Tarlac State University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Romulo Blvd., Brgy. San Vicente, Tarlac City, 2300 Philippines

Automatic Controllers

(ME 572/571L Instrumentation and Control Systems)

Vanessa M. Martinez
Neil Karlo M. Lozano
Nixon Daren A. Lozano
Arvi Millado
Group 18
ME-5C

Engr. Elmer P. Tolenada

Professor
Electronic Controllers
A controller is a comparative device that receives an input signal from a measured
process variable, compares this value with that of a predetermined control point value (set point),
and determines the appropriate amount of output signal required by the final control element to
provide corrective action within a control loop.
An electronic controller uses electrical signals and digital algorithms to perform its
receptive, comparative and corrective functions.

The later advancements in electronic components prompted the use of electronic

components in control systems. The introduction of this electronic control systems enhanced the
performance of the control much faster compared to mechanical systems. Due to the small size
of electronic components the overall size of the controller became very small. However, the
system response is faster in this control system but it also has a disadvantage that it is very
sensitive to temperature or any internal faults in components. There will be some internal and
external noise because of electronic components and care has to be taken to filter the noise which
otherwise affects overall response of the controller. Nowadays the electronic controllers with
advanced technology which are offering with very less noise with low sensitivity for the internal
faults. 
Principle of Operation
An electronic sensor (thermocouple, RTD or transmitter) installed at the measurement
location continuously sends an input signal to the controller. At set intervals the controller
compares this signal to a predefined set point. If the input signal deviates from the set point, the
controller sends a corrective output signal to the control element. This electric signal must be
converted to a pneumatic signal when used with an air operated valve. The conversion can be
made using a transducer, which converts electric signal to air signal.
• Process Variable - Whatever’s being measured and controlled in the control loop.
Example. Temperature, pressure, flow, level, pH, relative humidity, conductivity
• Setpoint - The desired result of control
Controllers
• Reads the measured Process Variable
• Knows what you want
• Compares what you got (PV) to what you want (SP)
• Makes a decision based on the comparison
• Holds or changes its output
Process Control’s Output
• Signal to the final control element
• Means of making an adjustment
• output is the manipulated variable (MV)
Final Control Element
• Physically controls a desired output variable (flow, electricity)
• Puts more or less energy or more or less stuff into the process
• Controller’s output signal drives a ‘final control element’
Examples: Electrical motors driving a pump, Variable speed drive or variable frequency drive to
an electric motor, Contactor which turns pump’s motor on, Control valve, SCR/thyristor unit
(industrial grade light dimmer)
Types of Control System
1. Open Loop System
2. Closed Loop System
An electronic controller is best suited for applications where large load changes are
encountered and/or fast response changes are required. An economical “on/off” only style is also
available for simple control applications.
PID Control
PID combines the proportional, integral and derivative functions into a single unit. PID
looks at the error. Error is difference between what you want (SP) and what you got (PV). Goal
is zero error, when PV = SP
 The PID controller is designed using basic electronic components like resistor, capacitor
and op-amp comparator.
The input comparator calculates the error between input set point and actual measured
value. This error is parallelly applied to the gain amplifier, low pass filter and high pass filter.
The parallel output is combined at the output node and given to the actuator to drive the actuator.
 A simple schematic of electronic PID controller

 Proportional (P) — Proportional control reacts to the size of the deviation from set point
when sending a corrective signal. The size of the corrective signal can be adjusted in
relation to the size of the error by changing the width of the proportional band. A narrow
proportional band will cause a large corrective action in relation to a given amount of
error, while a wider proportional band will cause a smaller corrective action in relation to
the same amount of error
 Integral (I) — Integral control reacts to the length of time that the deviation from set
point exists when sending a corrective signal. The longer the error exists, the greater the
corrective signal.
 Derivative (D) — Derivative control reacts to the speed in which the deviation is
changing. The corrective signal will be proportional to the rate of change within the
process.
Selection of Electronic Controller
• Case Size
• Input. The Input is the measurement signal received by the controller from the sensor. A
variety of input types are available, including thermocouple, RTD, voltage and current.
 • Control Output. The Control Output is the corrective signal transmitted from the
controller to the control element. Various control output types are available, including
contact, voltage, current and solid-state relay driver.
• Analog Output. The Analog Output is an optional secondary signal that transmits the
measurement signal from the controller to a remote data acquisition device, such as a
recorder, personal computer or display unit.
• Alarms. Most models can be ordered with alarms, event outputs, or heater break alarms,
which signal an external device to perform a specific task at a predetermined set point.
Hydraulic Systems
 Enclosed fluid-based systems using pressurize incompressible liquids as transmission
 Hydraulic System works on the principle of Pascal’s Law
 Pascal’s Law – the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform in all directions
Major Components of Hydraulic System
 Prime Mover – a device which develops the mechanical power. Basically, it used to drive
the pumps.

 Pump – a device which converts mechanical energy to fluid energy.

 Control Valves - to regulate the flow rate in a specific portion of a hydraulic circuit. In
hydraulic systems, they're used to control the flow rate to motors and cylinders, thereby
regulating the speed of those components
 

 Actuators (Hydraulic motors, pistons) - employ hydraulic pressure to drive and output
member.

 Hydraulic Fluid - is to provide energy transmission through the system which enables
work and motion to be accomplished. Hydraulic fluids are also responsible for
lubrication, heat transfer and contamination control.

Supporting Components of Hydraulic System

 Filters – removes minute particles from the fluid, which can cause blocking of the
orifices of servo-valves or cause jamming of spools.
  Accumulators - is a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible hydraulic
fluid is held under pressure that is applied by an external source of mechanical energy.
The external source can be an engine, a spring, a raised weight, or a compressed gas.

Schematic Diagram of Hydraulic System

Applications of Hydraulics
 Industrial. Plastic processing machineries, automated production lines, machine tool
industries, loaders, crushers, etc.
 Mobile Hydraulics. Tractors, Material Handling Equipment, Commercial Vehicles,
Building and Construction Machineries, etc.
 Automobiles. It is used in the system like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system, lift,
etc.
Programmable Logic Controllers
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the
internal storage of instructions by implementing specific functions such as logic sequencing,
timing, counting, and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog input/output modules,
various types of machines or processes.
 The digital computer which is used to perform the functions of a programmable
controller is considered to be within this scope. Excluded are drum and other similar mechanical
sequencing controller.
The First Programmable Logic Control
• Introduce in the late 1960’s
• Develop to offer the same functionality as the existing relay logic systems
• Programmable, reusable and reliable

Advantages of a PLC Control System

• Flexible
• Faster response time
• Less and simple wiring
• Modular design – easy to repair and expand
• Handles more complicated systems
• Easy to trouble shoot
• Less expensive
What devices does a PLC interact with?
Input Relays (Contacts)
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive signals from
switches, sensors, etc. Typically, they are not relays but rather they are transistors.
Internal Utility Relays (Contacts)
These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are
simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There are also some
special relays that are dedicated to performing only one task.
Counters
These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be programmed to
count pulses. Typically, these counters can count up, down or both up and down.
Timers
These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments. The most
common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive
types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.
Output Relays (Coils)
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off signals to
solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.
Data Storage
Typically, there are registers assigned to simply store data. They are usually used as temporary
storage for math or data manipulation. They can also typically be used to store data when power
is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up they will still have the same contents as before power
was removed. Very convenient and necessary.

Switches

Non-locking Locking

Normally Open Normally Closed

P1

P2
Multiple Throw Multiple Pole

Break-before-make Make-before-break

PLC Components
Processor
Microprocessor based, may allow arithmetic operations, logic. operators, block memory moves,
computer interface, local area network, functions, etc.
Memory
Measured in words.
ROM (Read Only Memory),
RAM (Random Access Memory),
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory),
EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable ROM),
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory),
EAPROM (Electronically Alterable Programmable
Read Only Memory), and
Bubble Memory.
I/O Modular plug-in periphery
AC voltage input and output,
DC voltage input and output,
Low level analog input,
High level analog input and output,
Special purpose modules, e.g.., high speed timers,
Stepping motor controllers, etc. PID, Motion
Power supply AC (Power)
Peripheral Hand held programmer (loader),
CRT programmer,
Operator console,
Printer,
Simulator,
EPROM loader,
Cassette loader,
Graphics processor, and
Network communication interface. MAP, LAN
PLC Wiring Diagram

Input PLC Output

01 01 02 20 11 A
02 12
20
03
20 11
A Practical Look at Distributed Instrument System
Distributed Instrument System
A distributed instrument system (DIS) is a computerized control system for a process
or plant usually with many control loops, in which autonomous controllers are distributed
throughout the system, but there is no central operator supervisory control. 
Distributed Instrument systems first emerged in large, high value, safety critical process
industries, and were attractive because the DIS manufacturer would supply both the local control
level and central supervisory equipment as an integrated package, thus reducing design
integration risk. 
1. Controlled device - The controlled condition is achieved by controlling the flow of water
through the valve in the inlet pipe. The flow is known as the Manipulated Variable.
2. Process - The operator is aiming to maintain the water in the vessel between levels 1 and 2.
The water level is called the Controlled condition.
3. Sensor - The water level can be maintained at any point between 1 and 2 on the visual
indicator and still meet the control parameters such that the bottom of the tank is covered and
there is no overflow. Any value within this range is known as the Desired Value.
4. Controller - The eye (sensor) signals this information back to the brain, which notices a
deviation. The brain could be thought of as a Controller.
5. Actuator - the brain (controller) acts to send a signal to the arm muscle and hand, which could
be thought of as an Actuator.
Pneumatic control
Earliest implementations of automatic control systems involved pneumatic transmission
of signals. They used compressed air as the medium for signal transmission and actuation. Actual
control commands were computed using elements such as springs and bellows. Plants used local,
pneumatic controllers, which were large mechanical structures. These later became miniaturized
and centralized onto control panels and consoles.
Parts of Pneumatic Controller
• Case
Encloses all the internal parts.  It protects the working parts of the controller from mechanical
damage, dust, dirt and corrosion.  It also provides a means for mounting the controller.
• Dial
Shows the graduated scale range of the controller.
• Measurement Pointer
Shows the true value of the process variable.
• Set Point Index
Shows the desired value of the process variable.  The desired value is usually set by operators.
• Output Gauge
Indicates the 3 – 15 psi output pressure of the controller.
• Control Relay Assembly
Changes the small back pressure to a stronger pressure.
• Auto/ Manual Transfer System
Permits switching between Manual to Automatic or Automatic to Manual Operation.
• Regulator
Adjusts the output pressure when the controller is set to Manual.
• Control Unit
Is the assembly of proportioning lever, proportioning bellows, reset bellows, striker bar,
differential linkage, flapper and nozzle.
• Span Adjustment
Adjusts the measurement pointer to maximum range.
• Ero Adjustment
Adjusts the measurement pointer to minimum range.
• Restrictor Unit (Integral)
Adjusts the effect of integral action added to proportional control.
• Restrictor Unit (Derivative)
Adjusts the effect of adding derivative action to a proportional plus integral controller. 
Derivative action makes the process settle down back to the set point in a much quicker time.
• Measuring Element
Changes the process signal of mechanical movement.  Measuring elements of the controller are
available in three different types (optional).
1. Bellows
2. Helical bourdon tube
3. Spiral bourdon tube

• Linearity Adjustment
Places the pointer movement in the correct starting point for equal or uniform incremental
position of pointer travel with respect to the input value.