Ahmad 1969).

Alum, Trona (Source of Na) and Potash Salts

Alum, Trona (source of Na) and potash salts associated with rock salt deposits and lakes are
found in the vicinity of Sindh coastal areas (Malkani and Mahmood 2016a). Alum from
pyritiferous shales of Gajbeds from Maki Nai, shales of Ranikot group and Nari/Gaj group and at
Shah Hassan near Trimi (Heron 1954).

Celestite
The Thano Bula Khan celestite deposits occur as celestite-calcite veins along a major fault in the
Eocene Laki Formation in the northern vicinity of Thano Bula Khan. The ore contains 98.75% Sr
and the reserves are 320,000 tones (Moosvi 1973).

Gypsum
Gypsum has multi-uses like soil conditioning, cement resources, construction materials, etc.
Alizai et al. (2000) reported 10.4mt gypsum in three beds ranging in thickness from 0.33 to
0.93m occurs in Oligocene-Miocene Gaj shales near Johi and Khairpur Nathan Shah areas of
Dadu district. Gypsum upto 1m thick are found at many places in Thar Desert.

Heavy Mineral Concentrates

Tungston/sheelite, gold and other heavy mineral concentrates (magnetite, ilmenite, garnet,
epidote, zircon, tourmaline, amphibole/hornblende and tremolite, apatite, pyroxene, etc) from
placer in the Indus River and molase rocks like Vihowa group, Manchar group and recent sea;
Zircon from the shore areas, gold (can be explored) from Nagar Parker and Indus placer.

Iron Ore
Iron, laterite and ochre reported from Lakhra, Meting and Makli hills, Nagar Parker, Jhal Dhand,
Sohnari Dhand, and Noriabad (Ahsan 2006); Nari Formation and in Manchar/Vihowa group in
the eastern Kirthar foldbelt; in Sindh lateritic clay and ochre, pockets of limonite and ochre are
found in Eocene Sohnari Formation at Lakhra, Meting and Makli hills (Kazmi and Abbas 2001).

Pyrite
Pyrite is found as disseminated in carbonaceous shale and coal strata at different places.

21
Coal Resources-Promising Subsurface Extension
Pakistan is ranked 7th internationally regarding lignitic coal reserves but unluckily importing
coal. Due to energy crises and increasing population it is vital to discover new coalfields in order
to meet requirements. Coal deposits are extensively developed in all the four provinces of
Pakistan and also Azad Kashmir. Coal from different areas of Pakistan generally ranges from
lignite to high volatile bituminous. These coals are friable, with relatively high content of ash
and sulphur. As a result of research by Malkani in 2012 the total coal reserves of Pakistan are
increased upto 186,282.43 million tones/mt due to some extensions of previous coalfields and
also many new coalfields of Balochistan. Due to recent research by Malkani and Mahmood in
early 2016 the total coal reserves of Pakistan increased upto 186,288.05mt with break up as
Sind 185457mt, Balochistan 458.72mt, Punjab 235mt, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 126.74mt and Azad
Kashmir 10.59 mt. Pakistan has huge coal reserves of 186,288.05 mt. Out of which 3479.86mt
are proved, 12023.93mt are indicated, 56951.96mt are inferred and 113832.30mt are
hypothetical. The bulk of coal reserves are found more than 99% in Sind Province and more
than 94% in Thar coalfields of Sind. In Sind it occurs in Sonda-Thatta (3700mt), Lakhra (1328mt),
Indus East (1777mt), Badin (850mt), Meting-Jhimpir (161mt), Jheruck (1823mt) Ongar (312mt)
and Thar (175506mt, which is one of the largest coalfields in the world).

Thar Coalfields
Thar coalfield is among the largest coalfields of world. Thar Coalfields host 175,506mt which
puts Pakistan amongst the 7th largest lignite deposits of world. This coalfield is spread over
9000 km2 with 140km N-S and 65km E-W extension (40L/1, 2, 5, 6). About 410km metalled
road upto Mithi from Karachi via Hyderabad-Mirpurkhas-Naukot and also via Thatta-Badin-
Naukot to Mithi is available. From Mithi to the coalfield, sandy track is covered by 4*4 vehicles.
The area is semi arid with low rainfall. The coalfield rests on Pre-Cambrian shield rocks and is
covered by sand dunes. The coal thickness varies from 0.20-22.81m. There are maximum 20
coal seams. The most common depth is 150-203m. The overburden varies from 114-245m
above the top coal seam. The claystone is the roof and floor rock. There are 4 blocks. The
reserves of Block-I show 3566mt with detail as 620mt measured, 1918mt indicated and 1028
inferred. Block-II shows 1584mt with 640mt measured and 944mt indicated whereas Block-III
shows 2006mt with 411mt measured, 1337mt indicated and 258mt inferred reserves. Finally,
Block-IV shows 2559 mt with 637mt measured, 1640mt indicated and 282mt inferred reserves
with rest of Thar coalfield showing 165,791mt with a detail of 392mt measured, 3556mt
indicated and 49138mt inferred reserves. The grand total of Thar coalfield reserves is
175,506mt with 2700mt measured, 9395mt indicated, 50706 inferred, 112,705mt hypothetical
reserves. The coal is formed from herbaceous plants (reed), does not reveal a warm climate in
the past and also indicate little fluctuation in water-table.

Jherruck Coalfields
Jherruck Coalfields show reserves of 1823mt, whilst those at Ongar Coalfields, Indus East
Coalfields and Badin Coalfields have reserves of 312mt, 1777m and 850mt, respectively.

Meting-Jhimpir Coalfields

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Meting-Jhimpir Coalfields (Thatta district) is 125km east of Karachi on the vicinity of Meting and
Jhimpir railway stations. Railway line runs on the western limit of the Karachi-Hyderabad
highway limit with the eastern boundary of coalfields. It is found in the Early Eocene Sohnari
Formation of
Laki group. There is 1 coal seam (0.3-1m with aver 0.6m) which is thin and lenticular. The dips
are gentle with 100 west, the ash and sulphur contents are relatively low, ranks are lignite A to
sub bituminous C whilst the composition splits into moisture at 26.6-36.6%, volatile matter at
25.2-34%, fixed carbon between 24.1 and 32.2%, ash at 8.2-16.8, sulphur 2.9-5.1% and heating
value 6725-7660BTU/lb (Ahmed et al. 1986) with total reserves of 161mt detailed as 10mt
measured, 43mt indicated and 108mt inferred reserves. Small scale mining is in progress .

Petroleum Resources
Indus Basin (533,500 km2) subdivided in to northernmost (uppermost) Indus, northern (upper)
Indus, Central/middle Indus and southern/lower Indus basins. The rectangle shape Sulaiman

23
Basin is the largest basin of main Indus Basin and consists of more than 170,000 km2, while the
triangle shape Kirthar basin more than 120,000 km2, square shape Kohat and Potwar basin
more than 100,000 km2and almost square shape Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin more than
100,000 km2. The Western Indus Suture (Lasbela-Khuzdar-Quetta-Muslimbagh-Zhob-
Waziristan-Kuram) and Northern Indus Suture (Mohmand-Swat-Besham-Sapat-Chila-Haramosh-
Astor-Shontar-Burzil Pass-Kargil), Kirana and Nagar Parkar areas show more than 50,000 km2.
Kirthar Basin (Southern/lower Indus) consists of exposed Mesozoic to recent rocks (Malkani
2010a,2012k; Malkani and Mahmood 2016b) more than 15km thick. However the Nagar Parker
area contains Precambrain Ignesous rocks of Indo-Pak shield. Kirthar basin consists of Kirthar
fold and thrust belts, Jacobabad-Khairpur high/horst (Sukkur Rift), Kirthar depressions and
Sindh monocline. The main reservoir rocks in Sindh monocline are Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (Lower Goru sandstone) and from Karachi Depressions
production is from Paleocene Ranikot group limestone and sandstone. The Cretaceous Mekhtar
Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (commonly called lower Goru sandstone) was named by
Malkani (2010a) as member but Malkani and Mahmood (2016b) upgraded it as Mekhtar
Formation (Mekhtar Sandstone) for sandstone well exposed in Mekhtar (Loralai District) and
Murgha Kibzai (District Zhob), Balochistan (Sulaiman foldbelt). It is found in subsurface in Sindh
as Lower Goru sandstone. In Kirthar depressions and Jacobabad-Khairpur high/Sukkur rift zone
it may be from Eocene Habib Rahi and Paleocene Dungan limestone. This basin contains best
reservoir (sandstone/limestone), source (mostly shale) and cap rocks (shale) briefly mentioned
here. Triassic Khanozai Group represents Gwal (shale, thin bedded limestone) and Wulgai
(shale with medium bedded limestone) formations. Jurassic Sulaiman Group represents
Spingwar (shale, marl and limestone), Loralai/Anjira (limestone with minor shale), Chiltan
(Zidi/Takatu; limestone) and Dilband (iron stone) formations. Early Cretaceous Parh Group
represents Sembar (shale with a sandstone body), Mekhtar (sandstone, commonly called lower
Goru), Goru (shale and marl), and Parh (limestone) formations. Late Cretaceous Fort Munro
Group represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone, sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro
(limestone), Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and Vitakri (red muds and greyish white
sandstone) formations. Paleocene Sangiali Group in the western Kirthar represents Sangiali
(limestone, sandstone, shale with common bivalves), Rakhi Gaj (sandstone and shale) and
Dungan (limestone and shale) formations. Paleocene Ranikot Group in the eastern Kirthar basin
(Laki and surroundings) represents Khadro (limestone, sandstone, shale and volcanics), Bara
(soft sandstone, shale and coal) and Lakhra (limestone with subordinate shale) formations.
Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group in the western Kirthar represents Shaheed Ghat
(shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone and coal), Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and white
sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and shale), and Baska (gypsum beds and shale)
formations. Early Eocene Laki Group in the eastern Kirthar basin (Laki range and surroundings)
represents Sohnari (lateritic clay and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and
lignitic coal seams) and Laki (limestone with subordinate shalel) formations. Early-Middle
Eocene Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl and shale) and Gorag (resistant and
peak forming limestone with negligible shale and marl) formations. Oligocene-Miocene Gaj
Group represents Oligocene Nari (sandstone, shale, limestone) and Miocene Gaj (shale with
subordinate sandstone and limestone) formations. Late Miocene-Pliocene Manchar Group
represents Late Miocene Litra (greenish grey sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and

24
mud), and Pliocene Chaudhwan (mud, sandstone and conglomerate) formations. Pleistocene-
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with subordinate
mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (poorly developed conglomerate with
subordinate mud and sandstone, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) which are
concealed in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent/Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial
deposits. Thar and some coastal consists of eolian sand dune deposits.

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