precast محول PDF

Precast
concrete
3/3/2019 Dr. Umaima Al 1

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Concrete
types
1) In-situ cast concrete
2) Precast concrete
3) Pre-stressing
concrete
4) Post-tensioning
concrete

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In-situ cast
concrete
In-situ cast concrete is a concrete that is cast into forms on
the building site
Any shape that can be formed can be cast

Appropriate concrete properties designed
Appropriate mix design developed
Mixing, transporting and handling coordinated with placing and
finishing
Should not be placed more rapidly than it can be spread
Deposit as near as possible to the final position
The concrete is placed in forms and consolidated

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EXAMPLES: SINGLE FOOTINGS WITH
CONNECTING BEAM

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EXAMPLE
S:

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EXAMPLES: Foundation consisting of spread footingseccentrically
constructed

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EXAMPLES: strip
foundation

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EXAMPL
ES

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CASES OF ANCHORING THE REINFORCEMENT OF THEUPPER
FLOOR LEVEL

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CASES OF ANCHORING THE REINFORCEMENT OF THEUPPER
FLOOR LEVEL

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Precast
concrete
Precast structures are known as prefabricated/ modular
structures.
• Compared to site-cast concrete, precast concrete construction is

faster and less affected by adverse weather conditions.
• Plant casting allows increased efficiency, high quality control
and greater control on finishes.
• The components are manufactured by industrial methods
based on mass production in order to build a large number of
buildings in a short time at low
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STRUCTURAL
PRECAST
CONCRETE
ELEMENTS:
• Slabs
• Beams
• Girders
• Columns
• and wall panels

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Characteristics of Precast
concrete
• Great accuracy and high quality

• Additional features: reinforcing, moles, anchor
bolts, etc
• Characteristics controlled by different materials
• Reinforcement: Conventional reinforcing or pre-
stressed steel

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Manufacturing of Precast
concrete
• Casting beds are used
• High strength steel strands pre-
tensioned
• Additional reinforcement added
• Concrete poured and vibrated
• Cured with live steam or radiant
heat

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Design Consideration of Precast
concrete
• final position and loads
• transportation requirements: self load and
position during transportation
• storing requirements: self load and position
during storing – (avoid or store in the same
position as it transported / built in)
• lifting loads: distribution of lifting points, optimal
way of lifting (selection of lifting and rigging tools)
• The design concept of the precast buildings is
based on:
1) Buildability.
2) Economy
3) Standardization of precast components.
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Advantages of Precast
concrete
• Quick construction times
• Possibility of conversion, disassembling and
moving to another site
• Possibility of construction in areas where a
traditional
construction practice is not possible or
difficult
• Low labor
• Reduce wastage of materials
• Easier management of construction sites
• Better overall construction quality
• Ideal fit for simple and complex structures
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Limitations of Precast
concrete
• size of the units.
• location of window openings has a
limited variety.
• joint details are predefined.
• site access and storage capacity.
• require high quality control.
• difficult to handling & transporting.

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Types of pre cast
system
• Large-panel systems
• Frame systems
• Slab-column systems with
walls
• Mixed systems

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PRECAST CONCRETE
COLUMNS
• Precast columns can be manufactured into a
range of sections to allow a wide variety of
geometrical shapes for any type of project.
• the normal rectangular shape ranging from
30 to 120 cm.
• The heights possible depend on the required
stiffness for handling and limitations imposed
by transport means.
• It can be manufactured with edging or
grooves, as well as placing internal
downspouts.

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PRECAST CONCRETE
COLUMNS
• The embedding of the columns in the
foundations can be achieved through
various systems, depending on the
characteristics and the requirements of
the project. Here is a list of the
different standard solutions:
1. SOCKET FOOTING FOUNDATIONS

2. SHEATH FOUNDATIONS
3. BOLTED FOUNDATIONS
4. BASE PLATE FOUNDATIONS
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SOCKET FOOTING FOUNDATIONS
• This type of column embedding enables a
high level of efficiency when assembling, as
well as installation tolerance in the footings.
• The grooved walls of both the columns and

the footing socket form a shear key which
enables the load to be transferred per point
or per shaft.

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SHEATH
FOUNDATIONS
• It is an appropriate on-site system for

embedding walls or other precast
elements.
• This type of column embedding is
appropriate for when cantilever or corner
footings are available and in the case of
the proximity
pile caps. This of the footing's
is due edge depth
to the limited to the
side
of theoffooting
the column.
or

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BOLTED
FOUNDATIONS
As with the previous system, this is
recommended for embedding when
there is limited footing depth
available and little distance
between the footing and the side of
the column.
it is also suitable for on-site connections

with walls and other precast components,
as well as joints between shafts and
columns.
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BASE PLATE
FOUNDATIONS
• Bolted system is similar to the

previous system, but does not need
any type of concrete poured on site
because no holes are made in the
column section.
• The base plate, which is usually
beveled, is embedded in the base of
the structure.
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Precast Columns
connections
• column-to-column
connection uses proprietary
sleeves that are cast into
the lower end of the upper
column section. Before the
sections are assembled
(upper left)
• Assembly of the column
sections starts with the
placement of a stack of
steel shims in the center of
the top of the lower section.
• Then The sleeves mate with
projecting reinforcing bars
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from the lower column 28
section.
• After the upper column section has
been shimmed to exactly the right
height and plumbed up, a fluid
grout is injected into each sleeve,
where it cures and serves to
connect the reinforcing bars.
• The grouted sleeves develop the
full strength of the reinforcing bars
that they connect.

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Precast Columns
connections
• Metal shims support the
upper column sections at
the proper height until the
grout cures.
• The open corners are dry
packed with stiff grout after
the column has been aligned
and bolted; this protects the
metal parts of the connection
from fire and corrosion.

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Precast Columns
Corbels
• The beams' support on columns
is achieved with corbels, being
able to position them at any
elevation on the column and
also on the sides, as necessary.
• They can be manufactured in

any geometrical shape. The
most common ones are the
examples shown here.

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PRE-CAST
BEAMS
• The most standardized precast beam
elements Includes:
• Rectangular beam
• L_ shaped beam
• Inverted T_ beam
• Aashto beam

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PRE-CAST
SLABS
• The most standardized precast slab elements
Includes:
• Solid flat slab,
• Hollow core slab
• Double tee slab
• Single tee slab

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HOLLOW-CORE PRE-CAST
SLABS
• Hollow-core slabs are precast, pre-stressed concrete
slabs that contain voids in their central region. The voids
reduce the dead load of the slab by 40% to 50%
compared with a site cast concrete slab for the same
span.

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HOLLOW-CORE PRE-CAST
SLABS
• Hollow-core slabs are produced
in thicknesses of 4 in., 6 in., 8
in., 10 in., 12 in., and 14 in.,
with the 8-in.-thick slab being
most commonly used.
• The width of the slabs is

generally 4 ft.
•A 12-in. slab has an
approximate spanning
capability of 40 ft.
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HOLLOW-CORE PRE-CAST SLABS CONNECTION TO
THE BEAM
• Connections between hollow-core slabs and supporting members are made
using site-cast concrete fill and reinforcing steel.
• In addition, a site-cast concrete topping is generally used over the slabs.

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HOLLOW-CORE PRE-CAST SLABS CONNECTION TO
THE BEAM
• The topping provides structural
integration of slab units and
increases the floor’s fire
resistance and sound insulation.
• In many buildings, topping is
omitted for the sake of economy.
• Topping, when used, is generally
2 in. to
2.5 in. thick and reinforced with
welded wire reinforcement
(WWR).
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Advantages of Hollow core
Slabs
• Remarkably lower price compared to other systems.
• Automated production under strict Quality and Safety
Control.
• Longer span and greater loads than conventional slabs
of the same thickness.
• No need for propping and scaffolding, and Speed and
ease of construction.
• High strength, lightweight, durable structure.
• Superior fire resistance and earth quake resistance.
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DOUBLE-TEE PRE-CAST
SLAB
• The width of units is generally 8 ft, with a center-to-center distance of 4 ft
between beams. Double-tee units with widths of 9 ft, 10 ft, and 12 ft are also
manufactured.
• Overall depths of double-tee units vary from 16 in. to 36 in. to give different
spanning capabilities.

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DOUBLE-TEE PRE-CAST
SLAB
• Double-tee units are used where the
spans are large and cannot be
provided economically with site-
cast concrete construction or
hollow-core slabs.
• They are commonly used for hotel
and bank lobbies.
• As with hollow-core slabs, a topping
of concrete and welded wire
reinforcement (WWR) may be used
on double-tees for structural
integration and leveling.

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DOUBLE-TEE PRE-CAST
SLAB
• Another common use of
double-tees is in multistory
parking garages, where a
minimum distance of 60 ft
between columns is generally
necessary.
• In garages, double-tees are
generally supported on site-
cast or precast inverted T-
beams.
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EXAMPL
ES

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EXAMPL
ES

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PRE-STRESSING
CONCRETE
• Pre-stressing is a method in which
compression force is applied to the
reinforced concrete section.
• Pre-stressing tendons (generally of

high tensile s teel c able or rods) are
used to provide a clamping load
which produces a compressive stress
that balances
tensile stressthe that the concret
e compression member
would
experience due otherwise
to a bending
load.
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FORMS OF PRE-
STRESSING
Steel Wires: Pre-stressing wire is a
single unit made of steel.
Strands: Two, three or seven wires
are wound to form a pre-stressing
strand.
Tendon: A group of strands or wires
are wound to form a pre-stressing
tendon.
Cable: A group of tendons form a pre-
stressing cable.
Bars: A tendon can be made up of a
single steel bar. The diameter of a
bar is much larger than that of a
wire.
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PRE-STRESSING
TYPES
• There are two types of pre-
stressed concrete. They are:
• Pre- tensioned concrete
• Post tensioned concrete
• Both methods involve tensioning

cables inside a concrete beam and
then anchoring the stressed
cables to the concrete.

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PRE-STRESSING CONCRETE (Pre-
tensioned concrete)
• Pre-tensioned concrete is almost
done in a pre-cast plan.
• The bonded wires (tendons) are
tensioned prior to the concrete
pouring.
• After the concrete hardens to
approximately 75% of the specified
compressive strength, The tendons
are released and axial
compressive load is then
transmitted to the cross section of
the member.

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POST-STRESSING CONCRETE (Post-
tensioned concrete)
• Post-tensioning tendons, which are
pre- stressing steel cables inside
plastic ducts or sleeves, are
positioned in the forms before the
concrete is placed.
• Afterwards, once the concrete has
gained strength but before the
service loads are applied, the
cables are pulled tight, or
tensioned, and anchored against the
outer edges of the concrete.

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ADVANTAGES OF PRE AND POST-STRESSING
CONCRETE
• Take full advantages of high strength concrete and high
strength steel
• Smaller and lighter structure
• No cracks
• Use the entire section to resist the load
• Better corrosion resistance
• Very effective for deflection control
• Better shear resistance
• Increases the quality, strength, span of the structure.
• Since it is cost effective, it is used widely on recent days.

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G ROUP PRESENTATION
EVALUATION/FEEDBACK FORM
Group Member's Names:
Your presentation will be evaluated using the following scale in each of the
categories below.
Needs
Improvement>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>Excellent
1. Introduction 1 2 3 4 5
Got our attention
Gave a preview of presentation
2. Preparation 1 2 3 4 5
Preparation
apparent Practice
apparent
Each member prepared equally
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3. 1 2 3 4 5
Power point is well organized?
Organization
Easy to follow?
Choice of PowerPoint format logical and effectively contributes to understanding of the
concepts.
4. 1 2 3 4 5
Did the group show creative thinking in the method of analyzing and presenting the case
Creativity
study?
Did they get the audience involved in “learning” the material?
5. Meeting assignment 1 2 3 4 5
Did the presentation show evidence of effective research and understanding of the
objectives
selected case study?
Did the presentation reflect accurate, specific, purposeful information that is extended and
expanded to fully explain the topic?
Where the used sketches and graphics clear and supports specific concepts?
6. Presentation 1 2 3 4 5
Was it delivered without notes or text (members knew their material, used minor notes, and
style
did not read it to us !)
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7. 1 2 3 4 5
Eye contact
Delivery
Volume, vocal variety
Nonverbal body language
Verbal fillers (ah, um)
Did the speakers show sincerity? or enthusiasm when they
spoke?
8. 1 2 3 4 5
Ended with a summary
Conclusion
Had finality to cap off
presentation
9. Overall team 1 2 3 4 5
Connected to each other
cohesiveness:
Other team members were attentive while individuals
spoke
Met time requirements
10. Overall rating of 1 2 3 4 5
Includes presentational style, content, organization, and
project
creativity
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Shellstructures
2nd
Semester
2016/2017
Introduction
• Shell is a type of building enclosures
• Shells belong to the family of arches . They can be defined as c
urved o r angled structures capable of transmitting loads in
more than two d irections to supports
• Also called plate structures
• They are light weight constructions using shell elements
(m embranes), these element typically curved, a re assembled to
make l arge structures
• S hells are analogous to cable which resists loads through
tensile s tresses
Advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages of shell structures

• Very light form of construction. To span 30 m shell thickness
required is 6cm
• Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and
supporting system
• They further take advantage of the fact that arch shapes can
span longer
• Aesthetically it looks good over other forms of construcion
Advantages and disadvantages
• Disadvantages of shell structures

• Shuttering problem
• Greater accuracy in formwork is
required
• Good labor and supervising
necessary
• Rise of roof may be a disadvantage
Classification of shells
• There are many different ways to classify shell structures
such as:
1. The material which the shell is made of

2. The shell thickness
3. S urface shapes
1. The material which the shell is made of:
• like reinforced concrete, plywood or steel, because each one has

different properties that can determine the shape of the building
and therefore,
these characteristics have to be considered in the design.
• The most suitable material is reinforced concrete because it is highly
plastic material when first mixed with water that can take up any
shape on centering or inside formwork. Small sections of bars can
readily be bent to follow the curvature of shells
• The concrete slab acts as a strong , rigid shell which serves as both
structure and covering to the building
2. The shell thickness: shells can be thick or thin.
• A thin shell is define as a shell with a thickness which is small

compared to its other dimensions
• The ideal thin shell must be capable of developing both
tension and compression
3. Surface shapes:
The shells are most commonly d omes and flat plates, b ut may
also take
the form of ellipsoids or cylindrical sections, or some combination
1. Rotational surface: generated by r otation of a curve about an

axis
2. Transitional surface: generated b y sliding one plane curve over
another
3. Combination of the above
4.Complex shape surface: in term
of analytical parametric
expression
Surface Shape
The term single and

double curvature are
used to distinguish
the comparative
rigidity of two forms
and complexity of
centering necessary
to construct
the shell form
• Single curvature shells: Are curved on one linear axis and are a part of a
cylinder or cone in form of barrel vaults or conoid shells
• Double curvature shell: Are either part of sphere, or a hyperboloid of
revolution
and therefore, the
materials have t o
resist both
compression and
t ension stresses. This
factor takes advantage
of the bars of the
reinforced concrete,
because t hese
e lements can be
placed
w here tension forces
are n eeded and
therefore,
t he span to thickness
R atios can be
increased.
2. Cylindrical
shells
• Furthermore, the shape has fewer
requirements than the vaults and therefore,
new curves like the ellipse or the parabola
can be used improving the aesthetic quality
of the structure.
• EDGE SUPPORTED SHELLS:
• The stresses and deflections in single barrel vaults (or end bays
of multiple vaults) may be reduced by using columns or walls to
support the edges.
• This makes it possible to design a single barrel shell for a
large auditorium or gymnasium without using intermediate
stiffeners.
• Most of the load is carried to the end stiffeners and columns.
• The intermediate columns merely act as a vertical support and
do not carry lateral load.
3. Hyperbolic Paraboloid
• A hyper is triangular, rectangular or
shells
rhomboidal in plan, with corners raised to
the elevation desired for use and/or
appearance. The edges of Hypars are
typically restrained by stiff hollow beams
that collect & transfer roof loads to the
foundations.
• SHELL ROOFS, HAVE COMPRESSION

STRESSES
FOLLOWING THE CONVEX CURVATURE AND
THE
TENSION STRESSES FOLLOW THE CONCAVE
CURVATURE.
Load movement in folded plate
The structural behavior of a folded

plate is that the external forces are
transferred to the shorter edge of
one folding element. Then the
forces transferred to the bearings.
Structural Condition Of Folding

Structures.
Folded-plate examples
Roof covering and
insulation
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
1. Spherical shells (Dome)
• A rounded roof, with a circular base, shaped like an arch
in all directions
• A s hell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome
• Dome has d ouble curvature and the resulting structure is much
stiffer and stronger than a single curved surface, such as a
barrel shell
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
• Types of forces in spherical
shells
Thin concrete shell structures
• The most popular types of shell structures are thin concrete

shell structures. Which often cast as a monolithic dome or
stressed ribbon bridge or saddle roof
• They are a lightweight construction composed of a relatively thin

shell made of reinforced concrete, usually without the use of
internal
supports giving an open unobstructed interior.
• Most concrete shell structures are commercial and sports

buildings or storage facilities.
Thin concrete shell
structures
• Advantages of Concrete Shells:
1. The curved shapes often used for concrete shells are
naturally strong structures.
2. Shell allowing wide areas to be spanned without the use of
internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed interior.
3. The use of concrete as a building material reduces both
materials cost and the construction cost.
4. As concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into
compound curves.
Thin concrete shell
structures
There are two important

factors in the development of
the thin concrete shell
structures:
• T he first factor is the shape
which was developed along
the history of these
constructions. Some shapes
were resistant and can be
erected easily. However,
the designer’s incessant desire for
more ambitious structures did not stop
and
new shapes were designed.
•T
CaseStudy
Concrete slabs
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Slabs
• Slabs in Buildings are usually u sed

to
transmit the loads on floors and roofs
to
the supporting beams
• Slabs are used to provide f lat and
useful
surfaces
• RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges
from
10 to 50 cm are most often used for
the construction of floors and
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ceilings
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• Thin concrete slabs are also

used for exterior paving purpose
Slab definition
A slab is plate structural element that has a
small thickness compared to its own length
and width.
• Slabs may be solid of uniform

thickness or ribbed with ribs
running in one or two
directions.
• Slabs with varying depth
are generally not used
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Load Path
• Slabs distributes the applied loads to its
supporting joists or beams in the form
of distributed loads
• Beams transfers the applied distributed

loads horizontally to the supporting
girders, truss,
columns or bearing walls
• Tributary area is the portion of a

structure contributing to the loads in a
structural member or element
• The span direction usually alternate in

each successive layer
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Types of slabs
Slabs are classified according to their method of spanning and the
form in which they are cast
1) One way solid slabs

2) Two way solid slabs
3) Hollow block concrete slabs
4) Beam and-Girder slabs
5) Solid concrete slabs
6) Flat slabs
7) Flat plate slabs
8) Grid slabs or waffle slabs
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Factors for choosing slab type
The choice of type of slab for a particular floor depends on
many factors
1) Economy of construction
2) geographical variable
3) The design loads
4) Required spans
5) Strength requirements
6) Serviceability requirements
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Spanning and support of slabs
The two major classification of slabs is

a ccording to the path of load
distribution f rom slab to beam
(method of spanning):
• one way Spanning
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One way vs. two ways slabs
One Way Slab Two Way Slab
One way slab is Two way slab is

supported by beams in supported by beams in
only 2 sides. all four sides.
The ratio of longer span The ratio of longer
panel (L) to shorter span span panel (L) to
panel (B) is equal or shorter span panel
greater than 2. Thus, L/B (B) is less than 2.
>= 2 Thus, L/B < 2.
Main reinforcement is Main reinforcement is
provided in only one provided in both the
direction for one way direction for two way
slabs.
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One-Way
Slabs
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Typesof one way slab
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Loads and analysis of one way slabs
1) Bending
moments
2) Shear forces
3) Torsional
moments
4) Uniform loads
5) Point loads
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One way solid slab
A B
• One way slab is u niformly thick, and lx
cast integrally with parallel

supporting C D
beams ly
• One way slab transfers the

loads Iy / Ix > 2 → consider as one-way
primarily in one direction, slab where → Ix - length of
perpendicular shorter side
of the supporting restraints Iy - length of longer side
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One way solid slab
A one-way slab could be

supported by parallel
walls or beams, i t can
carry light
to moderate loads over
relatively shorter spans
(1.8 m to 5.5 m) (6`
to18`)
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One way solid slab
• Tensile reinforcement for the

one- way slabs is placed in the
direction parallel to load
transfer, which is the bottom
and short direction
• Shrinkage and temperature

reinforcement are perpendicular
to the main tensile
reinforcement and are placed at
the mid thickness of the slab
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One way solid slab
shrinkage Reinft.
Main Reinft.
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Maximum spacing between main tension and shrinkage
bars
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One way solid slab
The structural action

of a one-way slab
may be visualized in
terms of the
deformed shape of
Deflected Shape of Uniformly Loaded One-Way
Slab. the loaded surface.
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One way solid continues slab
• One way slabs are usually a
rranged
side by side and simply supported
by
underneath beams. It can be
treated as a very wide beam that
spans between supports.
• Support conditions is an important
impact.
• They are usually horizontal but can

be provided at a slope if needed.
Sloped members are commonly
used at the
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accommodate
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drainage
requirements.
Reinforcement of one way continues solid slab
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Example of one way continues solid slab
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Example of one way continues solid slab
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Hollow brick slabs (ribbed slab)
• Hollow block and Rib slabs are

formed by placing blocks on the
slab and
casting concrete ribs.
• They are more suitable for longer

spans and heavier loads than one
way slab
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Advantages of Ribbed Hollow brick slabs
They provide an economical, versatile lightweight monolithic

slab system
Components are relatively light and no mechanical handling is
necessary there is ease of construction.
Economic for spans more than 5m with light or moderate live
loads, such as hospitals, office or residential buildings.
The hollow block floor is most suitable for small irregularly
shaped floors as the hollow blocks can be easily fitted into the
irregular shapes
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Code specifications hollow brick slabs
Net distance between ribs "e"
shall not exceed 700 mm.
Web width "b" shall not be less

than 100 mm or one the third of
depth "t", whichever is greater.
Compression slab thickness "ts"

shall not be less than 50 mm or
one Tenth 1/10 of distance "e",
whichever is greater.
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Blocks between the ribs
• Blocks may be made concrete with
lightweight aggregate or other material
as polystyrene ( foam ).
• They are commercially available
in standard sizes and shapes.
• The most common concrete hollow
block sizes are 40 × 25 cm
in plan and heights of 14, 17, 20,
and 24 cm .
• The blocks are considered as non-
structural element as they do not
contribute to strength of the slab.
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In this case hollow blocks In this case foam blocks In this case clay blocks
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are used
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Oneway Joistslab(ribbed slab)
A one-way joist floor is constructed with
U-
s haped pans as formwork placed
over a f lat form deck.
Because the ribs are narrow and

closely
s paced, the floor resembles a wood
joist floor. It is, therefore, c alled a joist
floor or a r ibbed floor , but it is more
commonly known as a one-way joist
floor
The j oists act like small beams.
This floor system is very e conomical

b ecause the formwork is readily
available, a nd less reinforcing is
need.
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Because
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between
Al e ach joist, the slab can be
thinner.
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one-way joist slab
The one-way slab t ransfers the load to the
which transfer the loads to the column-
joists,
beams
line (or, girders).
The gap between the pans represents the
width
of the joists, which can be adjusted by
placing the pans closer together or farther
apart.
The pans are generally made of steel or
glass
fiber–reinforced plastic (GFRP) and can be
used
repeatedly.
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Standard-module pans
Standard-module pans are 20 in.
and 30 in. wide. These dimensions
have been
standardized so that, with 4-in.- and 6-
in.-
wide joists, the center-to-center
spacing between joists are 2 ft and
3 ft, respectively.
Note that the pans have open ends on

both sides, except the pans used
adjacent to beam or the distribution
rib, which have closed ends.
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Wide-module pans
Wide-module pans are available in

53- in. and 66-in. They are
generally used with 5-ft and 6-ft
center-to-center joist spacing, giving
joist widths of 7 in. and 6 in.,
respectively.
Special end caps are available to

close the open ends of pans near
the beams
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Standard one-way joist
system
B ecause a wide-module floor

has a l arger spacing between
joists, the s lab thickness
required is also l arger. Wide module joist
system.
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Joists slab example
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Hollow block vsribbed/joist slab
In case of hollow block slab voided blocks

are placed to reduce the total weight of
the slab. Hollow blocks made of
lightweight concrete or other materials
are arranged between the ribs
In case of joist slab (ribbed slab) the

blocks are not permanent. the voids
between ribs are left out without any
filling material
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One way (Hollow brick and Ribbed slab)
• One way joist slabs and hollow brick slabs are cast integrally with a
series of closely spaced joists/ribs, which are supported by a parallel
set of beams
• They are designed as a series of T-beams, by removing the part
of the concrete below the neutral axis.
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One way (Hollow brick and Ribbed slab)
• Tensile reinforcement occur at the ribs

• S hrinkage and temperature reinforcement placed in the
slab
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Minimum slab thickness
To control deflection, ACI Code
9.5.2.1 specifies minimum
thickness as shown
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Arrangements of ribs
Where the spacing of columns in

either direction i s unequal,
the supporting b eams should

preferably be oriented a long the
shorter direction a nd the joists in the
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HOLLOW BLOCKS& RIB SLAB
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Crossribs of hollow brick and rib slab
• Cross ribs are used when the live load ≥ 3kN/m2 or Span > 5m.
• Cross rib is a rib that perpendicular to the main ribs to connect
them together to minimize the deflection.
• Cross rib is parallel to the main beams and runs to the
long direction.
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Cross ribs of hollow brick and rib slab
Use One Cross Rib at the

middle
Use Three Cross Rib;

one of them at the
middle
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Beam and girder slab The load that is supported by the
slabs is t ransferred to the
beams
that span perpendicular to the
slabs. The beams, in turn,
transfer
the loads to the girders, and
the girders transfer the
loads t o the
columns
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Band beam slab
Band Beams slab referred to one-
way slab floor with w ide and
shallow,
continuous beams.
Because the beams are wide, t he slab
span is reduced, reducing the slab
thickness.
Additionally, the floor-to-floor height is
smaller, reducing the height of
columns, interior partitions, and
exterior cladding.
The overall height of the building is
also
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Two-Way
Slabs
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Two way slab
• A rectangular slab is supported
by beams at all sides.
• A Circular slab is also a two way
slab
If Iy / Ix < or = 2 → consider as two-

way slab where → Ix - length of
shorter side
Iy - length of longer side
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Two way slab
In general a slab which is not
falling in the category of one
way slab, considered as two
way slab.
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The structural action of a two-way slab may be visualized in terms of the
deformed shape of the loaded surface.
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Typesof two-way slabs
1.Two-Way Slabs on
Beams:
This case occurs when the two-way
slab is supported by beams on all
four sides.
The loads from the slab are transferred to
all four supporting beams, which, in turn,
transfer the loads to the columns.
TWO-WAY SLAB WITH
BEAMS
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2. Flat Slabs:
A flat slab is a two-way slab reinforced in two
directions t hat usually does not have beams or
girders, and the loads are transferred directly to the
supporting columns. The column lends to p unch
through the slab, which can be treated by three
methods:
a. Using a drop panel and a column capital.
b. Using a drop panel without a column capital.

The c oncrete panel around the column capital
should be t hick enough to withstand the diagonal
tensile stresses
a rising from the punching shear.
c. Using a column capital without drop
panel, which is not common. FLAT SLAB WITH DROP
PANELS
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3. Flat-Plate
A flat-plate floor is a two-way slab system
Floors:
consisting of a uniform slab that rests
directly on columns and does not have
beams or
column capitals .
In this case the column tends to punch
through the slab, producing diagonal
tensile stresses.
Therefore, a general increase in the slab
thickness is required or special
reinforcement is used.
FLAT
PLATE
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4. Two-Way Ribbed Slabs and the Waffle Slab
System: This type of slab consists of a floor slab with a length-to-
T he thickness
width ratio less of the2.slab is usually 5 to 10 cm and is supported by
than
ribs (or
joists) in two directions. The ribs are arranged in each direction at
spacing of about , p roducing square or rectangular shapes. The ribs
can also be arranged at or from the centerline of slabs, producing
architectural shapes at the soffit of the slab.
In two way ribbed slabs, different systems can be adopted:
a. . A two-way rib system with voids between the ribs, obtained
by using special removable and usable forms (pans) that are normally
square in shape. The ribs are supported on four sides by girders that
rest on columns. This type is called a two way ribbed (joist) slab
system.
b. A two-way rib system with permanent fillers between ribs
that
produce horizontal slab soffits. The fillers may be of hollow, lightweight
or
normal-weight concrete or any other lightweight material. The ribs are
supported by girders on four sides, which in turn are supported by
WAFFLE
columns. This type is also called a two-way ribbed (joist) slab SLAB
system or a hollow-
block two-way ribbed system. 58
c. A two-way rib system with voids between the ribs with the ribs
continuing in both directions without supporting beams and resting
directly
on columns through solid panels above the columns. This type is
called a
Two way solid slab
The behavior of a two-way
slab is similar to that of a
one-way slab the only
difference being that now
the s lab loads will be
carried in both directions.
The load is carried in both

direction so reinforcement
is
placed in both direction.
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also similar in
both directions.
Two way solid slab
• At any point the slab is curved in both

direction & since bending moment are
proportional to curvature & moments also
exist in both direction
• To resist this moments the slab must
be reinforced in two direction.
• The slab must be design to take a
proportionate share of the load in each
direction
• The safest slab is the two-way slab and the
most vulnerable one is the cantilever slab
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Beam and girder two way-slab
The load that is supported by the slabs

is transferred to the beams that span
perpendicular to the slabs. The beams,
in turn, transfer the loads to the girders,
and the girders transfer the loads to the
columns
This type support a span of 4 to 9 m
A concrete floor that cannot be

constructed with a flat form deck
becomes uneconomical. Therefore, this
floor
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system is Relatively uncommon
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because
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formwork resulting from deep beams
around slab panels.
Ordinary flat slab (Flat plate)
• Flat Plate slab is a reinforced

concrete solid slab supported
directly by concrete columns
without the use of intermediary
beams.
• A flat plate slab is similar to a two-
way banded slab, except that the
beam bands in both directions are
concealed within the thickness of
the slab.
• The flat plate slab have a constant
thickness.
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Ordinary flat slab (Flat plate)
Cyclicstorydisplacement
• The spans that can be achieved
Criticalsectionfor
economically punchingshear
with a flat-plate floor are smaller than
floors
those obtained from one-way or two- Gravityloadson
way
. joist floorslab
• Use of flat plates is limited by their
punching shear capacities where large
thickness is
required in case of heavy loads or
large spans, thus rendering the
system Negative momentcracking
uneconomical under cyclic lateral story
• A flat plate is a two-way system; hence, displacements
the column spacing in both directions
should be approximately the same
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Figure 3. Area aroundslab-columnconnection 63
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Flat-plate are suitable for
• occupancies with relatively light live
loads. such as hotels, apartments,
and hospitals, where small column-to-
column spacing does not pose a
major design constraint. Flat plate
system.
• A flat-plate slab results in a low floor-
to- floor height, so it might be used
with occupancies where a drop
ceiling is not required, since HVAC
ducts can be run
within the corridors, where a lower
ceiling height is acceptable.
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Flat slab with banded beams (Marginal Beams)
Marginal beam is a beam which located

on the external slab edge.
Marginal beam benefits:

1) Resist to the wind forces and seismic
forces.
2) Strengthen the slab’s edge.
3) Carry for the external walls
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Flat slab with drop panel
• The drop panels are
effective in reducing the
shearing
stresses where the column
is
liable to punch through
the slab.
• They provide greater
resistance moment where
the negative moments are
greatest.
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slab deflection.
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Flat slab with drop panel
• Drop depth to be at
least
0.25 x slab thickness
• Panel width =
Column spacing/6
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Flat slab with column head
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Column heads are needed:
1) When (ts) is more than 220 mm.

2) When the negative moment is big
value
3) In the case of big spans.
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Dimensions of flat slab
Take Take
the the
bigger bigger
value value
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Dimensions of flat slab
Slab Length
L1 = The length of the slab
panel. L2 = The short span of
the panel. L= The bigger
length of L1, L2.
(ts )min = 150 mm.

(ts) depends on whether there is a
drop panel or no.
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OPENING in FLAT
SLABS
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OPENING in FLAT
SLABS
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FLAT SLABS
DESIGN
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FLAT SLABS
DESIGN
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FLAT SLABS
DESIGN
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FLAT SLABS
DESIGN
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CHOICEOFSOLID SLABTYPES
1) For beamless slabs, the choice between a flat slab and a flat plate is
usually a matter of loading and span.
2) Flat plate strength is often governed by shear strength at the columns

and spans greater than about (7 to 8 m) then the flat slab is often the
better choice.
3) If architectural or other requirements rule out capitals or drop panels,

the shear strength can be improved by using metal shear heads or
some other form of shear reinforcement, but the costs may be high.
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Twoway hollow block slabs
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HOLLOW BLOCKS & RIB
SLAB
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Two-way joist system or a waffle slab system.
This system consists of rows of
concrete joists at right angles to each
other, which are formed by standard
metal domes. Solid concrete heads
are provided at the columns for shear
strength.
Two-way joist floor (waffle Jois

t
slab) supported on beams on
all sides.
Such systems provide a viable
Two-way joist
cases where
solution in heavy loads need to system.
supported
be on long
spans.
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WAFFLESLABSYSTEM
A waffle slab is m
ore commonly
constructed as a beamless slab
Joists may have openings in the

ribs to accommodate
mechanical systems
Slabs between the joists can

readily
accommodate duct openings or
sleeves.
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
A waffle slab is more commonly constructed
as a beamless slab, therefore, it is used
where the column-to-column spacing lies
between 35 and 50 ft.
A waffle slab is best suited for square or
almost square column-to-column bays.
When left exposed to the floor below, the
waffle slab provides a highly articulated
ceiling.
The thickness of the slab at the columns is

the same as the depth of the joists. The
thickening of the slab at the columns
provides shear resistance (against
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The dome
Dome dimensions have been standardized t o produce 3-ft, 4-ft, and 5-ft
center-to-
center distances between domes in a variety of depths.
The domes have a wide s upporting lip on all sides and are laid on a flat-form
deck.
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
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Estimate the depth of a waffle slab
Estimate the depth of a waffle

slab by dividing the longer span
by 22.
Thus, if the two way joist floor

span is 44 ft, use a 2-ft (i.e., 24-
in.)-deep floor that includes the
thickness of the slab.
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
Scientifica
lly Prefer
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
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WAFFLE SLAB
SYSTEM
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Advantages of waffle slab
• Dome voids reduce dead load.

• Attractive ceiling (waffle like
appearance).
•• Electrical fixtures
Particularly can be placed inthe
advantageous the use of longer spans and/or
voids.
whereloads are desired without the use ofheavier
deepened drop panels or
beams. supported
• 30 to 50 foot
spans for buildings with high gravity loads (e.g. industrial
• Suitable
buildings)
• It has high stiffness and small deflections
• The only disadvantage is that it is
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The Hashemite University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Architectural Engineering
Architectural Structure Systems

Steel
Lecture 9
1
Introduction
iron is by far the most important of all metals because of its
extensive use in industry, construction, and weaponry, Steel is
the most important ferrous metal. Its high strength in relation
to its weight
Steel is the most important ferrous metal.
Its high strength in relation to its weight makes it the material
of choice for skyscrapers and long-span structures, such as
sports stadiums and bridges.
Its malleability and weldability allow it to be shaped, bent, and
made into different types of components.
These characteristics provide the versatility that architects
and engineers have exploited in creating a wide range of highly
expressive structures.
Structural Shapes
The Hashemite
University Faculty of
Engineering
Department of Architectural
Engineering
Architectural Structure Systems
Walls
1
Retaining Wall
The shearing strength of a soil is a measure of its ability
to resist displacement when an external force is applied,
due largely to the combined effects of cohesion and
internal friction.
On sloping sites, as well as during the excavation of a flat
site, unconfined soil has the potential to displace laterally.
Cohesive soils, such as clay, retain their strength when
unconfined; granular soils, such as gravel, sand, or some
silts, require a confining force for their shear resistance
and have a relatively shallow angle of repose.
20
1
Retaining Wall
When a desired change in ground elevation exceeds the
angle of repose of the soil, a retaining wall becomes
necessary to hold back the mass of earth on the uphill
side of the grade change.
A retaining wall must be designed and constructed to
resist the lateral pressure of the soil being retained.
This active pressure increases proportionally from zero at
the upper grade level to a maximum value at the lowest
depth of the wall.
The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to be acting
through the centroid of the triangular distribution
pattern, one-third above the base of the wall.
20
2
Retaining Wall
A retaining wall may fail by:

overturning,
horizontal sliding, or
excessive settling.
20
3
Retaining Wall
To
prevent a
retaining
wall from
sliding,
the
composit
e weight
of the
wall
times the
coefficien
t of
20
friction 4
for the
soil
supportin
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
1. Gravity Wall
2. T-Type Cantilevered Wall
3. Counterfort Wall
4. L-Type Cantilevered Wall
20
5
Gravity Wall
A gravity retaining wall resists
overturning and sliding by the sheer
weight and volume of its mass.
Gravity walls may be used for
retaining structures less than 3 m
high.
20
6
T-Type Cantilevered Wall
Cantilevered walls of reinforced
concrete are used for retaining
walls up to 6.1 m high.
Above this height, counterfort
walls are employed.
20
7
Counterfort Wall
A counterfort wall utilizes
triangular-shaped cross walls to
stiffen the vertical slab and add
weight to the base.
The counterforts are spaced at
regular intervals equal to one-
half the wall height.
20
8
L-Type Cantilevered Wall
This type of retaining wall is used when the wall abuts a
property line or other obstruction.
20
9
Drainage system may be
required to relieve the
build-up of water pressure
behind the wall.
Drainage mat w/ filter
fabric or porous gravel
backfill
51mm ø weepholes @
1220 –1830 mm,or
perforated drainpipe sloped
to outlet away from wall
21
0
21
1
Temperature steel for walls
more than 255mm thick
Structural steel reinforcement
(51) minimum
(75) minimum
Provide vertical control joints
@ 7620 o.c., and vertical
expansion joints every fourth
control joint.
Footing should extend below
the frostline or 610 below the
lower grade level, whichever
is greater.
21
2
Drainage
21
3
Retaining Walls
Timber and concrete, brick, or stone masonry may be
used for relatively low retaining walls.
Provide a well-drained, compacted granular subbase; base
need not extend to frostline.
Bottom of mortared stone walls should extend below
frostline.
21
4
Wall Systems
16
Wall Systems
Are the vertical construction of a building that

enclose, separate and protect the interior spaces.
They may be load bearing structure of homogeneous
or composite construction, or consist of a framework
of columns and beams with non-structural panels
attached to or filling in between them.
21
6
Wall Systems
Exterior walls are one of the major determinants of

the appearance of a building.
They convey images such as:
strength or solidity (brick- or stone-clad walls),
lightness or openness (glass-metal curtain walls), or
a sense of movement or activity (bright, glistening metal
curtain walls).
21
7
Wall Systems
Wall System functional requirement

1. Strength and stability (Support vertical Loads,Withstand
horizontal wind load
2. Resistance to weather and ground moisture
3. Durability and freedom from maintenance
4. Fire safety
5. Resistance to passage of heat
6. Resistance to airborne and impact sound
7. Security
8. Aesthetic
21
8
Wall Systems
I. Structural frames
II. Concrete and masonry bearing

walls
III. Metal and wood stud walls

21
9
Wall Systems
I. Structural frames
It can support and accept variety of nonbearing or
curtain wall
Detail connection is critical for structural and visual
reasons when frame is left exposed
22
0
Wall Systems
II. Concrete and masonry bearing

walls
Rely on their mass for their load-
carrying capacity
Strong in compression require
reinforcing to handle tensile
stresses
Height to wall ratio for lateral
stability, expansion joint critical
factors in design
Wall be left exposed 22
1
Wall Systems
III. Metal and wood stud walls

Spaced @0.406 or 0.610 m
Stud carry vertical load, sheathing
stiffen the plane of wall
Cavity accommodate thermal
insulation, outlet for mechanical and
electrical services
Accept variety of interior and
exterior wall finish
Flexible in form
Assembled on site or panelized off
site 22
2
Wall Systems
Walls may be classified as
1. Load bearing walls
2. Partition walls.
Both types may appear similar when complete, but
their sequence of construction is usually different
Walls must be constructed to:
support desired finish material
provide required degree of acoustical separation
accommodate distribution and outlets of mechanical and
electrical services.
22
3
Load Bearing Walls Vs partition Walls
Load Bearing Walls Partition Walls
They carry loads from roof, They carry self-weight only.

floor, self-weight etc. These walls are thin and hence occupy
less floor area.
They are thick and hence As the material required is less, the
occupy more floor area. construction cost is less.
As the material required is Stones are not used for the
construction of partition walls.
more, the construction cost
is more.
Stones or bricks are used
for the construction.
22
4
Masonry Walls
Masonry walls may be constructed

as solid walls, cavity walls and
veneered walls
22
5
Wood framing
construction
heavy- light-
frame frame
constructi constructi
on on
Pole
Timber Platfom
framing Ballon
framing framig framig
“post-frame
"post-and-
beam"
construction
”
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heavy-frame construction
• It is called heavy framing if
the vertical supports are
few and heavy
• Larger (5”x5” min) and fewer
members (spaced further
apart)
• IBC ,Type 4 Construction
(different code requirements)
• Diagonal bracing or rigid
connections required for
lateral stability
• Exposed construction (no
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Timber framing and "post-and-
•
beam"
Timber framing and "post-and-beam“: are
methods of building with heavy timbers rather
than dimensional lumber such as 2"x4"s.
• Traditional timber framing is the method of
creating structures using heavy squared-off and
carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints
secured by large wooden pegs (larger versions of
the mortise and tenon joints in furniture).
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Pole framing or post-frame construction
• Pole framing or post-frame construction: is a simplified
building technique adapted from the traditional timber
framing technique
• In architecture or structural
engineering, a girt is a
horizontal structural member
in a framed wall.
• May also be known
as a sheeting rail.
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Light wood frame construction
• Light-frame construction is created by using
standardized dimensional lumber that is closely
spaced
• The dimensional lumber used for construction is typically made
from softwood Lumber's
• Nominal dimensions are larger than the actual standard
dimensions of finished lumber
• Two types:
• Balloon frame
Dr. • Platform frame
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Framing
Methods
Balloon Framing Platform

Studs sit on a platform of
Studs continue from foundation to roof
plywood
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(decking/sheathing) between 8
floors
Dimensional lumber
• Solid dimensional lumber typically is
only available up to lengths of 24 ft
(7.32 m)
• Pre-cut studs are manufactured to be used
in 8-, 9-, and 10-ft (2.44, 2.74 and 3.05 m)
ceiling applications
• In the Americas, two-bys (2×4s, 2×6s, 2×8s,
2×10s, and 2×12s), named for traditional
board thickness in inches, along with the
4×4 (89 mm × 89 mm), are common lumber
sizes used in modern construction
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Dimensional lumber
North American softwood dimensional lumber sizes
Nominal Actual Nominal Actual Nominal Actual
mm
in × in mm × mm in × in in × in mm × mm
×
mm
1×2 3⁄ ×
4 1 1⁄2 19 × 38 2×2 1 1⁄2 × 1 1⁄2 38 × 38 4×4 3 1⁄2 × 3 1⁄2 89 × 89
1×3 3⁄ ×
4 2 1⁄2 19 × 64 2×3 1 1⁄2 × 2 1⁄2 38 × 64 4×6 3 1⁄2 × 5 1⁄2 89 × 140
1×4 3⁄ ×
4 3 1⁄2 19 × 89 2×4 1 1⁄2 × 3 1⁄2 38 × 89 4×8 3 1⁄2 × 7 1⁄4 89 × 184
1×6 3⁄ ×
4 5 1⁄2 19 × 140 2×6 1 1⁄2 × 5 1⁄2 38 × 140 6×6 5 1⁄2 × 5 1⁄2 140 × 140
1×8 3⁄ ×
4 7 1⁄4 19 × 184 2×8 1 1⁄2 × 7 1⁄4 38 × 184 8×8 7 1⁄4 × 7 1⁄4 184 × 184
1 × 10 3⁄ ×
4 9 1⁄4 19 × 235 2 × 10 1 1⁄2 × 9 1⁄4 38 × 235
1 × 12 3⁄ ×
4 11 1⁄4 19 × 286 2 × 12 1 1⁄2 × 11 1⁄4 38 × 286
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Engineered wood
• Engineered lumber: is lumber created
by a manufacturer and designed for a
certain structural purpose.
• Engineered wood products are used in
light wood frame construction
• It is manufactured by binding the strands,
particles, fibers, or veneers of wood,
together with adhesives, to form
composite materials
• It offers more flexibility and greater
structural strength than typical wood
building materials
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Advantages and disadvantages oflight
frame construction
Advantages Disadvantages
Flexible Burns rapidly
Easily Decays if exposed to
constructed moisture
Changes volume with moisture
Economical changes
Framing unattractive (must be
covered)
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Light wood construction system
terminology
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Rafter: sloping framing member for the to
roof p
rafter pla
ceiling joist te
stud
Joist:
horizontal or sloped
stud framing member that are
used to are
used to carry the load of the
floor and ceiling
Stud: vertical framing member bottom plate
floor joist top and bottom plate: is a structure member at
the top and bottom of studs used to hold walls
3/19/2019 together.
ProDvr.iUdmeaimsaaAlAsqutasrhface for the wall to attach to the
stru14cture.
Building
Sequence
Eight steps for building a wood light frame structure:
1. Establishing the position, shape, and size of the building on site
2. Excavation and construction of the foundation and substructure
walls
3. Making the ground floor platform
4. Framing of the ground floor walls
5. Building the upper-floor platform
6. Framing of the second-story walls
7. Framing of the attic floor and roof
8. Completing the overall building frame
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Foundations for wood
frames
• Two major foundation types:
• Site-cast concrete foundation
• Slab-on-grade
1. 4” layer of crushed stone, 3” to 4” thick

concrete
2. Drainage for foundation
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Foundations for wood frames: Site-cast concrete
foundation
Sill Concrete or
Anchor CMU Wall
Damp-
proofing
Drainage Stone
under SOG
Stone for often w/ Vapor
Drainage Barrier
Perforated
Drainage Concrete
Pipe Strip
Footing
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Foundations for wood frames: Slab-
on-grade
Load
Stone
Base
Thickened
SOG
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Floor attachment to the
Foundation
Sill plates are often pressure treated to prevent damage from insects and
moisture
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Floor construction
The subfloor: is the structural floor
that joins the joists and supports
finished flooring
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Floor
construction
Partition perpendicular to joists Partition parallel to joists

Non-bearing partition Non-bearing partition
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Partition perpendicular to joists Partition parallel to joists
bearing partition bearing partition
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Aqtash
Floor
sheathing
Sheathing:
is plywood which is used as an insulating
board to enclose the structure.
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Aqtash
I joists
floor
I joists are made with laminated or solid
wood beams.
I Joists lightweight construction, ease

of handling, strength and long spans
result in lower overall labor and
material costs compared to solid
lumber.
These joists prevent splitting, warping,

twisting, bowing, and squeaky floors (when
installed properly)
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Aqtash
Floor Truss
System • Considered to be the most expensive
and elaborate solution of floor
systems.
• Because of their design possibilities their

span capability allows them to create more
spacious rooms free of awkward columns.
• Bonus rooms over garages can be built

without the need for support beams and
columns where vehicles normally park.
• Entertainment areas on all floor levels

can be more spacious making them
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26
wood walls
construction
Wall framing is usually
constructed either by
building the frame on the
Platform then tilt it up or
building it in Place
• 2x4 and 2x6 lumber are most popular sizes for wall
construction
• 2x6 materials can be used for exterior walls for additional
insulation thickness
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2x4 materials used for mostDr.
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walls 27
• 2x6 and 2x8 materials used to allow plumbing to pass through

wall
A header: is used to
support structural
members over openings
in the wall
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Aqtash
Wood wall
construction
• Sole Plate/Bottom Plate
• Holds studs together in a wall unit
• Anchors wall to subfloor
• Wall studs
• Spaced 16” (40.6 cm) or 24” (61 cm) O.C.
• Length based on ceiling height
• Top plate
• Ties intersecting walls together
• Provides additional strength between studs where
ceiling joists/rafters do not bear directly above the
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Balloon
framing
• Framed solely with slender,
closely spaced wooden
members
• It uses joist for floors, studs for
walls, and rafters for sloping
roofs. Heavy beams were
eliminated
• The full length studs ran
continuously for two stories
from foundation to roof;
hence not efficient for erection
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Platform
framing • Evolved from balloon frame after
many modifications
• Accepted now as the universal standard for
wood light frame construction
• A floor platform is built, made up of either of a
concrete slab on-ground or with
masonry/concrete footings - Wood load-
bearing walls are erected upon this
floor/footings
• A second floor wood platform is built on
these walls, then a second set of walls is
built on this platform
• Vertical hollow spaces are automatically
Dr. fire- stopped at each floor level
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Wall
sheathing
• Wall sheathing
• Typically ½” thick
• May be a structural
material and/or an
insulating material
• vapor barriers
• Interior finish (gypsum)
• Exterior finish, wood
panels, bricks, or
cladding.
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Sheathing
Purposes
• Joins & stabilizes the structure
• Resists uplift
• Resists wracking- Resists lateral

forces
• Provides surface for finish material
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Roof
framing
Roof is the covering on the
uppermost part of a
building.
A roof protects the building and
its contents from the effects of
weather.
1. Terms
2. Roof Pitch/Slope
3. Shapes/Styles
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GABLE: is the triangular part of the wall under each
end of a roof
Rake: is the sloping roof edge
Eave: is the horizontal roof
edge
Eave
Gable
Rake board
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Aqtash
VALLEY: is the Low points formed
by the intersection of two roof Ridge
slopes (forming a trough to direct
water).
Valley
RIDGE: is the top part of gable or
hip roofs where rafters meet Dormer
ridge board
DORMER: is the structure
protruding through the plane of a
sloping roof. It has a small
secondary roof structure
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Rafter
•s The rafter is a
structural element of
the roof that supports
the sheathing
• The slope of the roof and
the clear span of the
building determine the
layout of these cuts
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Framing a roof for a dormer
opening
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Eave Detail
(cornice)
Consists of:
FASCIA BOARD: Edge board
under roof structure following Metal
slope Drip
SOFFIT: is the undersurface of Edge
roof overhang
Soffit
SOFFIT VENT: is an opening in Fascia :
soffit under eave to allow air to Wood
flow into attic or area below roof Metal
Plastic
sheathing Gutter
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Roof
sheathing
Roof shingles are a roof

covering consisting of individual
overlapping
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Roof Slope and
Pitch
For example, a roof that rises 6

inches (or feet) for every 12
inches (of feet) of horizontal run
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Roof truss
system
Three types of wood trusses
are commonly used in
residential construction:
• Fink truss (W-type truss)
• king-post truss (K-post
truss)
• scissors truss
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Roof
types
• The gable roof is a very popular
type of roof. It is easy to build,
sheds water well, provides for
ventilation, and can be applied to
most house designs
• The hip roof is slightly more

difficult to build than a gable roof.
It is a popular choice, but does
not provide for ventilation as well
as some designs.
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Roof
types
• A flat roof is the most
economical roof to build, but it
adds little to the design of most
houses. It requires a “built-up”
or membrane roof covering.
• A shed roof is similar to a flat

roof but has more pitch. It is
frequently used for additions or
with other roof styles
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Roof
types
• The mansard roof is a French
design and is more difficult to
construct than the hip or gable
roof.
• The Dutch hip roof is basically a

hip roof with a small gable at
either end. The gables can be
used for ventilation.
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Roof
types
• The gambrel roof is sometimes
called a barn roof because it has
been used extensively on barns.
It provides additional headroom in
the attic
• The A-frame roof provides a roof

and walls for the structure. Is
popular for cottages, homes,
churches, and other structures
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Roof
types
• The folded plate roof has
limited use in single-family
homes. Modular,
prefabricated roof units are
available.
• The curved panel roof is

similar to the folded plate
roof in style and application.
It is available in
prefabricated modules
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What kind of roof is
this?
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Structural Shapes
Wide-Flange
(W-Shape): The most
commonly used
shape for beams and
columns
Not an I-beam!
Channels, angles,
tees: For trusses,
lighter weight
framing, and other
miscellaneous uses
Structural Shapes
American Standard:
Traditional I-beam
with a shape that is
less structurally
efficient than a
contemporary wide-
flange of the same
weight
Structural Shapes
Structural shapes are

identified using a
standard classification,
in two variation.
MC 10x 8.4– channel
shapes MC, 10 inches
deep and weighting 8.4
pound per foot.
Same is used for
wide flange and tee
shape.
Wide Flange Shapes
W10 x 30
W: Wide-flange shape
10: Nominally 10 inches
deep
30: 30 pounds per lineal
foot
Wide-Flange Shapes
B
y
var
yin
g
roll
er
siz
es
an
d
sp
aci
ng
s,
var
iou
Wide Flange Shapes
Taller more narrow
profiles are best for
horizontally spanning
elements such as beams
and girders.
Wide-Flange Shapes
Profiles more square in
proportion are better
suited for use as vertical
columns.
Wide-Flange Shapes
Size
designations are
nominal, not
always an
accurate
indication of
actual depth.
A W14 x 873 is 23.6" deep!

Other Shape Designations
S: American
Standard beam
(“I-beam”)
MC: Miscellaneous
channel
C: American
Standard channel
L: Angle
L4x3x3/8: 4"x3"
nominal legs with
3/8" thickness
WT: T-shape cut from
a W-shape
WT13.5x47: 13.5"d x
47lb/ft.
(Produced by cutting a
W27x94 lengthwise in
half.)
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
Hollow square,
rectangular, round, and
elliptical shapes
Made by cold- or hot-
forming steel strip (sheet)
and welding longitudinally
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
HSS shapes are used for
trusses, structurally
efficient column sections,
and where the simple
external profile is
desirable.
Example designation:
HSS 8 x 8 x ½
8"x8"x½" wall thickness
High-Strength, Low Allow Steels
Use of stronger steel
alloys permits savings
in weight and
reductions in the size of
structural elements,
reducing costs.
With controlled, thermal treatments

applied after the shapes are formed,
structural alloys with yield strengths
greater than 100 ksi are produced.
ASTM A36 Mild Steel
Traditional structural steel
Now used mainly for
accessory steel angles,
channels, etc.
ASTM A992: W shapes

ASTM A572: other shapes
Produced economically in
mini-mills from scrap steel
Minimum yield strength 50
to 65 ksi ASTM A992 steel columns lay stacked in a
fabricator yard. Note the holes predrilled for
connections that will be completed in the field.
Weathering Steel
Surface oxidation
adheres to base metal,
limiting further rusting
Mostly used in highway
and bridge structures,
eliminating the need for
a protective coating.
(Often called Cor-Ten steel, a US

Steel trade name. )
Stainless Steel
Added nickel and
chromium
Forms self-
protecting oxide
layer that provides
long lasting
protection against
corrosion
STEEL SKELETON AND BIRTH OF
FRAME STRUCTURES
From the perspective of design and construction professionals,
a major significance of the discovery of steel lies in the birth of
a structural system that initially came to be known as a
skeleton cage because a steel building under construction, with its
linear, slender elements (columns and beams), looks like a cage
until the surface elements (floor and roof decks ) are in place,
(Some other terms used in place of steel cage were steel
skeleton and skeleton frame .)
By contrast, a reinforced concrete structure does not have the
appearance of a skeleton because the surface elements (floor
and roof slabs) are constructed monolithically with
corresponding floor and roof beams.
A steel building under construction has the appearance of a skeleton.Therefore, when steel
buildings first appeared in Chicago toward the end of the nineteenth century, the terms
skeleton cage ,steel skeleton, and skeleton frame were coined to describe their appearance.
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING
Structural steel girders, beams, and columns are used to
construct a skeleton frame for structures ranging in size from
one-story buildings to skyscrapers.
Structural steel is difficult to work on-site, it is normally cut,
shaped, and drilled in a fabrication shop according to design
specifications; this can result in relatively fast, precise
construction of a structural frame.
Structural steel may be left exposed in unprotected
noncombustible construction, but because steel can lose
strength rapidly in a fire, fire-rated assemblies or coatings are
required to qualify as fire-resistive construction.
In exposed conditions, corrosion resistance is also required.
Steel framing is most efficient when

the girder and beam supports are
laid out along a regular grid.
Resistance to lateral wind or

earthquake forces requires the use
of shear walls, diagonal bracing, or
rigid framing with moment-resisting
connections.
Metal floor deck w/
concrete fill
Steel beam
Steel girder
When bearing on concrete or

masonry, steel bearing plates are
required to distribute the
concentrated load imposed by a
column or beam so that the
resultant unit bearing pressure does
not exceed the allowable unit stress
for the supporting material.
Connections usually use transitional

elements, such as steel angles, tees,
or plates.
The actual connections may be
riveted but are more often bolted or
welded.
One-Way Beam System
Each pair of external columns
supports a long-spanning beam or
girder. Lateral-load-carrying mechanisms are
required in both directions, but lateral
This system is suitable for long,
forces tend to be more critical in the
narrow buildings, especially when a short direction.
column-free space is desired.
Two-Way Beam System
Girder
Beam
Steel framing should Typical span range for beams is 6

utilize rectangular bay to 10 m; above this range,
units, with openweb steel joists become an
comparatively lightly economical alternative due to
loaded beams spanning their reduced weight.
farther than more • Beams are spaced 1.83 to
heavily loaded girders. 4.57, depending on the magnitude
of the applied load and spanning
capability of the floor deck.
Two-Way Beam System
Framing beams into girders minimizes

floor depth; some mechanical
services can pass through holes cut
into the beam webs, but large lines
may have to be accommodated in a
suspended ceiling space below
Two-layer system increases floor depth

considerably but provides more space
for mechanical services.
Girders spanning the short axis of a
building can contribute to the lateral
stability of the structure.
Triple Beam System
Primary beams
Secondary beams
When a large, column-free space is

required, long-spanning plate girders or
trusses can be used to carry the primary
Long-spanning members
beam, which in turn support a layer of
secondary beams.
STEEL BEAMS
More structurally efficient wide-flange (W) shapes have
largely superseded the classic I-beam (S) shapes.
S shape Beams may also be in the form of channel (C) sections,
structural tubing, or composite sections.
The general objective is to use
W the lightest steel section that will
shape resist bending and shear forces
within allowable limits of stress
and without excessive deflection
for intended use.
C shape •Rules of thumb for In addition to material costs, also
estimating depth: consider the labor costs required
beams: span/20 for erection.
Structural girders: span/15
tubing
•Width = 1/3 to 1/2
of depth
STEEL BEAMS
Plate girders are built up from plates or
shapes that are welded or riveted
together.
A web plate forms the web of a plate
girder, while flange angles form the top
and bottom flanges.
Shear plates may be fastened to the web
of the girder to increase its resistance to
shearing stresses.
Cover plates are fastened to the flanges of
a plate girder to increase its section
modulus in areas subject to high bending
stresses.
STEEL BEAMS
Cover plates are fastened to the flanges of
a plate girder to increase its section
modulus in areas subject to high bending
stresses.
Stiffener angles are fastened to each side of a web plate to stiffen

it against buckling; bearing stiffeners are placed at a point of
support or under a concentrated load; intermediate stiffeners
are placed between bearing stiffeners for increased resistance to
diagonal compressive stresses.
STEEL BEAMS
Box girders are built up from shapes and have a

hollow, rectangular cross section.
Castellated beams are fabricated by dividing the web
of a wide flange section with a lengthwise zigzag cut,
then welding both halves together at the peaks, thus
increasing its depth without increasing its weight.
Floor and
Roof Decking
Cold-Formed Steel
Deforming steel in its cold
state causes realignment of
the steel crystals and
increases its strength.
Corrugated steel decking (right)

Steel studs and joists
High-strength wire for concrete

prestressing strands
Floor and Roof Decking
Metal Decking
It is thin sheet of steel that has been corrugated to
increase its stiffness.
The spanning capability of the deck determined by
The thickness of the sheet
Depth and spanning of corrugations
Single (used for roof decking) or cellular
Cellular made by welding two sheets, one corrugated and
one flat.
Metal decking usually puddle welded to the joists, beams
and girders
Metal Decking
Panels fastened to each other

along their sides with screws,
welds or button punching
Has low-vapor permeance, it is
not air tight
Used without concrete toping
38
Composite Construction
Composite metal decking

designed to work together with
concrete floor to make stiff,
lightweight economical deck.
39
Open-Web Steel Joists (OWSJ)
Lightweight
premanufactured trusses
Made from both hot- and
cold-formed components
Depths range from 8 in.
to 6 ft
Traditionally spaced 2 to
10 ft on center
Wider spacings used for
greater economy
Right: Floor joists are
deeper. Roof joists,
which carry less load, are
less deep.
K series: spans up
to 18m
LH series: spans up
to 28.8
DLH: spans up to
43.2 m (roofs only)
JG: joist girders
OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS
Open-web joists are lightweight, shop-fabricated steel
members having a trussed web.
A K series joist has a web consisting of a single bent bar,
running in a zigzag pattern between the upper and lower
chords.
LH and DLH series joists have heavier web and chord
members for increased
loads and spans.
64 mm for K series; 125 for LH/DLH

series: 1190 mm for DLH 18 and19
Minimum bearing length:

K series: 100 to 150 mm on
masonry; 65 mm on steel
LH/DLH: 150 to 305 mm on
masonry; 100 mm on steel
Extension of bottom chord for direct Profiles of open-web steel joists

attachment of ceiling; square-end vary
joists are available. according to manufacturer.
THE END
QUESTIO
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Precast

3/3/2019 Dr. Umaima Al 1

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Any shape that can be formed can be cast

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• Compared to site-cast concrete, precast concrete construction is

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• Great accuracy and high quality

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1. SOCKET FOOTING FOUNDATIONS

• The grooved walls of both the columns and

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• It is an appropriate on-site system for

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it is also suitable for on-site connections

• Bolted system is similar to the

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• They can be manufactured in

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• The width of the slabs is

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• Pre-stressing tendons (generally of

• Both methods involve tensioning

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• Advantages of shell structures

• Disadvantages of shell structures

1. The material which the shell is made of

• like reinforced concrete, plywood or steel, because each one has

2. The shell thickness: shells can be thick or thin.

• A thin shell is define as a shell with a thickness which is small

1. Rotational surface: generated by r otation of a curve about an

The term single and

• SHELL ROOFS, HAVE COMPRESSION

The structural behavior of a folded

Structural Condition Of Folding

• The most popular types of shell structures are thin concrete

• They are a lightweight construction composed of a relatively thin