EEN 303 Lec. by Dr.

Bishwajit Saha,
Check yourself 1
Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Linear & Non-linear Systems
A linear electrical and electronic system contains only linear components such as
resistor, inductor, capacitor and so on
A non-linear electrical and electronic system contains not only nonlinear devices
and components (diodes, transistors, op-amps etc.) but also linear components

Op amp acts linear in amplifying mode and nonlinear in switching mode operation

a) b) c)
Linear Characteristic

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EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha, Non-linear Characteristics 2
Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Cont’d…

A linear system possesses two properties:

1. Superposition

r1(t )  r 2(t )  c1(t )  c2(t )

2. Homogeneity where,
r are input
Ar 1(t )  Ac1(t ) c are output
A is an arbitrary constant
r1(t )  c1(t ); r1(t )  Ac1(t )
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 OP-AMP EXCEPTONS

Depending on the dynamic range of the input signals, an op amp may

operate in the linear or nonlinear region.
Due to negative feedback acts as linear, a narrow region
Linear applications of op-amp are Inverting Non-inverting, voltage
follower, adder, subtractor, integrator, differentiator, voltage to current
or current to voltage converter etc
Non-linear applications of op-amp are voltage comparator, zero
crossing detector, Schmitt triggers, multivibrator circuits etc.

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Linear n-th Order Differential Equations

General Form

dny d n1 y dy
n
 p1 ( x) n1    p n1 ( x)  p n ( x) y  g ( x)
dx dx dx

Homogeneous Differential Equation

dny d n 1 y dy
n
 p1 ( x) n1    pn1 ( x)  pn ( x) y  0
dx dx dx
Inhomogeneous Differential Equation

dny d n1 y dy
n
 p1 ( x) n 1    p n1 ( x)  p n ( x) y  0
dx dx dx

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 First Order Linear Equation

General form of 1st Order Linear Equation:

dy
pn 1 ( x)  pn ( x ) y  g ( x )
dx
y  a0 ( x) y  f ( x)

Where,
d
y'  y
dx If f(x)=0, the equation is
homogeneous, otherwise it will be
g ( x)
f ( x)  inhomogeneous
pn 1 ( x)
pn ( x )
a0 ( x ) 
pn 1 ( x)
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Second Order Linear Equation

General form of 2nd Order Linear Equation:

d2y dy
pn  2 ( x) 2  pn 1 ( x)  pn ( x) y  g ( x)
dx dx
y  a1 ( x) y  a0 ( x) y  f ( x)
Where,
d2
y' '  2 y
dx
d
y'  y
dx
If f(x)=0, the equation is
g ( x)
f ( x)  homogeneous, otherwise it will be
p n 2 ( x) inhomogeneous
p n 1 ( x)
a1 ( x) 
p n  2 ( x)
p n ( x)
a 0 ( x) 
p n 2 ( x)
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Some Important Equations

t
Current of a capacitor, iC (t )  C dvC (t ) 1
vC   iC (t )dt
dt C0
t
diL (t ) 1
Voltage across an inductor, vL (t )  L iL   vL (t )dt
dt L0
1
Natural Frequency, n  
LC
L
Time Constant of RL circuit,  RL 
R

Time Constant of RC circuit,  RC  RC

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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 Similarities between Mathematical Form and Circuit Form

Applying KVL
Applying KVL
vS (t )  Ri L (t )  vL (t )
di (t ) vS (t )  RiC (t )  vC (t )
vL (t )  L L
dt dvC (t )
iC (t )  C
diL (t ) dt
vS (t )  Ri L (t )  L
dt dv (t )
diL (t )
vS (t )  RC C  vC (t )
Ri L (t )  L  vS (t ) dt
dt dvC (t ) 1 1
diL (t ) R 1  vC (t )  vS (t )
 iL (t )  vS (t ) dt RC RC
dt L L
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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 Similarities between Mathematical Form and Circuits Form

Series Parallel

Applying KVL Applying KCL

v R  v L  vC  0 i R  i L  iC  0
di L 1 t vC 1 t dv C
Ri L  L   i L ( )d  0   vC ( )d  C 0
dt C  R L  dt
d 2iL R di L 1 d 2 vC 1 dvC 1
  iL  0   vC  0
dt 2 L dt LC
dt 2 RC dt LC
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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 2nd Order Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
k 2
m  cy  0
dt dt
where, k, m, c are the arbitrary constants of the homogenous equation

y  C1e r1t  C2e r2t Where, C1 and C2 are

constant coefficients
In case of y" y  0
Change to standard form and find the roots
y"  y
am2  bm  c  0
y1  e t ,
 b  b 2  4ac
t m1,2 
y2  e 2a
m1  1
Final Solution, y  C1et  C2et
m 2  1
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 2nd Order Differential Equations with Missing y-Terms

d 2 y (t ) dy(t )
2
p  g (t )
dt dt
Substitute m=y’ and m’=y” m' pm  g (t )

u (t )  e  pdt
Integrating Factor

Solve for μ (t) μ (t ) 

 u(t ) g (t )dt  C
u (t )

Integrate and get final solution y(t )   μ(t )dt

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Example:
y"5 y'  0
Substitute m=y’ and m’=y”: m'5m  0
p  5
g (t )  0

Integrating Factor: u (t )  e   5 dt
 e  5t
1 C C
u (t )  
Solve for μ (t): μ(t )  u ( t ) g ( t ) dt   e 5t
0 dt   Ce 5t

u (t ) e  5t

 
Getting final solution: y(t )  μ(t )dt  Ce 5t dt  C1e 5t  C2

C
 C1 
5
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 In other way
y"5 y '  0
Let r=y’ r  y'
r 2  5r  0
r (r  5)  0
r1  5
r2  0
y (t )  C1e 5t  C2

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of First Order Linear Equation
dy
pn 1 (t )  pn (t ) y  g (t )
dt
dy
   a0 (t ) y  f (t )
dt
The solution is summation of complementary function and particular integral.

y  yC  y P
complementary function
C
yC  _ where _ u  e  ao ( t ) dt
u is called integrating factor
u
particular integral is
1
y P   u  f (t )dt
u
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of First Order Linear Equation

Find the solution of given equation

dy Taking initial condition t=0

 y  et
dt
Complementary function

ue  1dt
 e t
C
yC   Ce t
u
Particular integral
1
u
yP  u  e(t )dt

1
  t  e  t e t dt  e t .t
e
y  yC  y P  Ce t  e t .t
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of Second Order Linear Equation
Find the solution of given equation
d2y dy
pn  2 (t ) 2  pn 1 (t )  pn (t ) y  g (t )
dt dt
d2y dy
2
 a1 ( t )  a0 (t ) y  e(t )   { D 2  a1 (t ) D  a0 (t )} y  e(t )
dt dt
Complementary function: The homogeneous equation to be solved is

{ D 2  a1D  a0 } yC  0
The above equation has two roots. Factorized equation becomes
( D  r1 )( D  r2 ) yC  0
We have
( D  r1 ) yC1  0 and ( D  r2 ) yC 2  0
By applying ( D  a) yC  0 _ so _ yC  Ce  at
yC1  C1er1t , yC 2  C2er 2t
Complementary function is yC  C1er1t  C2er 2t
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of Second Order Linear Equation
Particular integral: The non-homogeneous equation to be solved is
{ D 2  a1D  a0 } yP  e(t )
( D  r1 )( D  r2 ) yP  e(t )
1 1  1 
yP  e(t )    e(t )
( D  r1 )( D  r2 ) ( D  r1 )  ( D  r2 ) 
1
e(t )  e r 2t  e  r 2t e(t )dt
( D  r2 )

yP 
1
( D  r1 )
   
e r 2t  e  r 2t e(t )dt  e r1t  e  r1t e r 2t  e  r 2t e(t )dt dt


y P  e r1t  e ( r 2 r1)t  e  r 2t e(t )dt dt

The complete solution is


y  yC  yP  C1er1t  C2er 2t  e r1t  e( r 2 r1)t  e  r 2t e(t )dt dt 
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Significance of Solution of Diff. Equ.

Now we apply the two initial conditions to

determine the constants C1 and C2: t=0 and y=0,
dy/dt =0 . After that solving two equations those
found.

Complementary function is called the transient

solution of physical problem.
Particular integral is the steady state solution of
physical problem.

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of First Order Circuit

diL (t )
Ri L (t )  L  v S (t )
dt
diL (t ) R 1
 i L (t )  v S (t )
dt L L
Complementary function is
R
C  Rt / L  adt  L dt
iL Co   Ce ;;[u  e e  e Rt / L ]
u
Particular integral is
R R
t Vs t
iLP  e  e . dt; _____[iLP  e  at  e ate(t )dt ]
L L
L
R R
t V 1 t Vs
iLP e . .
L s
e 
L
L R/ L R
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of First Order Circuit

The complete solution is

 Rt / L VS
i L  i L Co  i LP  Ce 
R
At the initial condition, t=0 and iL = 0 solution is.
Thus
VS
C
R
1

The current equation is

0.5
V V V
iL   S e Rt / L  S  S (1  e Rt / L )
R R R
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of Second Order Circuit

vR  vL  vC  VS
t
diL 1
Ri L  L   iL ( τ )dτ  VS
dt C  
d 2iL R diL 1 VS
2
  iL 
dt L dt LC L
Characteristic Equation
R 1
D2  D 0
L LC
Roots are 2
R  R  1
r1, 2        α  β
2L  2 L  LC
Complementary C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants
Function is iLco  C1e r1t  C2 e r 2t
 2   2 
 R  R  1   R  R  1 

 2 L      t    
 2 L  2 L  LC  t
 2 L  LC
iLco  C1e  
 C2 e  

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Solution of Second Order Circuit

iLP  e r1t  [e( r 2 r1)t  e  r 2t e(t )dt ]dt

 2   2   2   2 
 R   R   1
 
t    R   R   1   R
  
 R 
  
1   R  R 
     
1 t
 2 L    2 L  2 L  LC   2 L   t 
 2 L  LC  2 L  LC  2 L  2 L  LC Vs
iLP  e  [e 
e
      
dt ]dt
L
 2   2   2 
 R  R  1    R  1   R  R  1 
  2 L   2 L   LC  t   2 t  2 L   LC   2 L   2 L   LC  t
Vs
iLP 
L
e  
 [e  
e  
dt ]dt
 2   2   2 
 R  R  1    R  1   R  R  1 
  2 L   2 L   LC  t   2 t  2 L   LC   2 L   2 L   LC  t
Vs 1
iLP 
L
e  
 R 2   e  
e  
dt
  R  1 
   
 2L  2 L  LC 
 
 2   2 2 
 R  R  1    R  1 R  R  1 
  2 L   2 L   LC  t   2  2 L   LC  2 L   2 L   LC  t
Vs 1

L
e  
 R 2   e  
dt
  R  1 
   
 2L  2 L  LC 
 
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
  2   2 
 R  R  1   R  R  1 
  2 L   2 L   LC  t  2 L   2 L   LC  t
Vs 1

L
e  
 R 2   e  
dt
  R  1 
   
 2L  2 L  LC 
 
 R 2   R 2 
   R   1 t   R  1 t
 2 L  2 L  LC   2 L   2 L   LC 
Vs 1 1
 e  
e  
L  R  R  1   R
2
 R  1 
2
        
 2L  2 L  LC   2L  2 L  LC 
  
 2 2 
 R   R   1  R   R   1 t
 2 L     
Vs 1  2 L  LC 2 L  2 L  LC
iLP  e  
 CVS  q
L  2

  R    R  
1  
2 2

       
 2 L    2 L  LC
 
 

The steady state current iLP in this case is apparently zero, since a series circuit
containing a capacitance cannot sustain a DC.

EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,

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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
i) ( R / 2 L ) 2
 1 LC _ or _ R  2 L C _ β is real

iLco1  e  αt
C e
1
βt
 C2 e βt
 is Overdamped due to
double exponential decaying

ii) ( R / 2L)  1 LC _ or _ R  2 L C _ β  0
2

iLco 2  e  αt
C1  C2t  is Critically damped case

iii) ( R / 2L)2  1 LC _ or _ R  2 L C _ β is imaginary

iLco3  e  αt
C e1
jβt
 C2e  jβt
 isangular
Underdamped with
frequency β
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Source Free RLC Series Circuit With Damping

2
R  R 4
v R  v L  vC  0     
L  L LC
di L 1 t m1, 2 
Ri L  L   i L ( )d  0 2
dt C  R 1 4L
    R2 
d 2iL L  L C
R di L 1 m1, 2 
  iL  0 2
dt 2 L dt LC
R  1  2 4L
m1, 2    R 
Characteristic Equation is 2L  2L  C
or
am  bm  c  0
2
m1, 2     2   n
2

Two roots are found by

R
Damping Coefficient, 
 b  b 2  4ac 2L
m1,2  1
2a Resonance angular Frequency, n 
LC
EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
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Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
 Damping and Its Clarification
Damping means a monotonic decrease in the peak amplitude of oscillation. Damping
is caused by system elements that consume energy. Resistance produces damping in
electronic circuits.
In mechanical system, friction causes damping.
For a second order RLC circuit, we know that,
d 2iL R diL 1
2
  iL  0
dt L dt LC
Critical damping occurs when the coefficient of diL/dt is 2ωn. Damping
ratio is the ratio of R/L to the critical damping constant, 2ωn
Damping ratio   R / L
2n d 2 iL diL
 2n   n iL  0
2
2
R dt dt
 2 n

 
L
r1, 2  n   2n  n  n     2  1
1 2 2
Natural Freq. n 
LC
R C
Check yourself  EEN 303 Lec. by Dr. Bishwajit Saha,
Professor,DEEE, IUBAT
27
2 L
 Damping Classification

There are following damping responses are existed:

a) Undamped
b) Critically damped
c) Underdamped
d) Overdamped

When a response of a system is oscillatory with constant peak amplitude, the

response is called undamped.
When the amount of damping is just enough to prevent oscillation, the system is
said to be critically damped.
Less damping corresponds to the under-damped, where oscillation is present but
eventually dies out.
A greater amount of damping corresponds to the overdamped case, where the
waveform is non-oscillatory and very small perturbation of any circuit parameter
will not cause oscillations to occur.

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 Damping Responses

Damping Ratio, ζ = Actual damping / Critical damping

Overdamped response, ζ>1

Critically damped response, ζ=1
Amplitude Underdamped response, ζ<1
Undamped response, ζ= 0

Time

These kinds of response can be found in higher order electrical circuits

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