Solar PV Paper

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 971–987
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Review of advanced grid requirements for the integration of large scale

photovoltaic power plants in the transmission system
Ana Cabrera-Tobar a,n, Eduard Bullich-Massagué a, Mònica Aragüés-Peñalba a,
Oriol Gomis-Bellmunt a,b
a
Centre d'Innovació Tecnològica en Convertidors Estàtics i Accionamients (CITCEA-UPC), Department d'Enginyeria Elèctrica, Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya, UPC. Av. Diagonal 647, Pl. 2, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
b
Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Jardins de les Dones de Negre, 1, Pl. 2a, 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs, Spain
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The installation of large scale photovoltaic power plants connected at transmission level has increased during
Received 15 September 2015 the last years. There are some challenges that these power plants have to overcome regarding the operation
Received in revised form and control while dealing with the solar energy variability and uncertainty. Today, few countries are aware of
29 February 2016
the importance of this source of energy as part of the utility system and how it can affect the operability.
Accepted 2 May 2016
Available online 18 May 2016
Thus, this paper discusses about the trend of large scale photovoltaic power plants around the world and the
importance of the development of grid codes for its integration. Then, the paper addresses a comparison of
Keywords: the grid codes of Germany, US, Puerto Rico, Romania, China and South Africa considering: fault ride through
Photovoltaic power plants capability, frequency and voltage regulation, as well as active and reactive power support. In addition, a broad
Grid support
discussion about the challenges that the large scale photovoltaic power plants have to overcome is presented
Grid codes
together with the compliance technology and future trend.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
2. Current trend of PVPPs development in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
3. Comparison of grid codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
3.1. Fault ride through requirements (FRT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
3.2. Voltage and frequency boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
3.3. Active power and frequency control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
3.4. Voltage and reactive power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
4. Challenges for grid integration of LS-PVPPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
4.1. Voltage stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
4.2. Frequency stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
4.3. Active power regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
4.4. Reactive power regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
5. Compliance technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
5.1. Fault ride through capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
5.2. Reactive power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
5.3. Active power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Cabrera-Tobar).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.044
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
972 A. Cabrera-Tobar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 971–987
1. Introduction distribution system as: IEEE 1547, IEEE 519 and IEEE 929. They also
analyse the challenges and the trends of the PV systems inter-
A centralized system that performs the functions to supply connection with the distribution level. But this work does not
power to the electrical system and not to a particular customer is consider the grid code requirements for the interconnection of LS-
known as a power plant. Its main aims are to function indepen- PVPPs with the transmission system. In the case of WPPs a deeper
dently and to comply the needs of the electrical system under analysis of the most important grid codes is developed by [8],
some regulations [1]. Grid codes and standards define the however a similar study for LS-PVPPs' grid codes is still missing.
requirements of these power plants connected to the transmission In this paper, the grid codes analysed are the ones that up today
or distribution grids to enhance its reliability, stability and secur- are accepted by the transmission system operators of Germany,
ity. These grid codes were traditionally developed to permit the US, Puerto Rico, South Africa, China and Romania which have been
interconnection of power plants, based on synchronous gen- used for the current PVPPs installed in those countries. This paper
erators, with the grid. The use of renewable energy to produce attempts to assist PVPPs developers, operators, researchers in the
electricity was initially very low in comparison with conventional understanding of today's grid codes in order to set and to improve
power plants, but this has changed drastically in the last years. the operation, design and technology used in LS-PVPPs.
Thus, it is becoming more important to develop grid codes for This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 analyses the cur-
power plants that use renewable generation as the main source to rent trend of PVPPs around the world. Section 3 compares differ-
avoid any problem with the electrical system operation. In this ent grid codes that consider the integration of LS-PVPPs. Section 4
sense, wind power plants have stepped up the path for grid codes analyses the challenges to integrate LS-PVPPs in the transmission
development. However, for large scale photovoltaic power plants system. The compliance technology to overcome the challenges
(LS-PVPPs) and very large scale PVPPs (VLS-PVPPs) connected to imposed by the grid codes is discussed in Section 5. Finally, the
the transmission system, grid codes have recently been developed conclusions are drawn in Section 6.
and further analysis is needed. Thus, this paper addresses a com-
prehensive discussion about the trend of LS-PVPPs around the
world together with the importance of grid codes development. 2. Current trend of PVPPs development in the world
Then, an analysis of the main grid code regulations for LS-PVPPs
connected to the transmission system is developed. This analysis is PV power generation was first introduced to the distribution
conducted by a comparison of the main requirements related to system, where the power generated was less than 1 MW. These PV
frequency and voltage control, active and reactive power regula- systems were installed in houses, neighbourhoods, buildings and
tion, and fault conditions. After this comparison, a discussion industries, representing a total power installed of 106.2 GW
about the challenges that operators of PVPPs have to face is deeply around the world by 2014 (Fig. 1). During 2014, 19 GW were
discussed. Further, the analysis of the compliance technology used installed worldwide and it is expected that in 2019 37 GW will be
and researched so far is analysed and summarized. added to the existing capacity [1,9].
A short comparison between the grid codes of China, Germany The main reason why the consumers were attracted to this type
and US for PVPPs connected to the distribution or to the trans- of installation was the economic incentives given by some coun-
mission system, considering also the electrical standards IEEE 1547 tries to the citizens for the installation of PV system. These
and EN 50160 is developed in [2]. As Germany was the first incentives consist specially in the feed in tariff that is defined as a
technical grid code launched for PVPPs connected to medium and payback for the PV system installation. The countries that have
high voltage transmission network, there are some publications succeeded by the adoption of this policy are Germany, Spain, Italy,
analysing these requirements like [3,4]. These focus on the US, Australia, and Canada [10–13]. Because of these incentives,
response of the PVPP when there are disturbances. A similar study Europe leads the residential, commercial and industrial market
developed by Jiao and Gao considers Chinese grid code [5]. A scope with a power capacity of around 40–50% of the global market by
of the challenges for large scale PV integration in the distribution 2014 [9]. However, due to the reduction of feed in tariffs in this
and transmission level is developed by Shah et al. [6], comparing region, a slower rate of growth in the upcoming years is expected.
some grid code requirements given by Germany and US. The work But the Asian-Pacific countries will lead the residential and com-
developed by Obi and Bass [7] compares and analyses the mercial market in the future years as the price of the technology
requirements given by some electrical standards for the reduces [14]. The reduction of prices of PV modules and inverters
290.86
300
258.34
250
200
150
100 83.14
55.43
50
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Nonutility purpose Utility purpose
Fig. 1. Global utility and non-utility cumulative power (GW) up to 2019 [1,9].
A. Cabrera-Tobar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 971–987 973
North America
Europe
Asia
5200 1980 2500
MW MW 10000 MW 14000
8700 MW MW
MW
South Africa
America 396 Australia
230 155
MW
MW 305 MW
MW 2000
CONSTRUCTED MW
870
> 500 MW MW UNDER CONSTRUCTION
OR PLANNING
100 to 500 MW
> 1000 MW
50 to 100 MW 100 to 1000 MW
Fig. 2. Current and future PVPPs around the world with a power capacity larger than 50 MW [19,20].
is not only permitting a higher acceptance of PV systems for the The first grid code specifically for PVPPs interconnected with
residential, commercial and industrial market, but also the the transmission system was developed by Germany in 2008,
development of PVPPs for utility purpose. In fact, the price of PV 4 years after the first grid code developed for WPPs by Denmark
technology for utility is around 1.77 $/Wdc, but for residential is [23]. This grid code for PVPPs has been utilized specially by Europe
around 3.73 $/Wdc [15]. The feed in tariff and the reduction of and has become a good example to develop similar regulation
technology prices have permitted the investment in the installa- around the world. After German's grid code, other countries cre-
tion of PVPPs from small ð r 1 MWÞ, LS-PVPPs ð Z 1 MWÞ to VLS- ated their own regulations as South Africa [24], China [25], and
PVPPs ð Z 100 MWÞ [16]. Romania [26]. In the case of US, there is an electrical standard for
The total global capacity installed for utility purpose around the the interconnection of large scale generators (LGIA) to the elec-
world was about 76.512 GW by 2014 [1,9]. This market is expected trical system, however each TSO has their own requirements [27].
to grow as it is illustrated in Fig. 1. It can be noticed that 2017 could One of these is the TSO of Puerto Rico that has its own and well-
be the first year that the utility market will have more installed defined grid code for LS-PVPPs [28]. Panama has also developed its
capacity than residential, commercial or industrial applications. grid code, but this is based on the ones named before [29]. Not
Globally, the PV utility market is expected to grow up 250 GW by more grid codes that consider the integration of LS-PVPPs with the
2019 [17]. The leaders of this market are Europe, China, and US electrical system are available in other countries. However Mexico,
that have developed thousands of PVPPs of different capacities. Brazil and Chile are currently discussing the creation of grid codes
Countries in Latin America, South Africa and Middle East are cur- for this purpose, as the power generation by PVPPs in these
rently developing new LS-PVPPs to VLS-PVPPs that are going to countries is expected to grow.
operate in the upcoming years [18]. The map in Fig. 2 shows the The following section presents a broad comparison among the
LS-PVPPs and VLS-PVPPs that had been installed around the world grid codes of Germany, China, Romania, Puerto Rico, US and South
with a power capacity higher than 50 MW, it also illustrates the Africa. These countries have evolved the grid codes due to the
LS-PVPPs and VLS-PVPPs under development. This map plus the increment of LS-PVPPs installation. The comparison considers the
data illustrated in Fig. 1 show a clear expansion of the PV utility requirements for voltage, frequency, active and reactive power
market. regulation.
Together with wind power plants (WPPs) installed around the
world, there was a cumulative installed capacity of 369.59 GW by
2014 [21]. This large amount of renewable power generation for 3. Comparison of grid codes
utility purpose from intermittent sources as wind and solar power
could bring serious problems to the conventional electrical system This section is dedicated to compare the different technical
as frequency variation, lack of voltage support, variable active requirements requested by Germany, China, Romania, Puerto Rico,
power and power mismatching. As WPPs have entered the utility US and South Africa for the interconnection of PVPPs to the
market since 2000 and had a fast growth, grid codes were transmission system (Table 1). The comparison is developed con-
developed. The main purposes of these grid codes were that the sidering four specific categories: (a) fault-ride through require-
WPPs should operate as similar as possible as conventional power ments, (b) voltage and frequency deviation boundaries, (c) active
plants and could support the grid in terms of frequency, voltage, power and frequency control and (d) voltage and reactive power
active and reactive power regulation. In the case of photovoltaics, control.
first electrical regulations as IEEE 1547 and EN 50160 were
developed for small PV systems interconnected to the distribution 3.1. Fault ride through requirements (FRT)
level for residential, commercial and industrial purpose. These
standards have prevented small PV systems from participating on The type of faults in the grid codes considered by PREPA,
ancillary services as reactive power support, frequency and voltage NERSA, NEA, and ANRE are symmetrical and asymmetrical where
control [22,7]. However, due to the growth of PVPPs for utility the requirements are the same for both cases. BDEW and FERC
purpose in the last years, there has been a development of grid LGIA have prepared specific requirements for only symmetrical
codes to permit the integration of PVPPs at transmission level. faults. The basic curve for FRT requirements is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Table 1
International grid codes under study.
Country grid code Organization Title Version
Germany BDEW Generating plants connected to the medium-voltage network June 2008
Romania ANRE Technical conditions for connection to public electricity networks for PV power plants 2013
US PREPA Technical requirements for interconnecting wind and solar generation August 2012
FERC LGIA Standard large generator agreement 2006
China NEA GB/T 19964. Generating plants connected to the medium-voltage network 2012
South Africa NERSA Grid connection code for renewable power plants connected to the electricity transmission system or the dis- November 2012
tribution system in South Africa
Voltage at PCC (V) Table 2

FRT requirements in international grid codes.
Grid code During fault After fault

Vn
V 0 ðpuÞ t1 (s) V1 (pu) t2 (pu)
A
Germany 0 0.15 0.9 1.5
V1 Romania 0.15 0.625 0.9 3
US-Puerto Rico 0 0.600 0.85 3
China 0 0.15 0.9 2
B South Africa 0 0.15 0.85 2
Voltage at PCC (pu)

V0
1
0.9
0.85
t0 t1 t2 t(s) 0.8
b1
Fig. 3. General curve for fault ride through requirements. 0.7
0.6
The normal voltage profile at the point of common coupling (PCC)
0.5
is in Area A, where the PVPP works continuously. If the voltage ROMANIA
b2
profile at PCC is in Area B, the PVPP has to remain connected for a 0.4 CHINA
SOUTH AFRICA
period of time. In the case that the PVPP's voltage profile is in Area 0.3 PUERTO RICO
C, it is not mandatory for PVPP to stay connected. ANRE's grid code GERMANY (b1& b2)
0.2
establishes that the PVPP has to withstand voltage drops up 85% of 0.15
the nominal voltage for a considerable time of 0.625 s. When a 0.1

fault occurs, the voltage could drop to 0, and thus the grid codes 0
established by BDEW, PREPA, NEA, NERSA and FERC LGIA stay that
the PVPPs have to withstand voltage drops of 100%. In this case, 0 0.15
0.6 0.7
1 1.5 2 3 t(s)
0.625
the time that the PVPP has to remain connected is 0.15 s as it is
demanded by BDEW, NEA, NERSA and FERC LGIA. In the case of Fig. 4. Comparison of FRT requirements in international grid codes.
PREPA's grid code, the time should be 0.6 s. In this sense, the most
restricting FRT requirement is enforced by PREPA under symme-
trical and asymmetrical faults where the PVPP has to withstand Voltage at PCC (pu)
voltage sags of 100% during 600 ms. After the fault is cleared, the
voltage returns to safety values (V1) for a given time (t2). In the
case of Germany and China, after 0.15 s, the voltage rises up to 30% 1.4
and 20% of the nominal value respectively. The PVPP has to 1.3
withstand this new condition during 0.5 s. After this, the voltage 1.2
has to trip to V1 for a recovery time (t2). In this sense, BDEW
1.1
requires that PVPPs return as fast as possible to normal operating
SOUTH AFRICA
1
conditions. The voltage limits and the times are summarized in PUERTO RICO
Table 2 and Fig. 4 illustrates the voltage profile for low voltage 0.9
requirements in each grid code. 0.8

The PVPP has also to remain connected when over-voltages
occur, these are the high voltage ride through requirements
(HVRT). These are imposed by PREPA and NERSA for PVPPs (Fig. 5)
but BDEW, NEA and ANRE only give the limits of voltage for nor- 0.1
mal operation and do not clarify any HVRT requirement. FERC LGIA 0.6 0.7
t(s)
0 0.15 0.625 1 2 3
does not clarify this value because it depends on the TSO
requirement. Table 3 summarizes the requirements given by the Fig. 5. Comparison of HVRT requirements in international grid codes.
grid codes of Germany, Romania, Puerto Rico, China and South 120%. For FERC LGIA and Romania, there is no clarification about
Africa. It is evident that Puerto Rico has the most restricting HVRT the reactive current injected when faults occur [27].
regulation, that imposes to PVPPs to withstand an over-voltage of It is important to notice that the most extreme requirements
1.4 pu during 0.15 s. for FRT and HVRT are presented by PREPA's grid code. This is
The voltage stability is assisted by the reactive power support. mainly to the weak grid that Puerto Rico has. For this reason, the
Germany, South Africa and China have the reactive power reactive power support is variable from 0% to 15%. Regarding the
requirement illustrated in Fig. 6. The grid code of Germany reactive power support, not all the grid codes have the same
requires a 2% slope of positive reactive current injection for each requirements. It could be interesting to harmonize them in order
to develop effective solutions as it is not easy going on task to
percent of voltage drop. In the case of a sag value higher than 50%,
comply the injection and absorption of reactive power. In addition,
the injection of reactive current goes to 100% or more depending
the different grid codes also permit the installation of equipment
on the converter's current. The grid code given by Puerto Rico
to overcome this necessity as static var compensators (SVCs), static
requires a variable slope that goes from 0% to 10%. The dead band
synchronous compensators (STATCOMs) and capacitor banks.
without the injection of reactive current is 10% for Germany, South However, the absorption of reactive power could lead to ask more
Africa and China, and 15% for Puerto Rico. There is an extra reactive power to the grid which is not a desirable performance.
requirement given by NERSA that determines that PVPP has to
supply full reactive current when the voltage goes down to 20% 3.2. Voltage and frequency boundaries
without limitation of time. China, meanwhile, requires an injection
of reactive current response with a 1.5% slope for voltage varia- The grid codes establish the electrical boundaries under which
tions from 0.2 to 0.9 pu. The reactive current injection is 105% of the PVPPs have to operate continuously. Romania, Germany, South
the rated current when the voltage sag is higher than 0.8 pu. Africa and China have the same voltage range of 90–110% of the
Another interesting characteristic in China's grid code is that it nominal voltage. This condition is for any nominal voltage at the
does not permit the absorption of reactive current when there is PCC according to the transmission grid code of Romania. In China,
overvoltage and thus the reactive power support is 0 when the however, the variation of 10% of the nominal voltage is only when
voltage is higher than 0.9 pu. Germany, South Africa, and Puerto the voltage at the PCC is higher than 35 kV. If the voltage is less
Rico permit reactive power absorption when the voltage goes to than 20 kV, the voltage range is between 93% and 107%. In the US,
the boundaries of frequency and voltages depend on the TSO and
Table 3 it is not clarified by FERC LGIA. For instance, Puerto Rico has other
Comparison of HVRT requirements in international grid codes. boundaries of voltage at the PCC, which are from 85% to 115% for
continuous operation.
Grid code V (pu) t (s)
The frequency range of normal operation is between 49.5 and
Germany NS NS 50.2 Hz for China. The PVPP has also to withstand frequencies
Romania NS NS from 48 to 49.5 Hz during 10 min. If the frequency is less than
US-Puerto Rico 1.4 0.15 48 Hz, the time that can withstand the PVPP connected depends
1.3 0.95
on the PV inverter technology used. In the case that the frequency
1.2 1
1.15 Continuous is higher than 50.2 Hz, the PVPP has to remain connected during
2 min, after this it has to shut down. Germany, Romania, Puerto
China NS NS
South Africa 1.2 0.15
Rico and China permit the instantaneous disconnection when the
1.1 Continuous upper limit is reached. South Africa's grid code requirements does
not permit an instantaneous disconnection, the PVPP has to
ΔIq / In
Dead band 100 Absorbing Reactive

Current
80
60 CHINA
SOUTH AFRICA
40
GERMANY
20
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ΔV/Vn
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-105
Supplying Reactive
Current
Fig. 6. Reactive current injection requirement by international grid codes.
Table 4
Frequency limits in international grid codes.
Grid code Frequency (Hz) Limits (Hz) Maximum duration
Germany 50 f 4 51:5 Instantaneous trip

47:5 o f o 51:5 Continuous
f o 47:5 Instantaneous trip
Romania 50 f 4 52 Instantaneous trip

47:5 o f o 52 Continuous
US (Puerto Rico) 60 f 4 62:5 Instantaneous trip

61:5 o f o 62:5 30 s
56:5 o f o 57:5 10 s
US (FERC LGIA) 60 f 4 61:7 Instantaneous trip

61:6 o f o 61:7 30 s
60:6 o f o 61:6 3 min
58:4 o f o 59:4 3 min
57:8 o f o 58:4 30 s
57:3 o f o 57:8 7.5 s
57 o f o 57:3 0.75 s
f o 57 Instantaneous trip
China 50 f 4 50:2 2 min

48 o f o 49:5 10 min
f o 48 PV inverters characteristics
South Africa 50 f 4 52 4s
51 o f o 52 60 s
49 o f o 51 Continuous
48 o f o 49 60 s
47 o f o 48 10 s
f o 47 0.2 s
withstand 4 s with an over-frequency higher than 52 Hz. These

P
requirements are summarized in Table 4.
Possible active power
It is interesting to point out that the most extreme frequency
Produced active power
limits are around 3.5 Hz and þ 2.5 Hz from the nominal value.
Usually, a wider range is accepted by areas that has weak grids or
they are isolated as the case of Puerto Rico. The same situation
Delta constraint
happens with the voltage limits, where Puerto Rico has the widest Absolute Power Delta constraint
range. Besides, it is important to notice that Germany has also a
wide range of frequency limits for continuous operation as cur-
rently this country has a higher amount of renewable energy
connected to the grid. The strictest continuous operation fre- Gradient
quency limits are demanded by US (59.4–60.6 Hz). China has the Gradient
strictest maximum frequency permitted (50.2 Hz), but the mini-
mum value depends on the inverter performance. This is the only
country that considers the technology used in order to set the
limitations. Regarding these limitations, the harmonization of grid
codes is almost impossible as it depends on the strength of the t
grid that is not the same for each country.
Fig. 7. Active power control constraints for PVPPs.
3.3. Active power and frequency control

delta production is defined as a power reserve. This reserve helps
The control of the active power of PVPPs should match the
to have a future control of the PVPP when the frequency or voltage
variability of solar energy during the day and the grid require-
deviation occur. The third constraint, the power gradient, limits
ments. According to the grid code of South Africa [24], the control
of active power is divided into three main requirements: the value at which the power generation has to step up or down
(i) absolute production, (ii) delta production and (iii) power gra- the active power with values of MW per minute. In Romania,
dient. The first constraint, absolute production, is based on the Germany and US, the power gradient is known as a ramp rate
active power value defined by the TSO that the PVPP has to pro- limit. The PVPP must comply any of these requirements despite
vide. In the US, the absolute production is known as power cur- radiation changes and cloud coverage. These requirements are
tailment. The second constraint, delta production, determines the illustrated in Fig. 7.
active power reserve. This is a percentage of the absolute power Table 5 summarizes the active power control required by the
that the PVPP could supply in normal conditions. In Puerto Rico, different international grid codes for PVPPs integration. All of
them permit the active power curtailment to a value set by the Table 7
TSO. The curtailment of active power is developed with a ramp Frequency values for active power regulation according to Fig. 8.
rate limitation which has different values depending on the
Grid code f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
country. The grid code given by NERSA specifies the need that the
PVPP supports the grid with three different active power controls: Germany 49.5 49:5o f o 50 50.05 50.5 51.5 o 50:2
absolute, delta and gradient constraint to improve the perfor- Romania aw-TSOa aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO
mance of the PVPP connected to the grid. This grid code also US (Puerto aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO
Rico)
specifies the time response for any new set point of active power China aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO
that is less than 30 s. The frequency control, however needs the South Africa aw-TSO aw-TSO aw-TSO 50.5 52 50.2
variation of active power during a small period of time. BDEW,
a
NERSA, ANRE and NEA specify that the PVPP must have primary aw, agreed with; TSO, transmission system operator.
frequency control to act as a governor. The control requirements
for the stabilization of the frequency vary from one code to Table 8
another. FERC LGIA does not mandate any active power control, Values of P for active power regulation according to Fig. 8.
but this decision usually depends on the TSO. In the case of Puerto Grid code P1 Pmin
Rico, the active power control takes action when there is a
deviation of more than 70.3 Hz of the nominal frequency. In this Germany – 0.8
situation, the active power has to be at least 10% of the maximum Romania aw-TSO 0
US (Puerto Rico) NS NS
power capacity for less than 10 min. If the deviation is less
China NS NS
than 70.3 Hz, the value of the active power can be between 10% South Africa o 0:97n P available aw-TSO
and 100%. China, however, only specifies that in cases of over-
frequency (50.2–50.5 Hz), the PVPP has to withstand during 2 min
and then it can be disconnected. After 50.5 Hz, the disconnection Active Power
Control band
is mandatory (Tables 6–8).
South Africa, Germany and Romania state clear specifications Pavailable dead band
about the frequency regulation considering the change of active
power. Fig. 8 illustrates the active power response due to variation
P1
of frequency outlined by Romania, South Africa and Germany grid
ROMANIA
codes. In this figure, f1–f4 form a control dead band for the primary
frequency control and f4–f6 are set to do critical frequency control. SOUTH AFRICA
There are two droops or slopes to change from f1 to f2 and f3–f5 GERMANY
respectively. These slopes are variable from 0% to 10%, which is
agreed in accordance with the TSO. To provide grid stabilization, Pmin
f6
NERSA's grid code requires that the PVPP should be designed with 0
an active power capability that could provide regulation of over
47 48 49 50 51 f5 52 Frequency (Hz)
and under frequency. This value is called the delta or reserve f1 f2 f3 f4
power which should be at least 3% of the available power, and it is
Fig. 8. Active power control due to frequency regulation requirements by inter-
the new available power in order to provide frequency stabiliza- national grid codes.
tion. Romania requires that the available power changes in
accordance with the frequency variation when there are dis- available power and fnet is the network's frequency:
turbances. Germany's grid code states that the primary frequency
50:2 f net
control is mandatory for PVPPs with a power capacity higher than ΔP ¼ 20 P m at 50:2 r f net r 51:5 ð1Þ
100 MW. PVPPs with less capacity can also participate in the pri- 50:2
mary frequency control only if there is accordance with the TSO. Comparing the grid codes, the most restricting control is the
The variation of power when there is over frequency, in the case of one required by Romania, where there is under and over-
Germany, depends on Eq. (1), where Pm is the instantaneous frequency control, but in terms of time response, it is Puerto
Rico. It is important to point out that the grid code of South Africa
Table 5 and Puerto Rico demand a power reserve to increase the active
Active power constraints required by international grid codes. power capability to stabilize the grid when the frequency drops its
nominal value. It is expected in the coming years, that power
Grid code Curtailment Reserve Ramp rate
reserve will be a requirement for other countries as more and
Germany X – X more renewable energy is being introduced.
Romania X – –
US (Puerto Rico) X X X 3.4. Voltage and reactive power control
China X – X
South Africa X X X
Conventional power plants have to overcome voltage devia-
tions and to provide reactive support to the grid. Commonly, the
Table 6 voltage works in a band of10% of the rated voltage. The compli-
Ramp rate limits in international grid codes. ment of this requirement depends on the reactive power support
characteristics of the PV inverter and ancillary devices such as
Grid code Ramp rate (% power capacity/min)
STATCOMs or capacitor banks. As PV inverters were initially
Germany 1 designed to be installed at the distribution level, they do not
Romania 10 usually consider these new characteristics. Some companies as
US (Puerto Rico) 10 Danfoss, SMA and ABB have already improved their inverters to
China X
South Africa Set by TSO
permit the control of voltage fluctuations and the reactive power
support. To connect LS-PVPPs to the grid, the voltage control has
Table 9
Voltage and reactive control required by international grid codes.
Country Control mode Set point Power factor ranges
Germany Voltage control cos ϕ (fixed)

Power factor control cos ϕ(P) 0.95 leading
Reactive power control Q(fixed) 0.95 lagging
Q(V)
US (Puerto Rico) Voltage control V 0.85 lagging (stable operation)

0.85 leading
or
0.95 leading (dynamic operation)
0.95 lagging
Romania Voltage control cos ϕ NS

Power factor control
China Reactive power control Q(V) 0.95 leading,

0.95 lagging
South Africa Voltage control cos ϕ(P) 0.975 leading (Category B)

0.975 lagging (Category B)
Power factor control Q(V) and
Reactive power control 0.95 leading (Category C)
0.95 lagging (Category C)
two main challenges: (i) the voltage has to be kept inside a dead Regarding the reactive power control, Puerto Rico presents the
band regulated by TSO and (ii) the LS-PVPP has to comply the strictest control. First, the control has to respond as fast as possible
capability curve given by the TSO for the relation between reactive to overcome any issue in the grid. Second, as the PQ capability
and active power. According to [30] there are several methods for curve at the PCC presents a wide range for reactive power and
voltage control in LS-PVPPs: voltage regulation, power factor generally the PV inverters capability is not sufficient, extra
regulation or reactive power control. The voltage regulation con- equipment is needed. China, Germany, South Africa and Romania
trols the value of voltage that is based on a droop function. In this present almost the same PQ capability curve with a maximum
case the droop is the variation of voltage due to a change of reactive power requirement of 70:33 pu. Depending on the
reactive power. The power factor regulation controls the reactive topology of the LS-PVPP additional equipment may not be needed.
power depending on the value of active power. The last method, This section has presented a comparison of the most relevant
reactive power control, manages directly the reactive power at the requirements demanded by the grid codes in Germany, China,
PCC. The PVPP shall be able to control the reactive power and the Romania, US, Puerto Rico and South Africa for the interconnection
voltage with any of these control methods. of LS-PVPP with the transmission system. It can be summarized
Not all the grid codes permit that PVPPs work on one of these that Puerto Rico, as it has a weak grid, it has the strictest
three modes. Table 9 summarizes the reactive power control requirements in FRT, active power and reactive power control. On
requirements given by each grid code. In the case of Puerto Rico, the other hand, China and the US have the most strict limitations
the grid code requires that the control mode should be only the for frequency and voltage boundaries. Considering this compar-
one called: voltage setpoint. The strategy of this control is based ison of the different grid codes, the following section discusses the
on droop control variable from 0% to 10%. The time response of challenges that LS-PVPPs have to face in order to be connected to
this control is 1 s for a total reactive power of 95%. Meanwhile, the transmission system.
Germany has a time response of 1 min and South Africa has a time
response of 30 s. Considering the time response, the most
restricted grid code is the one of Puerto Rico. 4. Challenges for grid integration of LS-PVPPs
Additionally to the control method, the fulfillment of a reactive
power capability curve in the PCC is also a requirement. US, FERC A PVPP should comply the minimum requirements given by the
LGIA have defined a dynamic reactive power range between 0.95 grid codes of the different countries. Because of these grid codes,
leading and 0.95 lagging, but they do not clarify the requirements there are many challenges that the LS-PVPPs and the electrical
for steady state conditions. In Puerto Rico, the reactive power network have to face in the upcoming years. For this analysis, it is
requirements are defined under steady and dynamic operating necessary to understand the topology and the components of a LS-
conditions. In steady state, the PVPP must be able to continuously PVPP. According to [16], a LS-PVPP is constructed with many PV
work with a power factor of 0.85 lagging and 0.85 leading. In units in radial, string or star configuration (Fig. 10).
dynamic mode, the power factor is between 0.95 lagging and 0.95 Each PV unit has an array of PV panels, an inverter and a
leading. It is important to point out that the reactive power transformer. There are different topologies depending on how the
requirements defined by NERSA differ depending on the rated main components are distributed. These topologies are central,
power of the LS-PVPP. If the rated power is between 1 and 20 MVA multistring, string, and module integrated. The most used topol-
(Category B), the reactive power demanded is 0.228 MVAr. But if ogy by companies is the central configuration because of its sim-
the rated power is higher than 20 MVA (Category C), the reactive plicity (Fig. 11). Despite the topology chosen, the PV unit has to
power demanded is 0.33 MVAr. A comparison of the reactive deal with the control of the dc voltage, current, synchronization,
power requirements is illustrated in Fig. 9 that includes all the active and reactive power to permit the integration with the
available active and reactive power demanded by the different grid electrical grid (Fig. 12). The control of active power is based on a
codes together with the power factor limitation. maximum power point tracker (MPPT). The main duty of this
CHINA, GERMANY, ROMANIA

SOUTH AFRICA (category B)
SOUTH AFRICA (category C)
PUERTO RICO (steady state)
PUERTO RICO (dynamic state)
P(pu)
-0.85 -0.9 -0.95 -0.975 0.975 0.95 0.9 0.85 pf

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
5%
-0.73 -0.623 -0.484-0.43 -0.33 -0.228 0 0.228 0.33 0.43 0.484 0.623 0.73 Q(pu)
Fig. 9. Comparison of reactive power requirements imposed by the grid codes of China, Germany, US, Romania and South Africa.
GRID GRID GRID

MV/HV MV/HV MV/HV
Fig. 10. Configuration of a LS-PVPP (a) radial, (b) ring, and (c) star.
control is to find during the day the maximum point at which the voltage instability caused by a high penetration of these PV sys-
PV unit can work at different radiation levels. This control algo- tems at the distribution level. According to IEEE 1547 these PV
rithm have been broadly used in different photovoltaic installa- systems interconnected with the grid should not perform any
tions (Fig. 13). In addition, as many PV units are installed in the LS- voltage regulation at the PCC. The studies developed for this type
PVPP, a central control is mandatory. This control has to manage of application have been conducted in order to understand the
the response of the LS-PVPP to overcome frequency and voltage problematic caused by a high PV penetration that has not con-
instabilities, the active and the reactive power demanded by the sidered any control to support the voltage at the point of inter-
TSO and the fulfilment of grid code requirements (Fig. 14). The connection. Yan and Saha [32] focus on the investigation of cloud
central control receives information from several actors: the TSO, coverage impact on the PV systems interconnected in an IEEE 13
the PVPP's operator and the current state of the PV unit. This
bus system. This study concludes that the cloud transient affects
central control sends the setpoint of active or reactive power to
the voltage at the distribution level as tap changers of transfor-
each inverter depending on the total power required by the elec-
mers does not act as quickly as possible to maintain the voltage
trical system. Then each inverter has to perform the control
level. Similar conclusions were obtained in [33]. Besides cloud
according to the setpoints given by the central control [31].
coverage, the distance of the feeder is also an important factor to
Considering this topology and architecture of control, this
section studies the challenges that the current technology has to consider. This is studied in [34] where a 8 MW PVPP connected to
face to comply the grid code requirements. the distribution system at different distances is analysed. It shows
that the voltage at the feeder is affected depending on the location
4.1. Voltage stability of the PVPP which also affects the entire performance of the dis-
tribution system. Thus, the optimal placement of the PVPPs at the
As PV systems were first developed for residential, commercial distribution level is considered vital to reduce power losses and
and industrial applications, there are several studies about the voltage instability [35].
In the case of LS-PVPPs developed for utility purpose, its effect installation of PVPPs at different sites of the grid. The results show
on voltage stability has not been broadly studied. Omran et al. [36] that the voltage at the feeder presents a parabolic trend when the
have studied the impact on the voltage profile affected by the output power of the PVPP increases (0.2–10 MW). The maximum
point of this voltage profile will depend on the total impedance of
the PVPP and the transmission line. A similar study is performed in
[37]. These studies consider that PVPPs supplies the maximum
power possible, but the output power variation during the day is
not considered. There are no deep studies about the effect of cloud
coverage along the park and how it affects the LS-PVPP perfor-
mance. In the case of WPPs the studies developed focus on how
the variability of wind speed can affect the voltage stability.
Today, the challenge is to understand how the LS-PVPP affects the
voltage profile at the PCC due to cloud coverage, radiation and
temperature. Thus, studies considering the variability of the source
should be developed. The size and internal topology should also be
part of the analysis. For this reason, the creation of accurate models
of LS-PVPPs to simulate static and dynamic performance are also part
of the challenge. Understanding the voltage profile at the PCC, dif-
ferent solutions and control algorithms can be conceived.
4.2. Frequency stability
In current electrical system, the frequency is related to the

rotating speed of the conventional synchronous generators. The
control of these generators depends on the balance between the
load and the power generated by the management of the accel-
eration or deceleration of each electrical machine to reduce or to
increase the frequency [38]. The inertial response of the generator
plays an important role in the electrical system in the frequency
DC DC
control. The kinetic energy is released to the electrical system
AC AC
Active Power Maximum Power
(W) point
Pmax
MPP tracker
`
Vmpp Vdcmax Vdc (V)
Fig. 11. PV unit for central configuration. Fig. 13. PV power output vs. DC voltage.
DC
Ipv Vpv AC
Modulation
MPPT
Vac
control
Iac
Vref Vdc
Reactive power
Active power V, P Q control
control
Pref Qref
Fig. 12. Typical control structure of a three phase grid connected PV unit in a LS-PVPP.
◦C
TSO
LS-PVPP CONTROL
P1,Q1 Status P2,Q2 Status P3,Q3 Status Pn,Qn Status
Vac, Iac Vac, Iac Vac, Iac Vac, Iac
Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv
PV unit 1 PV unit 2 PV unit 3 PV unit n

Fig. 14. Control architecture of a PVPP.
limiting the initial rate of frequency decline in the case a demand- particle swarm optimization, fuzzy logic control, differential evolu-
generation power imbalance occurs [39–42]. tion and others as they are explained in [48–50]. The main draw-
In the case of LS-PVPPs, the technology used: PV array and backs of these algorithms are the time of response, the number of
inverter makes a big difference with the conventional power sensors used and the delay to notice that the radiation has changed.
plants. The lack of rotating machine together with the power Using this control, the LS-PVPP will be always working at
variability during the day can bring several problems to the elec- maximum power in each solar radiation. Due to cloud transition,
trical system in terms of frequency stability [43,44]. The study the electrical system could experiment large and quick fluctua-
developed by [45] details the case of the Australia network con- tions of active power. This behaviour affects the grid power bal-
sidering the integration of wind and solar power. It concludes that ance, triggering to emergency situations. Besides economic dis-
low inertia and PV variation causes problems in the frequency patch will be also affected [51]. A study analysing the impact of the
regulation of the electrical system. This study considers small PV PV systems installed at the distribution network on active power
systems interconnected at the distribution network with a total dispatch during the day is explained in [52], where the PV pro-
capacity of 500 MW. The work developed by Abdlrahem et al. [46] duction shows ramp rates higher than 2.5 MW/min due to solar
explains how the frequency of the electrical system is affected by radiation variation.
four LS-PVPPs of 50 MW each one. Besides, four synchronous Thus, grid codes require at least two types of active power
generators of 700 MW each are considered for the study. This control: power curtailment and ramp rate control. In addition
study contemplates the increment and decrement of radiation on Puerto Rico and South Africa ask for power reserve. Considering
each PVPP. The analysis is conducted to see how these changes these requirements, the MPPT tracker would suffer some mod-
affect the electrical system. The conclusion in that case is that PV ifications. It is no longer necessary to be working at maximum
penetration does not affect drastically the frequency stability, but power point all day, but it will be necessary to track the power
this study is not considering any reduction of conventional gen- required by the TSO. The maximum operation point should be less
eration. On the other hand, a statistical evaluation of the electrical than the power capacity of the LS-PVPP or storage equipment
system with high PV penetration shows that this increment of PV should be installed. However, the main concern is the power
power in the electrical system affects the frequency stability [47]. curtailment with a ramp rate control. The reduction of power at a
Deeper studies about this phenomena are still missing. Up today constant ramp rate could not be easy to approach with the current
LS-PVPPs have been installed around the world, so it could be technology and control used in the PVPP. The intermittent and
beneficial to understand how its lack of inertia impacts the current non-uniform cloud coverage along the LS-PVPP are also big chal-
grid. The study developed by [44] is a good start to understand the lenges to overcome. The understanding of these challenges comes
problematic of the lack of inertia in the electrical system. The big together with a deep analysis of the problematic caused by LS-
challenge for LS-PVPP is to provide a solution to overcome the lack PVPP integration, but these studies are still missing in this area of
of inertia for primary and secondary frequency control. Besides, if concern.
LS-PVPPs work at maximum power point they do not have a power
reserve to control the decrement of frequency. 4.4. Reactive power regulation
But the challenge is not only for LS-PVPP it is also for the
current conventional power generation. The transition from con- The current technology of PV inverters used at the distribution
ventional to renewable power generation asks that synchronous level does not have a PQ control as IEEE 1547 does not require it
generators adapt their power output to accommodate the variable although the inverter can perform it. However, due to the
power of these new power plants in order to maintain the stability increased development of LS-PVPPs and the grid code require-
of the electrical network. ments, the PV inverters have to control not only the active power,
but also the reactive power [53,54]. The MPPT control used in
4.3. Active power regulation normal PV operation does not permit to have a complete control of
the PQ capability during the day and limits the system perfor-
The operating power point of the current PV inverters is at the mance. PV inverter developers do not reflect the limitation of dc
maximum active power that varies according the irradiance. To voltage, solar radiation and temperature in their capability curve.
reach this point, different algorithms have been developed as the Today, the challenge is to understand the limitations of these
perturb and observe, incremental conductance, ripple correlation, inverters considering the variation of solar radiation, temperature
and dc voltage. In the case of WPPs deep studies about the reactive main reasons to disconnect from the grid: overcurrent due to low
power capability have been performed. For instance, the reactive voltage, excessive dc voltage and loss of synchronization [3].
power capability curve of a doubly fed induction generator has During a disturbance, for instance a short circuit, the voltage at
been studied in [55] which relates the reactive power capability of the output of the inverter reduces and current rises. The inverter is
the inverter plus the capability of the generator. In the case that still giving active power to the grid despite there is a fault con-
the wind farm does not have enough reactive power to comply the dition. The input power from the PV array is constant at the
grid requirements, other equipment is installed as STATCOMs, maximum point of power depending on the irradiation and tem-
SVCs or capacitor banks. A comprehensive and extended com- perature [58]. The inverter tries to balance the input and output
parison of these technologies used in WPPs is developed by Pathak power rising the current and the DC voltage. As a result the PV
et al. [56]. Thus, similar studies could help in the development of inverter is disconnected. This behaviour obeys the natural
solutions to approach the grid code requirements. response of the PV array connected to the inverter because of the
In this section, the challenges that technology developers, use of the MPPT control. In this case, the MPPT is causing problems
researchers, industry and plant operators have to overcome for the to the stability of the plant. Some studies have been developed to
correct performance of the LS-PVPPs have been analysed. This enhance this control and to improve the FRT response. Refs.
discussion was conducted by the investigation of high PV pene- [59,60] explain an enhanced MPPT control as a new strategy of the
tration impact on the electrical system on voltage stability, reac- PV inverter to overcome faults. The voltage elected should be
tive and active power regulation. Taking into consideration these higher than the voltage of the MPP to reduce as fast as possible the
challenges the next section will discuss the current technology output power.
used to comply grid code requirements. To overcome the fault conditions, reactive power should be
supplied by the PV inverter. The requirement when the voltage
drops below 50% is to have an injection of reactive current of at
5. Compliance technology least 100%. Thus, the PV inverter has to be oversized in the range of
1.1–1.2 to comply this requirement. In the case of wind farms a
Nowadays, grid codes and TSOs are demanding that PVPPs study has been developed using a converter 40% oversized. This
behave as similar as possible to conventional power plants (CPPs). study shows that the larger capacity of the converter, the reactive
Thus, the PVPPs should manage the active power, support the current support is increased [61]. In [4] a LS-PVPP of 10 MVA is
frequency of the grid, support reactive power, voltage sags and studied under different fault conditions with and without reactive
voltage deviations. Through the last years two solutions have been power injection. The results show that the LS-PVPP can provide
developed: (i) the addition of equipment as energy storage, diesel support of reactive current when faults occur in case of symme-
generators, SVCs, STATCOMs, capacitor banks and (ii) the devel- trical faults. In asymmetrical faults, the inverter triggers due to
opment of a smart control for the LS-PVPP. Fig. 15 illustrates a system protection. The work assayed by Marinopoulos et al. [3]
scheme of a LS-PVPP that includes the additional equipment and compares the different grid code requirements concerning the
the new control duties of all the equipment involved in the power reactive current injection when a fault occurs. The control of FRT is
plant. This section explains each of these components and control performed locally at the inverter control due to the time require-
s
improvements for the fulfilment of the grid code requirements. ment. The PVPP is modelled in DIgSILENT Power Factory and
several voltage sags are tested. The results show that during a
5.1. Fault ride through capability fault, large amount of active power is lost and the reactive current
injection allows a better performance of the PVPP at the PCC.
In normal conditions the inverters operate satisfactorily, as the The fulfilment of FRT requirements depends on the control
ones used in wind farms [57], but they have to overcome different used in the PV inverter and the capability of the inverters. But a
issues during faults. The inverters installed in PVPPs have three deeper study that analyses the performance of the LS-PVPP during
Fig. 15. Control duties and additional equipment in LS-PVPP.

fault conditions considering MPPT control and the variation of the 5.3. Active power control
PV power during the day is still necessary.
The controllability of active power during the day indepen-
5.2. Reactive power control dently the external condition is an important issue in LS-PVPPs.
Grid codes require that LS-PVPPs provide active power curtail-
PV inverters can control the reactive power but this feature has ment, under and over frequency control, overvoltage and under-
not been possible to use at the distribution level as IEEE 1547 voltage control, ramp rate control, power reserve, reducing in
required. Today, the PV inverters used for LS-PVPP have already some way the problematic of the lack of inertia that the LS-PVPP
enabled this characteristic. Zhou and Chao [62] study the reactive has. For this purpose, the addition of equipment and the control
power control strategy for PVPPs, where the proposed control is to improvement are a common practice nowadays. This section
change reactive and active power in an independent way to permit summarizes these solutions for active power and frequency
the stability of the voltage at the PCC. Bae et al. [63] assay the control.
enhancement of the reactive power control of inverters to improve To comply the grid codes, LS-PVPPs are adding energy storage
the power quality and to comply German grid code. In this case, units (ESU) and/or diesel generators. The ESU helps to smooth the
the control mode can be either by the setting of power factor or active power despite the variable conditions along the LS-PVPP.
reactive power. Another study is developed by Minambres-Marcos Thus, the ramp rate and the power curtailment required by the
et al. [64] which regulates the voltage at the PCC when the mode grid codes can be managed by an adequate control of the ESU. It
chosen is power factor control. However, none variation of radia- also can work as a power reserve depending on the system design,
tion or temperature are considered in the simulation, only dis- but the cost of the ESU could be a drawback. On the other hand, a
group of diesel generators is commonly used for power reserve,
turbances from the grid. Meanwhile, the study developed by Van
power curtailment and frequency regulation. Depending on the
Dao et al. [65] focuses on reactive power control to enhance the
application one or two of these solutions are installed. For
response of voltage of the PVPP despite the solar generation
instance, the LS-PVPPs developed in Puerto Rico by GPTech [70]
fluctuation during the day. The results show that the PVPP takes
have a system with a storage unit and a diesel generator in order
responsibility of their own disturbances improving the voltage
to comply the strict grid code requirements. Another example is
stability at the PCC. Similar research is developed by Xiao et al.
the LS-PVPP of 5 MW constructed in Cobija, Bolivia developed by
[66]. The online supervisory voltage control proposed to allocate
SMA. This LS-PVPP is not connected to the utility system but it has
the reactive power and to track online the voltage stability con-
to provide service to a growing community that currently is con-
siders the variation of radiation during the day. The transient
suming 37 GWh/year. In this application, the main objective is to
response in a weak network is improved with this type of control.
determine the maximum permissible PV power to reduce the fuel
Studies that consider different PV penetration levels are conducted
consumption and to provide electrical stability.
by [67] where the voltage is controlled using the PQ capability of
In the energy storage unit, batteries are commonly used toge-
the PV inverters. The voltage stability improves significantly, but as
ther with an inverter and an energy management system (EMS).
the inverter can absorb reactive power, the grid starts to supply
The type of batteries used in LS-PVPP is molten salt, lithium-ion
the reactive power needed by the PVPP. This practice makes that
(Li-ion), lead acid and flow batteries. Lead acid batteries are
the electrical system will be less efficient.
commonly used in small PVPPs for their low cost. But its short
As the PV inverters can be used as STATCOM devices, some
lifetime has not made it suitable for large scale applications. Flow
studies are focusing on how the LS-PVPP can help to overcome
batteries are an emerging technology with higher lifetime, but its
reactive power change overnight period. Varma et al. have low energy density has not already attracted to LS-PVPP devel-
extensively studied the utilization of PV inverters as STATCOM opers. Today, molten salt and lithium-ion batteries are being used
during the night period [68] when they are connected to the in current LS-PVPP due to its high efficiency and energy density.
distribution system. The results show that small PVPPs connected However, the lifetime of molten salt batteries is relatively lower
to the distribution system help to stabilize the grid and to increase than Li-ion [71,72].
the power generation for other power plants as wind farms. A Despite the technology used a main concern is to manage the
similar approach has been developed in [69] in which the LS-PVPP energy stored together with the PV output power. The industry
is used especially as flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) to and researchers are coming toward different EMS solutions to
compensate the voltage between two feeders. In this case, the LS- comply grid code requirements. A control is proposed in [73] that
PVPP is interconnected between two feeders and the control uses energy storage to mitigate the PV power fluctuation due to
developed manages the reactive and active power together. With cloud coverage. The control approach is based on the coordinated
this control, the voltage has a better profile at the point of inter- response between the PV inverter and the energy storage using
connection. In these studies, the network improves its power the inverse characteristics of the PV array output. The results show
quality and the voltage compensation specially at night periods. that the active power is smoothed during and after a severe cloud
In the case that the reactive power of LS-PVPP is not enough, transient, however the simulation is not developed for LS-PVPP.
additional reactive power compensation is needed to support the Instead, it is used for PV systems along the distribution grid
reactive power required by the grid as STATCOMs and capacitor located in different geographical areas. The use of vanadium redox
banks. The inclusion of additional equipment is accepted by grid batteries (VRB) in LS-PVPP is studied in [74]. This study shows that
codes to comply the requirements, however there is no reported the implementation and the control of the battery has smoothed
study to view the advantages and disadvantages of these equip- the output power of the LS-PVPP when cloud coverage occur. This
ments in LS-PVPPs. Different LS-PVPP designers as SMA and storage unit can supply 5 min of constant power. A ramp rate
GPTech have already added STATCOMs or capacitor banks in their control based on life cycle technology for real LS-PVPPs installed in
installations in order to comply grid code requirements. The power the US is researched in [75]. In this study not only batteries are
plant control manages the reactive power from the PV inverters considered, also flywheels and ultracapacitors. With an appro-
and the additional equipment as it is explained in [31]. The opti- priate weather forecasting and storage sizing, the results show
mal control of these equipments should be developed as it will that 99% of the violations of ramp rate have been prevented.
manage the reactive power for grid requirements and for the Other researchers are trying to develop energy storage units
health of the system. with another type of technology as fuel cells, flywheels and
ultracapacitors. The addition of fuel cells is studied by Monai et al. frequency droop control that helps the PV unit to work as a virtual
[76]. It helps to have uninterrupted power supply and to enhance governor. The second mode is the emergency control that is
the performance of the PV unit. Kakimoto et al. [77] study the enabled when there are changes in frequency caused by the var-
inclusion of ultracapacitors for ramp rate control. The inclusion of iation of meteorological conditions or loss of load.
this device helps to smooth the active power control when there The improvement of the technology and control of PVPPs is still
are quick variations of solar radiation, showing good response. The emerging, but it will grow fast as in the case of the technology
use of flywheels is also attracting to LS-PVPP developers, but fur- utilized in wind farms. The enhancement of PVPPs response con-
ther research is necessary. This technology helps to have an inertia cerning fault ride through capability, frequency and active power
reservoir of the LS-PVPP in the case a failure is produced in the support, voltage and reactive power control will make easier the
electrical system [71]. integration of LS-PVPPs as part of the generation system. Today,
As it was mentioned before, diesel generators are also part of there is the necessity to understand the economical impact of the
the LS-PVPP. The addition of diesel generator is a common practice additional equipment to comply the grid code requirements.
for LS-PVPPs located in rural areas. Usually the control developed Besides, the adaptation of the control is an important issue
for these hybrid PVPPs has the main objective to minimize fuel nowadays to improve the LS-PVPP performance.
consumption and to maximize the PV output power of the plant.
As the output of the diesel generator should remain constant, the
use of it is specially for power reserve. As the PV output power 6. Conclusions
cannot be smoothed by the use of this generator, the addition of
energy storage could be necessary. Besides, it helps in the reduc- The current trend of LS-PVPP for utility purpose has been
tion of start/stop cycles of the generator [78]. A deep review about presented and discussed. In addition, the challenges that LS-PVPPs
the system control for LS-PVPPs with diesel generator in rural have to overcome to be connected to the grid have been reviewed
areas or weak grids is studied in [79]. This review summarizes the together with a comparison and analysis of the different require-
most used techniques for the control of these systems. The addi- ments imposed by the grid codes of Germany, US, Puerto Rico,
tion of diesel generator is also used for active power curtailment Romania, South Africa and China. The requirements of fault ride
according to the studies developed by Tonkoski et al. [80]. The through capability, frequency and active power control, voltage
results show that the PVPP has a good performance when there and reactive power support have been compared. The technology
are frequency deviations and overvoltages. Datta et al. [81] discuss and the control techniques developed to comply the grid code
about a new control approach for the use of diesel generator in LS- requirements have also been detailed and discussed. From this
PVPP. In this work a fuzzy control for frequency stability and for review, the following conclusions are drawn:
MPP tracker is developed. The control alternates between these
two modes depending on grid conditions. The performance of the Taking into account the increase of PV generation, the grid code
grid improves with the solution proposed. However, it does not requirements are being updated demanding a larger contribu-
consider the fulfilment of the grid code requirements. tion in grid support. China, Germany and US, which are leading
Besides the addition of the equipment, the modification of the the utility market, together with Romania and South Africa have
MPPT is also necessary to control the active power according to adapted their grid codes as they expect that more PVPPs will be
the grid code requirements. Craciun et al. [82] develop a new installed in their grids. These grid codes demand that PVPPs
control method of the PV unit for power ramp limitation and provide ancillary services as FRT, active and reactive power
frequency support without the use of any additional equipment. control, voltage and frequency support in order to have a similar
The control is based on changing the voltage to a value higher than performance as conventional power plants.
the one for the MPP to support as quickly as possible frequency The grid codes analysed in this paper present some similarities,
variations. The results show a good response in the frequency but also important differences as the requirements are adapted
response and the ramp rate control when the PVPP is in an IEEE 12 to the electrical characteristics of each grid. In the case of FRT,
bus. Huanhai et al. propose a frequency regulation of small PVPPs the time that LS-PVPPs have to withstand the fault is different in
connected in the distribution network to provide primary and each grid code. For instance, Germany asks that LS-PVPPs
secondary frequency regulation to the power system. In the case of remain connected for 0.15 s while the disturbance occurs, but
LS-PVPPs, Rahmann et al. have studied a control to mitigate the Puerto Rico states that the necessary time should be about
fluctuation of cloud coverage [83] without using energy storage 0.625 s. In voltage and frequency boundaries, there are no
and to reduce the frequency variations. This control is based on the similarities between the grid codes as these values are strongly
deloaded operation concept of the PV array that is the operating dependent on the grid characteristics. In active power control,
point when the PV array is shaded. However, for this control it is power curtailment and ramp rate are required by each grid code
necessary to have sensors and microinverters connected to a small except for Romania that does not specify any ramp rate
number of PV panels. According to the measurements, the MPPT requirement. The power reserve is only required by the grid
will track the optimal operating point in deload operation when code of South Africa and Puerto Rico. Regarding the reactive
the shading occurs. The results show that the LS-PVPP reduces 15% power support, every grid code permits that the PVPP supports
the ramp rate response when there is no control. The drawback is voltage disturbances by supplying reactive power. The PQ
the amount of sensors and microinverters necessary to install in capability, that the LS-PVPP should have, presents similarities
the LS-PVPP. between the grid codes of China, US and South Africa, but
In addition to the modification of the MPPT control, the Puerto Rico demands a wider capability. It can be stated that
development of different control modes for active power man- Puerto Rico presents the most strict requirements as the grid is
agement has also been researched. For instance, Yang et al. [84] isolated and any power plant installed should perform a strict
propose a new control method of a single phase PV system in voltage and frequency regulation, active and reactive power
order to have two modes of control during the day: (i) MPPT control and also withstand any system disturbance.
control when power is less than the limit set by the TSO and (ii) a The integration of LS-PVPPs in the electrical system is becoming
constant power generation when the PV power is higher. Another more challenging as more requirements are necessary to be
interesting research is developed by Huanhai et al. [85]. It dis- fulfilled. The variability of the solar radiation and cloud cover-
cusses two other modes of active power regulation. One mode is a age cause problems of instability in the PCC regarding the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 971–987

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Review of advanced grid requirements for the integration of large scale

Country grid code Organization Title Version

Voltage at PCC (V) Table 2

Grid code During fault After fault

Voltage at PCC (pu)

the nominal voltage for a considerable time of 0.625 s. When a 0.1

requirements in each grid code. 0.8

Dead band 100 Absorbing Reactive

Grid code Frequency (Hz) Limits (Hz) Maximum duration

Germany 50 f 4 51:5 Instantaneous trip

Romania 50 f 4 52 Instantaneous trip

US (Puerto Rico) 60 f 4 62:5 Instantaneous trip

US (FERC LGIA) 60 f 4 61:7 Instantaneous trip

China 50 f 4 50:2 2 min

withstand 4 s with an over-frequency higher than 52 Hz. These

3.3. Active power and frequency control

Country Control mode Set point Power factor ranges

Germany Voltage control cos ϕ (ﬁxed)

US (Puerto Rico) Voltage control V 0.85 lagging (stable operation)

Romania Voltage control cos ϕ NS

China Reactive power control Q(V) 0.95 leading,

South Africa Voltage control cos ϕ(P) 0.975 leading (Category B)

CHINA, GERMANY, ROMANIA

-0.85 -0.9 -0.95 -0.975 0.975 0.95 0.9 0.85 pf

GRID GRID GRID

4.2. Frequency stability

In current electrical system, the frequency is related to the

Vmpp Vdcmax Vdc (V)

P1,Q1 Status P2,Q2 Status P3,Q3 Status Pn,Qn Status

Vac, Iac Vac, Iac Vac, Iac Vac, Iac

Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv Vpv, Ipv

PV unit 1 PV unit 2 PV unit 3 PV unit n

Fig. 15. Control duties and additional equipment in LS-PVPP.

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