axioms

Review
Groups, Special Functions and Rigged Hilbert Spaces
Enrico Celeghini 1,2,† , Manuel Gadella 2,3,† and Mariano A. del Olmo 2,3, *,†
1 Dpto di Fisica, Università di Firenze and INF-Sezione di Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Firenze, Italy
2 Dpto de Física Teórica, Atómica y Óptica, Universidad de Valladolid, E-47005 Valladolid, Spain
3 IMUVA—Mathematical Research Institute, Universidad de Valladolid, E-47005 Valladolid, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.




Received: 29 June 2019; Accepted: 21 July 2019; Published: 27 July 2019


Abstract: We show that Lie groups and their respective algebras, special functions and rigged
Hilbert spaces are complementary concepts that coexist together in a common framework and
that they are aspects of the same mathematical reality. Special functions serve as bases for infinite
dimensional Hilbert spaces supporting linear unitary irreducible representations of a given Lie group.
These representations are explicitly given by operators on the Hilbert space H and the generators of
the Lie algebra are represented by unbounded self-adjoint operators. The action of these operators
on elements of continuous bases is often considered. These continuous bases do not make sense
as vectors in the Hilbert space; instead, they are functionals on the dual space, Φ× , of a rigged
Hilbert space, Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× . In fact, rigged Hilbert spaces are the structures in which both, discrete
orthonormal and continuous bases may coexist. We define the space of test vectors Φ and a topology
on it at our convenience, depending on the studied group. The generators of the Lie algebra can often
be continuous operators on Φ with its own topology, so that they admit continuous extensions to the
dual Φ× and, therefore, act on the elements of the continuous basis. We investigate this formalism for
various examples of interest in quantum mechanics. In particular, we consider SO(2) and functions
on the unit circle, SU (2) and associated Laguerre functions, Weyl–Heisenberg group and Hermite
functions, SO(3, 2) and spherical harmonics, su(1, 1) and Laguerre functions, su(2, 2) and algebraic
Jacobi functions and, finally, su(1, 1) ⊕ su(1, 1) and Zernike functions on a circle.

Keywords: rigged Hilbert spaces; discrete and continuous bases; special functions; Lie algebras;
representations of Lie groups; harmonic analysis

1. Introduction
Harmonic analysis has undergone strong development since the first work by Fourier [1].
The main idea of the Fourier method is to decompose functions in a superposition of other particular
functions, i.e., “special functions”. Since the original trigonometric functions used by Fourier many
special functions, such as the classical orthogonal polynomials [2], have been used generalizing the
original Fourier idea. In many cases, such special functions support representations of groups and in
this way group representation theory appears closely linked to harmonic analysis [3]. Another crucial
fact is that harmonic analysis is related to linear algebra and functional analysis, in the sense that
elements of vector spaces or Hilbert spaces are decomposed in terms of orthogonal bases or operators as
linear combinations of their eigenvalues (i.e., applying the spectral theorem, see Theorem 1 in Section 2).
On many occasions, continuous bases and discrete bases are involved in the same framework. Hence,
the arena where all these objects fit in a precise mathematical way is inside a rigged Hilbert space.
Hence, we have a set of mathematical objects: classical orthogonal polynomials, Lie algebras, Fourier
analysis, continuous and discrete bases, and rigged Hilbert spaces fully incorporated in a harmonic
frame that can bee used in quantum mechanics as well as in signal processing.

Axioms 2019, 8, 89; doi:10.3390/axioms8030089 www.mdpi.com/journal/axioms

Axioms 2019, 8, 89 2 of 40

In a series of previous articles, we gave some examples showing that Lie groups and algebras,
special functions, discrete and continuous bases and rigged Hilbert spaces (RHS) are particular aspects
of the same mathematical reality, for which a general theory is needed. As a first step in the construction
of this general theory, we want to present a compact review of the results which have thus far been
obtained by us and that can be useful in applications where harmonic analysis is involved.
Special functions play often the role of being part of orthonormal bases of Hilbert spaces serving
as support of representations of Lie groups of interest in Physics. As is well known, decompositions of
vectors of these spaces are given in terms of some sort of continuous basis, which are not normalisable
and, hence, outside the Hilbert space. The most popular formulation to allow the coexistence of these
continuous bases with the usual discrete bases is the RHS, where the elements of continuous bases
are well defined as functionals on a locally convex space densely defined as a subspace of the Hilbert
space supporting the representation of the Lie group. This notion of continuous basis has been recently
revised and generalised in [4].
Thus, we have the need for a framework that includes Lie algebras, discrete and continuous bases
and special functions, as building blocks of these discrete bases. In addition, it would be desirable to
have structures in which the generators of the Lie algebras be well defined continuous operators on.
The rigged Hilbert space comply with the requirements above mentioned.
All the cases presented here have applications not only in physics but in other sciences.
In particular, Hermite functions are related to signal analysis in the real line and also with the fractional
Fourier transform [5]. In [6], we introduced a new set of functions in terms of the Hermite functions that
give rise bases in L2 (C) and in l 2 (Z) where C is the unit circle. Both bases are related by means of the
Fourier transform and the discrete Fourier transform. In [7], we presented a systematic study of these
functions as well as the corresponding rigged Hilbert space framework. Recently, spherical harmonics
are used in three-dimensional signal processing with applications in geodesy, astronomy, cosmology,
graph computation, vision computation, medical images, communications systems, etc. [8–10]. Zernike
polynomials are well known for their applications in optics [11–13]. Moreover, all of them can be
considered as examples of harmonic analysis where the connection between groups, special functions
and RHS fit together perfectly.
The paper is organized as follows. A brief description of RHS and their use in physics and in
engineering is given in Section 2. In Section 3, SO(2) is discussed in details, related to the exponential
eimφ , where the technical aspects are reduced to the minimum. Section 4 considers how Associated
Laguerre Functions allow constructing two different RHS’s, one related to the integer spin and the
other to half-integer spin of SU(2). In Section 5, an analysis is performed of the basic case of the line,
where the fundamental ingredient of the RHS are the Fourier Transform, the Hermite Functions and
the Weyl–Heisenberg group. Section 6 is devoted to the RHS constructed on Spherical Harmonics in
relation with SO(3). In Section 7, Laguerre Functions are used to construct another RHS related to
SU(1,1). Jacobi Functions and the 15-dimensional algebra SU(2,2) are the foundation of a larger RHS,
which is studied in Section 8. The last example we discuss (Section 9) is the RHS constructed on the
Zernike Functions and the algebra su(1, 1) ⊕ su(1, 1) (that should be used also in connection with the
Laguerre Functions). Few remarks close the paper in Section 10.

2. Rigged Hilbert Spaces

The less popular among our ingredients is the concept of rigged Hilbert spaces, so that a short
section devoted to this concept seems necessary. A rigged Hilbert space, also called Gelfand triplet,
is a tern of spaces [14]
Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× , (1)

where: (i) H is an infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space; (ii) Φ is a dense subspace of H endowed
with a locally convex topology stronger, i.e., it has more open sets, than the Hilbert space topology that
Φ has inherited from H; and (iii) Φ× is the space of all continuous antilinear functionals on Φ. Thus,
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 3 of 40

F ∈ Φ× is a mapping F : Φ 7−→ C such that for any pair ψ, ϕ ∈ Φ and any pair of complex numbers
α, β ∈ C, one has
F (αψ + βϕ) = α∗ F (ψ) + β∗ F ( ϕ) , (2)

where the star denotes complex conjugation. The continuity is given with respect to the locally convex
topology on Φ and the usual topology on the complex plane C. Instead, the notation in Equation (2),
we henceforth use the Dirac notation, which is quite familiar to physicists:

F ( ϕ) =: h ϕ| F i . (3)

In general, the topology on Φ is given by a family of seminorms. In the examples we have studied
thus far, the topology on Φ is given by a countable set of seminorms, { pn }n∈N where by countable we
mean either finite or denumerable. As the topology on Φ is stronger than the Hilbert space topology,
one of these seminorms could be chosen to be the Hilbert space norm.
Seminorms provide a nice criterion to determine whether a linear or antilinear functional over Φ
is continuous. The linear or antilinear functional F : Φ 7−→ C is continuous if and only if, there exist a
positive number K > 0 and finite number of seminorms, p1 , p2 , . . . , pm , taken from those that define
the topology on Φ such that for any ϕ ∈ Φ, we have [15]

|h ϕ| F i| ≤ K { p1 ( ϕ) + p2 ( ϕ) + · · · + pm ( ϕ)} . (4)

A typical example of functional is the following one. Pick an arbitrary ϕ ∈ Φ and define Fϕ as

Fϕ (ψ) = hψ| Fϕ i := hψ| ϕi , (5)

which is obviously antilinear on Φ. Then, use the Schwarz inequality in |hψ| Fϕ i| ≤ ||ψ|| || ϕ||,
take K = || ϕ||, p1 (ψ) := ||ψ||, for all ψ ∈ Φ and use Equation (4) so as to conclude the continuity
of Fϕ on Φ. However, not all elements of Φ× lie in this category. A typical counterexample is the
Dirac delta.
Analogously, assume that Φ and Ψ are two locally convex spaces with topologies given by the
respective families of seminorms { pi }i∈I and {q j } j∈J . A linear or antilinear mapping F : Φ 7−→ Ψ is
continuous if and only if for each seminorm q j on Ψ there exists a positive constant K > 0 and a finite
number of seminorms, p1 , p2 , . . . , pm , from those defining the topology on Φ such that

q j ( F ( ϕ)) ≤ K { p1 ( ϕ) + p2 ( ϕ) + · · · + pm ( ϕ)} , ∀ϕ ∈ Φ . (6)

Both the constant K and the seminorms p1 , p2 , . . . , pm depend on q j , but not on ϕ. We use these results
along the present article.
Less interesting is that the dual space Φ× may be endowed with the weak topology induced by
Φ. As is well known, the seminorms for this weak topology are defined as follows: for each ϕ ∈ Φ,
we define the seminorm p ϕ as p ϕ ( F ) = |h ϕ| F i|, for all F ∈ Φ× .
Since the topology on Φ is stronger than the Hilbert space topology, the canonical injection
i : Φ 7−→ H, with i ( ϕ) = ϕ, for all ϕ ∈ Φ, is continuous. Furthermore, one may prove that the injection
i : H 7−→ Φ× given by i ( ϕ) := Fϕ in Equation (5) is one-to-one and continuous with respect to the
Hilbert space topology on H and the weak topology on Φ× [14].
RHS have been introduced in physics with the purpose of giving a rigorous mathematical
background to the celebrated Dirac formulation of quantum mechanics, which is widely used by
physicists. This mathematical formulation has been the objects of various publications [16–22].
In addition, rigged Hilbert spaces have been used in Physics or mathematics with various purposes
that include:

1. A proper mathematical meaning for the Gamow vectors, which are the non-normalizable vectors
giving the states of the exponentially decaying part of a quantum scattering resonance [23–26].
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 4 of 40

2. Using Hardy functions on a half-plane [25–27], we may construct RHS that serve as a framework
for an extension of ordinary quantum mechanics that accounts for time asymmetric quantum
processes. An example of such processes is the quantum decay [28–33].
3. Providing an appropriate context for the spectral decompositions of Koopman and
Frobenius–Perron operators in classical chaotic systems in terms of the so called Pollicot–Ruelle
resonances, which are singularities of the power spectrum [34,35].
4. Some situations that arise in quantum statistical mechanics demand the use of generalized states
and some singular structures that require the use of rigged Liouville spaces [36–38].
5. A proper definition of some of the structures that appear in the axiomatic theory of quantum fields,
such as Wightman functional, Borchers algebra, generalized states, etc., require of structures
such as the rigged Fock space [39–41]. Both rigged Liouville and Fock spaces are obvious
generalizations of RHS.
6. White noise and other stochastic processes may also be formulated in the context of RHS [42,43]
as well as the study of certain solutions of partial differential equations [44].
7. In the last years, the RHS have appeared associated to time-frequency analysis and Gabor analysis
that have many applications in physics and engineering related to signal processing [45–52].
In particular, applications in electrical engineering have been introduced in [53–56].
8. Finally, various problems in quantum mechanics require a mathematical description in terms of
RHS. Let us quote the following references [57–64], although we do not pretend to be exhaustive.

One of the most interesting properties of RHS is the possibility of extending to the duals certain
unbounded operators defined on domains including the space Φ. Let us consider a linear operator
A : Φ 7−→ H and let A† its adjoint, which has the following properties:

1. For any ϕ ∈ Φ, then, A† ϕ ∈ Φ. One says that Φ reduces A† or, equivalently, that A† leaves Φ
invariant, so that A† Φ ⊂ Φ. Note that we do not assume that AΦ ⊂ Φ, in general.
2. The adjoint A† is continuous on Φ.

Then, the operator A may be extended to a continuous operator on Φ× , endowed with the weak
topology. For any F ∈ Φ× , one defines AF by means of the following duality formula:

h ϕ| AF i = h A† ϕ| F i , ∀ ϕ ∈ Φ , ∀ F ∈ Φ× . (7)

Moreover, the extension is continuous on Φ× when this space has the weak topology.
In particular, if A is a symmetric operator, Equation (7) read as h ϕ| AF i = h Aϕ| F i. If A were
self-adjoint, there is always a subspace Φ with the following properties: (i) Φ dense in H; (ii) Φ is a
subspace of the domain of A; and (iii) it is possible to endow Φ with a locally convex topology, finer
than the Hilbert space topology, such that A be continuous on Φ. As a consequence, there exists a RHS,
Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× such that the self-adjoint operator A may be extended to the dual Φ× and, henceforth,
to a larger space than the original Hilbert space where A is densely defined.
These ideas drive us to the important result known as the Gelfand–Maurin theorem [14,65]
that gives a spectral decomposition à la Dirac of a self-adjoint operator with continuous spectrum.
We present it here in its simplest form in order not to enter in unnecessary complications and notations.

Theorem 1. (Gelfand–Maurin) Let A be a self-adjoint operator on a infinite dimensional separable Hilbert

space H, with simple absolutely continuous spectrum σ ( A) ≡ R+ ≡ [0, ∞). Then, there exists a rigged Hilbert
space Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× , such that:

1. AΦ ⊂ Φ and A is continuous on Φ. Therefore, it may be continuously extended to Φ× .

2. For almost all ω ∈ R+ , with respect to the Lebesgue measure, there exists a |ω i ∈ Φ× with
A | ω i = ω | ω i.
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 5 of 40

3. (Spectral decomposition) For any pair of vectors ϕ, ψ ∈ Φ, and any measurable function f : R+ 7−→ C,
we have that Z ∞
h ϕ| f ( A)ψi = f (ω ) h ϕ|ω ihω |ψi dω , (8)
0

with hω |ψi = hψ|ω i∗ .

4. The above spectral decomposition is implemented by a unitary operator U : H 7−→ L2 (R+ ),
with Uψ = hω |ψi = ψ(ω ) and [U AU −1 ]ψ(ω ) = ω ψ(ω ) = ω hω |ψi for any ψ ∈ Φ . This means
that U AU −1 is the multiplication operator on UΦ.
5. For any pre-existent RHS Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× , such that AΦ ⊂ Φ with continuity and A is an operator
satisfying our hypothesis, then items 2–4 hold.

This result has some interest in our forthcoming discussion.

Two rigged Hilbert spaces Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× and Ψ ⊂ G ⊂ Ψ× are unitarily equivalent if there exists a
unitary operator U : H 7−→ G such that: (i) U is a one-to-one mapping from Φ onto Ψ; (ii) U : Φ 7−→ Ψ is
continuous; and (iii) its inverse U −1 : Ψ 7−→ Φ is also continuous. Then, by using the duality formula

h ϕ| F i = hU ϕ|UF i , ∀ ϕ ∈ Φ , ∀ F ∈ Φ× , (9)

we extend U to a one-to-one mapping from Φ× onto Ψ× , which is continuous with the weak topologies
on both duals and which has an inverse with the same properties. Resumming, we have the
following diagram
Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ×
U↓ U↓ U↓ .
Ψ ⊂ G ⊂ Ψ×

3. SO(2): The Basic Example

To begin with, let us briefly summarize the simplest case that contains some general ingredients
to be used in other situations [66].
Consider the unit circle in the plane, defined by C := {( x, y) ∈ R2 ; x2 + y2 = 1}. As is well
known, its group of invariance is SO(2).
The Hilbert space on the unit circle is the space of measurable functions f (φ) : C 7−→ R, which are
square integrable. We denote this space as L2 [0, 2π ) ≡ L2 (C). The set of functions

1
f m (φ) := √ e−imφ , ∀m ∈ Z , (10)
2π

where Z is the set of integer numbers, is an orthonormal basis in L2 [0, 2π ). Then, each f (φ) ∈ L2 (C)
admits a span of the form,
f (φ) = ∑ am f m (φ) , am ∈ C (11)
m ∈Z

with
 2
∑ | a m |2 =   f ( φ )  

, (12)
n ∈Z

where C is the field of the complex numbers and  f (φ) is the norm of the function f (φ) on L2 [0, 2π ).
 

3.1. Rigged Hilbert Spaces Associated to L2 (C)

To construct a RHS, let us consider the space Ψ of the functions f (φ) ∈ L2 [0, 2π ) having
the property,
 f (φ)2 := ∑ | am |2 |m + i |2p < ∞ ,
 
p
p = 0, 1, 2 . . . . (13)
m ∈Z
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 6 of 40

The countably family of norms  −  p generates a metrizable topology on Ψ. The fact that this
 

family includes p = 0 shows that the canonical injection Ψ 7−→ L2 (C) is continuous. Let Ψ× be the
dual of Ψ (continuous antilinear functionals on Ψ) with the weak topology induced by the dual pair
{Ψ, Ψ× }. Then, Ψ ⊂ L2 (C) ⊂ Ψ× is a RHS.
Along this particular and concrete RHS, we consider another one, unitarily equivalent to this
and constructed as follows. Let us take an abstract infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space H.
We know that there is a unitary mapping U H ≡ L2 (C), in fact continuous. The sequence of vectors
{|mi}m∈Z , with U |mi = f m (φ), forms a orthonormal basis on H. Then, following the comment at the
end of Section 2, we may construct a RHS, Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× unitarily equivalent to Ψ ⊂ L2 (C) ⊂ Ψ× ,
just by defining Φ := U −1 Ψ and extending U −1 as a continuous mapping from Ψ× onto Φ× , using the
duality formula in Equation (9). More explicitly,

Ψ ⊂ L2 (C) ⊂ Ψ×
U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ .
Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ×

The mapping U −1 also transport topologies, so that if | f i ∈ Φ with

∞
|fi = ∑ am |mi = ∑ am |mi , (14)
m ∈Z m=−∞

 2
then the topology on Φ is given by the set of norms  | f i p = ∑m∈Z | am |2 (m + i )2p .


One of the most important features of RHS is the possibility of using continuous and discrete
bases within the same space. For any φ ∈ [0, 2π ), we define the ket |φi as a linear mapping from Φ
into C, such that for any | f i ∈ Φ, with | f i = ∑m∈Z am |mi, we have
∞
1 1
h f |φi := √
2π
∑ a∗m eimφ =⇒ hm|φi = √ eimφ .
2π
(15)
m=−∞

Note that h f |φi is nothing but the evaluation functional f 7−→ f (φ), whenever the Fourier series
converges pointwise to f (φ).
To prove that |φi is continuous as an antilinear functional on Φ, we use the Cauchy–Schwarz
inequality as follows:
∞ ∞
1 1 | am | |m + i |
|h f |φi| ≤ √
2π
∑
| am | = √
2π
∑ |m + i |
m=−∞ m=−∞
(16)
∞ ∞
s s
1 1
∑ ∑
 
≤ √ 2
| a m |2 | m + i |2 = K   | f i  1 ,
2π m=−∞ |m + i | m=−∞

where the meaning of the constant K is obvious. Then, continuity follows from Equation (4) and,
hence, |φi ∈ Φ× . Then, let us write hφ| f i := h f |φi∗ . It becomes obvious that hφ| is a continuous linear
functional on Φ. Note that
∞ ∞ ∞
1
U| f i = ∑ am U |mi = ∑ am f m (φ) = ∑ am √
2π
e−imφ = hφ| f i = f (φ) . (17)
m=−∞ m=−∞ m=−∞

Let us consider two arbitrary vectors | f i, | gi ∈ Φ and their corresponding images in Ψ by U:

f (φ) = U | f i, g(φ) = U | gi, respectively. Since U is unitary, it preserves scalar products, so that
Z 2π Z 2π
h g| f i = g∗ (φ) f (φ) dφ = h g|φihφ| f i dφ . (18)
0 0
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 7 of 40

Omitting the arbitrary | f i, | gi ∈ Φ, obtains a relation of the type

Z 2π
I= |φihφ| dφ , (19)
0

which is a resolution of the identity. Then, observe that

Z 2π Z 2π
|fi = I|fi = |φihφ| f i dφ = f (φ) |φi dφ . (20)
0 0

Now, let us compare Equation (14) with Equation (20). While Equation (14) is a span of any vector
| f i ∈ Φ in terms of a discrete basis, Equation (20) is a span of the same vector in terms of a continuous
basis. Both bases belong to the dual space Φ× , although the discrete basis is in both Φ and Φ× and the
continuous basis only in Φ× . The identity I is obviously the canonical injection from Φ into Φ× . It is
interesting that it may be inserted in the formal product hφ| f i, which is
Z 2π
f (φ) = hφ| f i = hφ|φ0 ihφ0 | f i dφ0 , (21)
0

so that
hφ|φ0 i = δ(φ − φ0 ) . (22)

Discrete and continuous bases have clear analogies. Since the basis {|mi} is an orthonormal basis
in H, it satisfies the following completeness relation:
∞
∑ |mihm| = I , (23)
m=−∞

where I is the identity operator on both H and Φ, so that it is somehow different to the identity I in
Equation (19). The vectors |mi are in Φ, so that they admit an expansion in terms of the continuous
basis as in Equation (20):
Z 2π Z 2π
1
|mi = I |mi = |φihφ|mi dφ = √ e−imφ |φi dφ . (24)
0 2π 0

We have two identities I in Equation (19) and I in Equation (23) and both are quite different. First,
the definitions of both identities are dissimilar. Furthermore, I cannot be extended to an identity on
Φ× , since operations such as hφ| F i for any F ∈ Φ× cannot be defined in general. As happens with the
product of distributions, only some of these brackets are allowed. For example, if | F i = |φ0 i, for φ0
fixed in [0, 2π ). Then, clearly,
Z 2π Z 2π
I |φ0 i = |φihφ|φ0 i dφ = |φi δ(φ − φ0 ) dφ = |φ0 i . (25)
0 0

On the other hand, I in Equation (23) can indeed be extended to the whole Φ× . Let us write formally
for any g ∈ Φ and any F ∈ Φ× ,
∞
h g| F i = ∑ h g|mihm| F i . (26)
m=−∞

First, observe that both h g|mi and hm| F i are well defined. The question is to know whether the sum
in the right-hand side of Equation (26) converges. To show that this is indeed the case, we need the
following result:

Lemma 1. For any F ∈ Φ× , there exists a constant C > 0 and a natural p, such that |hm| F i| ≤ C |m + i | p .

Proof. It is just a mimic of the proof of Theorem V.14 in [15], page 143.
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 8 of 40

After Lemma 1, we may show the absolute convergence of the series in Equation (26). For that,
recall that g = ∑∞
m=−∞ h m | g i | m i and that g ∈ Φ. Then,

∞ ∞ ∞
 
h g|mi 
h g|mi · m + i  p = C
2p
∑ ∑ ∑
       
h g|mi · hm| F i ≤ C   p m + i
m=−∞ m=−∞ m=−∞
m + i
s
∞
v
u ∞
(27)
2  4p u 1
∑ ∑
  
≤ C h g|mi · m + i  × t = K  g2p ,
m + i 2p
 
m=−∞ m=−∞

where K = C times the second square root in Equation (27), which obviously converges. This shows
the absolute convergence of Equation (26). In consequence, the formal procedure of inserting the
identity in Equation (23) to h g| f i as in Equation (26) is rigorously correct. Thus, we see that there exists
a substantial difference between the identities in Equations (19) and (23). In addition, Equation (23)
gives a span of |φi in terms of the discrete basis {|mi} as follows:
∞ ∞
1
I |φi = |φi = ∑ |mihm|φi = √2π ∑ eimφ |mi . (28)
m=−∞ m=−∞

Compare Equation (28) with the converse relation given by Equation (24). It is easy to prove that the
series in the right-hand side of Equation (28) converges in the weak topology on Φ× .

3.2. About Representations of SO(2)

We define the regular representation of SO(2), R(θ ), on L2 [0, 2π ) as

[R(θ ) f ](φ) := f (φ − θ ) , mod 2π , ∀ f ∈ L2 [0, 2π ) , ∀θ ∈ [0, 2π ) . (29)

This induces an equivalent representation, R(θ ), supported on H by means of the unitary mapping
U as
R(θ ) := U −1 R(θ )U . (30)

These representations preserve the RHS structure due to the following result:

Lemma 2. For any θ ∈ [0, 2π ), R(θ ) is a bicontinuous bijection on Φ.

∞
Proof. Let | f i ∈ Φ with f = ∑ am |mi. Then,
m=−∞

∞ ∞ ∞
1
R(θ ) ∑ am |mi = U −1 ∑ a m U R ( θ ) U −1 U | m i = U −1 ∑ am R(θ ) √
2π
e−imφ
m=−∞ m=−∞ m=−∞
∞ ∞
(31)
1
= U −1
∑ am √2π e−im(φ−θ) = ∑ am eimθ |mi ∈ Φ .
m=−∞ m=−∞

Hence, R(θ )Φ ⊂ Φ. Since R−1 (θ ) = R(−θ ), we have that R(−θ )Φ ⊂ Φ, so that Φ ⊂ R(θ )Φ and,
consequently, R(θ )Φ = Φ.
The continuity of R(θ ) on Φ is trivial for any θ ∈ [0, 2π ) and, thus, its inverse is
also continuous.

This result has some immediate consequences, such as: (i) R(θ ) can be extended to a continuous
bijection on Φ× , as a consequence of the duality formula in Equation (9); and (ii) R(θ ) is a bicontinuous
bijection on Ψ and also on Ψ× . A simple consequence of (i) is the following: since f (φ) = hφ| f i for all
f (φ) ∈ Ψ, we have that

h R(θ )φ| f i = [ R(−θ ) f ](φ) = f (φ + θ ) = hφ + θ | f i , (32)

Axioms 2019, 8, 89 9 of 40

so that for any arbitrarily fixed θ ∈ [0, 2π ),

h R(θ )φ| = hφ| R(θ ) = hφ + θ | ⇐⇒ R(θ )|φi = |θ + φi , mod 2π. (33)

In addition to the regular representation, there exists one unitary irreducible representation,
UIR in the sequel, on L2 [0, 2π ) for each value of m ∈ Z given by Um (φ) := e−imφ . This induces a
UIR on H given by Um (θ ) = U −1 U (φ) U = e−iJφ , where J is the self-adjoint generator of all these
representations. We know that for all m ∈ Z, we have that

J |mi = m|mi . (34)

Obviously, J cannot be extended to a bounded operator on H.

Proposition 1. The self-adjoint operator J is a well defined continuous linear operator on Φ.

∞
Proof. We define the action of J on any | f i = ∑ am |mi ∈ Φ as
m=−∞

∞
J | f i := ∑ am m |mi . (35)
m=−∞

Then, for p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , we have that

∞ ∞
  J | f i  2 =  am  · m + i 2p+2 =  | f i2 ,
 2 2 
 am  m m + i 2p ≤
 2 
∑ ∑
     
p p +1
(36)
m=−∞ m=−∞

which shows that, for any | f i ∈ Φ, J | f i is a well defined vector on Φ. This also shows the inequality
valid for any p = 0, 1, 2, . . . and all | f i ∈ Φ,
   
 J | f i ≤  | f i , (37)
p p +1

which proves the continuity of J on Φ, after Equation (6).

All these properties show that J may be extended to a weakly continuous linear operator on Φ× .
To determine its action on the functionals |φi, let us consider the following derivation valid for all
f (φ) ∈ Ψ:
∞ ∞
d d
i
dφ
f (φ) = i ∑
dφ m=−∞
am e−imφ := ∑ am m e−imφ . (38)
m=−∞

It is a very simple exercise to show that this derivation is a well defined continuous linear operator on
Ψ. Then, we define Dφ as
d
iDφ := U −1 i U. (39)
dφ
The operator iDφ is continuous and linear on Φ. Moreover, it is symmetric on Φ, so that it may be
extended to a weakly continuous linear operator on Φ× . In addition:
∞ ∞
J |φi = ∑ e−imφ J |mi = ∑ e−imφ m |mi = iDφ |φi . (40)
m=−∞ m=−∞

This derivation is somehow unnecessary as we know from Equations (35), (38) and (40) that J = iDφ .
Here, we close the discussion on SO(2).
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 10 of 40

4. SU (2) and Associated Laguerre Functions

In the previous section, we study the relations between the Lie group SO(2) and the special
functions f m (φ) = √1 e−imφ , for m ∈ Z. We construct a couple of RHS’s, one based on the use of these
2π
functions, and the other an abstract RHS unitarily equivalent to the former. In the sequel, we extend a
similar formalism using instead the group SU (2) and the associated Laguerre functions [67,68].
(α)
The associate Laguerre functions [69–71], Ln ( x ) are functions depending for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
on the non-negative real variable x ∈ [0, ∞) and a fixed complex parameter α, which satisfy the
following differential equation:

d2
 
d (α)
x + ( 1 + α − x ) + n Ln ( x ) = 0 , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (41)
dx2 dx

Note that, for α = 0, we obtain the Laguerre polynomials. In this presentation and for reasons to
be clarified below, we are interested in those associated Laguerre functions such that α is an integer
number, α ∈ Z.

4.1. Associated Laguerre Functions

It is also useful to introduce a set of alternative variables, such as j := n + α/2 and m := −α/2
with |m| ≤ j and j − m ∈ N, N being the set of non-negative integers. Observe that j is either a positive
integer or a positive semi-integer, i.e., n ∈ N, α ∈ Z and α ≥ −n. Then, we define the following
sequence of functions: s
( j + m)! −m − x/2 (−2m)
Lm
j ( x ) := x e L j+m ( x ) . (42)
( j − m)!
These functions are symmetric with respect to the exchange m ↔ −m. In addition, they satisfy the
following orthonormality and completeness relations:
Z ∞ ∞

0
Lm m
j ( x ) L j0 ( x ) dx = δjj0 , ∑ Lm m 0 0
j ( x ) L j ( x ) = δ( x − x ) . (43)
j=|m|

It is also well known that, for a fixed value of m, the functions {Lm ∞
j ( x )} j=|m| form an orthonormal
basis for L2 (R+ ), R+ := [0, ∞).
We may rewrite the differential Equation (41) in terms of the functions Lm
j ( x ) as
 
1 2 X 1
X Dx2 + Dx − M − +J+ Lm
j (x) = 0 , (44)
X 4 2

where
d m
X Lm m m
j ( x ) := x L j ( x ) , Dx L j ( x ) := L ( x ) , J Lm m m m
j ( x ) : = j L j ( x ) , M L j ( x ) : = m L j ( x ) . (45)
dx j
The operators in Equation (45) can be extended by linearity and closedness to domains dense
in L2 (R+ ).
Next, we formally define the following linear operators:
     
K± := ∓2Dx M ± 21 + 2
X M± 1
2 − J + 12
(46)
K3 := M,
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 11 of 40

which give the following relations:

±1
K± Lm ( j ∓ m)( j ± m + 1) Lm
p
j (x) := j (x)
(47)
K3 L m
j (x) := m Lm
j (x) .

On the subspace spanned by linear combinations of the functions Lm

j ( x ), we get from Equation (47)
the following commutation relations:

[K+ , K− ] = 2K3 , [ K3 , K ± ] = ± K ± , (48)

which are the commutation relations for the generators of the Lie algebra su(2). For each fixed value
of j integer or half-integer and − j ≤ m ≤ j, the space of the linear combinations of the functions Lm
j (x)
support a 2j + 1 dimensional representation of SU (2).

4.2. Associated Laguerre Functions on the Plane

In RHS’s, the number of variables is equal to the number of parameters because of the properties
of Φ and Φ× . In Section 3.1, we discuss a RHS based on one parameter m and one continuous variable
x. An alternative is to introduce a new continuous variable φ and construct a RHS with two parameters
j and m and two variables, the old one x and this new one φ. This point will be discussed in general in
Section 10.
Then, we introduce an angular variable φ ∈ [−π, π ] and the new functions:

Z jm (r, φ) := eimφ Lm 2
j (r ) . (49)

These functions satisfy the property Z jm (r, φ + 2π ) = (−1)2j Z jm (r, φ). After Equation (44) and the
change of variable x → r2 , we obtain the following differential equation for Z jm (r, φ):

d2 4m2
  
1 d 1
+ − 2
−r +4 j+ Z jm (r, φ) = 0 . (50)
dr2 r dr r 2

It is not difficult to obtain the orthonormality and completeness relations for the functions
Z jm (r, φ), which are
Z ∞
1
Z π
0
dφ r dr [Z jm (r, φ)]∗ Z jm0 (r, φ) = δjj0 δmm0 ,
π −π 0
π (51)
∑[Z jm (r, φ)]∗ Z jm (r0 , φ0 ) = r
δ (r − r 0 ) δ ( φ − φ 0 ) .
j,m

This shows that the set of functions {Z jm (r, φ)} forms a basis of L2 (R2 , dµ) with dµ(r, φ) := r dr dφ/π.
Observe the similitude with the set of spherical harmonics {Yjm (θ, φ)}, which forms a basis of the
Hilbert space L2 (S2 , dΩ).
Let H be an abstract infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space and U a unitary mapping from
L (R2 ) onto H, U : L2 (R2 ) 7−→ H. An orthonormal basis {| j, mi} in H is given by | j, mi := U Z jm (r, φ),
2

so that {| j, mi} satisfy the conditions of orthonormality and completeness:

∞ j
h j, m| j0 , m0 i = δjj0 δmm0 , ∑ ∑ | j, mih j, m| = I , (52)
jmin m=− j

where jmin = 0 for integer spins and jmin = 1/2 for half-integer spins.
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 12 of 40

After the two last equations in Equation (45), we define

J := U JU −1 ,
e e = U MU −1 ,
M (53)

so that
J | j, mi = j| j, mi ,
e e | j, mi = m| j, mi ,
M (54)

where j is a non-negative integer or half-integer and m = − j, − j + 1, . . . , j − 1, j.

Let us proceed with the definitions of some new objects. First, the operators J± and J3 on
L (R2 ) are
2

J± := e±iφ K± , J3 := K3 . (55)

The operators defined in Equation (55) act on the functions Z jm (r, φ) exactly as K± and K3 on Lm
j ( x ),
expressions given in Equation (47). In addition, we define the corresponding operators on H as

J± := U J± U −1 ,
e J3 := U J3 U −1 ,
e (56)

so that q
J± | j, mi =
e ( j ∓ m)( j ± m + 1) | j, m ± 1i ,
(57)
J3 | j, mi = m | j, mi .
e

4.3. Rigged Hilbert Spaces Associated to L2 (R2 )

On H, we have already defined a pair of discrete bases {| j, mi}, one for integer values of j and
the other for half-integer values of j. To define continuous bases, we have to construct a suitable pair
of RHS’s. Let us consider the space of all | f i ∈ H,

∞ j ∞ j
|fi = ∑ ∑ a j,m | j, mi with ∑ ∑ | a j,m |2 < ∞ , (58)
jmin m=− j jmin m=− j

where we have taken one of the choices for j, either integer or half-integer, such that they satisfy the
following property:

∞ j   2p
  | f i  2 : = ∑ ∑  a j,m 2 23|m| ( j + |m| + 1)! < ∞,
  
p
p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (59)
jmin m=− j

where, again, we may use either the basis with j integer or with j half-integer. We call Φ I and
Φ H the resulting spaces, where the indices I and H mean “integer” and “half-integer”, respectively.
These spaces are rather small. Nevertheless, they are still dense in H, since they contain the orthonormal
basis {| j, mi}. We need this kind of topology in order to guarantee the continuity of the elements of the
continuous basis, as we shall see. Norms  −  p endow both Φ I and Φ H of a structure of metrizable
 

locally convex space and give a pair of unitarily equivalent RHS’s

Φ I ⊂ H ⊂ Φ×
I , Φ H ⊂ H ⊂ Φ×
H. (60)

On these structures, it makes sense the existence of continuous bases, {|r, φi}, as we can show
right away. For each pair of values of r and φ, we define the following anti-linear mapping |r, φi as
follows. Let f (r, φ) := U −1 | f i, | f i ∈ H so that

∞ j
f (r, φ) = ∑ ∑ a j,m Z jm (r, φ) . (61)
jmin m=− j
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 13 of 40

Then, define
∞ j
h f |r, φi := ∑ ∑ a∗j,m [Z jm (r, φ)]∗ . (62)
jmin m=− j

Note that, for | f i = | j, mi, we have that

h j, m|r, φi = [Z jm (r, φ)]∗ or hr, φ| j, mi = h j, m|r, φi∗ = Z jm (r, φ) . (63)

As in the previous cases, we may define Ψ I,H := U −1 Φ I,H , so as to define two new RHS’s, which
are unitarily equivalent to Equation (60). These are

Ψ I,H ⊂ L2 (R2 ) ⊂ Ψ I,H . (64)

Then, f (r, φ) as in Equation (61) is in Ψ I or in Ψ H , if and only if the coefficients a j,m satisfy the relations
in Equation (59). The kets |r, φi, which are obviously linear on Φ I and Φ H , are also continuous under
the topologies induced by the norms || − || p . This is a consequence of the next two results.

Lemma 3. The functions Z jm (r, φ) have the following upper bound:

2 1/2
Z (r, φ) ≤ 23|m| ( j!) [( j + |m|)!]
 m 
j . (65)
|m|![( j − |m|)!]5/2

Proof. To begin with, look at Equations (42) and (49). Then, we use the following inequality, which has
been given in [72]:
!
(α) n + max(α − k, 0)
| x k Ln ( x )e− x/2 | ≤ 2min(α,k) 2k (n + 1)(k) . (66)
n

Here, k and n are natural numbers, α ≥ 0, x ≥ 0 and (n + 1)(k) := (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + k ) is the

Pochhammer symbol.
We have to consider the cases m < 0 and m ≥ 0, as well as the condition α ≥ 0, which is necessary
for the validity of inequality in Equation (4). These two conditions are really only one since m = −α/2
and the functions Lm j ( x ) satisfy the following symmetry relation:

2j −m
Lm
j ( x ) = (−1) L j ( x ) . (67)

For this reason, we discuss m < 0. Here, we write −m with m ∈ N instead. Take Equation (42), where
we replace m by −m and use Equation (66). First, we have
!
 k (α)
 x Ln ( x )e− x/2  ≤ 23m ( j − m + 1)(m)
 j
. (68)
j−m

Then, complete L− m
j ( x ) so as to obtain

2 1/2
L ( x ) ≤ 23m ( j!) [( j + m)!]
 −m 
j . (69)
m![( j − m)!]5/2

This result, along (67) and (49) gives (65).

Theorem 2. Each of the kets |r, φi is a continuous anti-linear functional in both Φ I and Φ H .
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 14 of 40

Proof. It is a consequence of the previous lemma. From Equations (62) and (65), we have the following
inequalities, the first one in the second row being the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality,

∞ j ∞ j
( j!)2 (( j + |m|)!)1/2
∑ ∑  a j,m  Z m (r, φ) ≤ ∑ ∑ | a j,m | 23|m|
    
h f |r, φi =
j
jmin m=− j jmin m=− j |m|!(( j − |m|)!)5/2
v
u∞
v
u∞ (70)
j j
1
≤ t∑ ∑ ( j!) ( j + |m|)! × t ∑ ∑
u u
2
| a j,m | 2 6 | m | 2 .
jmin m=− j jmin m=− j
(|m|!)2 (( j − |m|)!)5

The second row in Equation (70) is the product of two terms. The second one is the root of a convergent
series. Let us denote this term by C > 0. The expression under the square root in the first factor is
bounded by
∞ j  2  4    2
∑ ∑ a j,m  23|m| ( j + |m| + 1)! =  | f i2 , (71)
jmin m=− j

so that
   
h f |r, φi ≤ C  | f i , (72)
2

which, along the linearity of |r, φi on Φ I,H , proves our assertion.

Formal relations between discrete {| j, mi} and continuous bases {|r, φi} are easy to find. Let
us go back to Equation (62). Due to the unitary relation between L2 (R+ ) and H, we conclude
∞ j
that a∗j,m = h f | j, mi, so that h f |r, φi = ∑ ∑ h f | j, mi Z jm (r, φ) and, hence, omitting the arbitrary
j=0 m=− j
| f i ∈ Φ I,H , we have that
∞ j
|r, φi = ∑ ∑ Z jm (r, φ) | j, mi . (73)
jmin m=− j

The inverse relation may be easily found taking into account the unitary mapping between
L2 (R+ ) and H, again. In fact, being given | f i, | gi ∈ Φ I,H , their scalar product gives:
Z 2π Z ∞
h f | gi = dφ r dr h f |r, φihr, φ| gi . (74)
0 0

Then, if we choose | gi = | j, mi and omit the arbitrary | f i ∈ Φ I,H , we have the converse relation
to Equation (73) as
Z 2π Z ∞ Z 2π Z ∞
| j, mi = dφ r dr |r, φihr, φ| j, mi = dφ r dr Z jm (r, φ) |r, φi . (75)
0 0 0 0

Although this is implicit in the above expressions, it could be interesting to write the explicit
spans of any | f i ∈ Φ I,H in terms of the discrete and continuous basis. These are

∞ j
|fi = ∑ ∑ h j, m| f i | j, mi , (76)
jmin m=− j

and Z 2π Z ∞
|fi = r dr f (r, φ) |r, φi . (77)
0 0
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 15 of 40

J, M,
The continuity of the linear operators e e eJ± and e
J3 is rather obvious. For instance, for any
| f i ∈ Φ I,H , we define

∞ j
J| f i =
e ∑ ∑ a j,m j | j, mi , (78)
jmin m=− j

so that, for any p = 0, 1, 2, . . .

 2 ∞ j
∑ ∑ | a j,m |2 j2 [23|m| ( j + |m| + 1)!]2p

eJ | f ip
:=
jmin m=− j
(79)
∞ j   2( p +1)  2
∑ ∑ 2 3| m |

≤ | a j,m | 2 ( j + | m | + 1) ! =   | f i   p +1 .
jmin m=− j

J | f i is in either Φ I,H and the continuity of e

This relation proves both that e J in both spaces. Similar results
can be obtained for the other operators: M, e eJ± and eJ3 .
In fact, the topology in Equation (59) is too strong, if we only wanted to provide RHS’s for which
the above operators be continuous. Take for instance the spaces of all | f i ∈ H such that

∞ j
q(| f i)2 = ∑ ∑  a j,m 2 ( j + |m| + 1)2p ,
 
p = 0, 1, 2 . . . . (80)
jmin m=− j

One of these spaces, Ξ I , holds for j integer and the other, Ξ H , holds for j half-integer. The above
operators reduce both spaces Ξ I,H and are continuous on them. The proof is essentially identical as in
the previous case. Thus, we have two sequences of rigged Hilbert spaces one for j integer, labeled by I,
and the other for j half-integer, labeled by H, where all the inclusions are continuous:

Φ I,H ⊂ Ξ I,H ⊂ H ⊂ Ξ× ×
I,H ⊂ Φ I,H . (81)

This type of sequences including several RHS’s are nothing else than a particular case of partial inner
product spaces, which have been introduced by Antoine and Grossmann [73,74] (cf. [75,76]).
While the operators e J, M,
e e J3 are continuous on Φ I,H and Ξ I,H , we have introduce the
J± and e
topology in Equation (59) just to make sure of the continuity of the functionals {|r, φi}. All these
operators can be continuously extended to the duals. Note that e J, M J3 are symmetric, although
e and e
J± are formal adjoint of each other.
e

5. Weyl–Heisenberg Group and Hermite Functions

Possibly, the better studied and the most widely used of the special functions are the Hermite
functions. When properly normalized, the Hermite functions form an orthonormal discrete basis for
L2 (R) and have the form
2
e− x /2
ψn ( x ) := q √ Hn ( x ) , (82)
2n n! π

where Hn ( x ) are the Hermite polynomials [69–71].

5.1. Continuous and Discrete Bases and RHS

In quantum mechanics for one-dimensional systems [77], one often uses a pair of continuous bases:
the continuous bases in the coordinate and momentum representation, denoted as {| x i} and {| pi}
respectively, with x, p ∈ R. Kets | x i and | pi are eigenkets of the position operator Q and momentum
operator P, respectively: Q| x i = x | x i and P| pi = p| pi. To define these objects and the continuous
bases they produce, we need a RHS [16]. Then, the ingredients in our construction are the following:
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 16 of 40

• The Schwartz space S of all complex indefinitely differentiable functions of the real variable x ∈ R,
such as they and all their derivatives at all orders go to zero at the infinity faster than the inverse of
any polynomial. The Schwartz space S is endowed with a metrizable locally convex topology [15].
It is well known that S is the first element of a RHS S ⊂ L2 (R) ⊂ S× . Note that the Fourier
transform leaves this triplet invariant.
• An abstract infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space H along a fixed, although arbitrary,
unitary operator U : H → L2 (R). If Φ := U −1 S and we transport the locally convex topology
from S to Φ by U −1 , we have a second RHS Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× , unitarily equivalent to S ⊂ L2 (R) ⊂ S× .
• For any | f i ∈ Φ and any x0 ∈ R, we define h f | x0 i := f ( x0 ), where f ( x ) := U | f i, so that f ( x ) ∈ S.
Analogously, for any p0 ∈ R, we define
Z ∞ Z ∞
h f | p0 i : = e−ixp0 h f | x i dx = e−ixp0 f ( x ) dx . (83)
−∞ −∞

Vectors | x i, | pi ∈ Φ× for any x, p ∈ R [78].

• e f ( x ) := x f ( x ) and Pe f ( x ) := −i f 0 ( x ), for all f ( x ) ∈ S, where the prime means derivative.
Define Q
Let Q := U −1 Q e U and P := U −1 Pe U. Then, for given x0 ∈ R, h Q f | x0 i = x0 f ( x0 ), so that
h f | Q| x0 i = x0 f ( x0 ) = x0 h f | x0 i, which implies that Q| x0 i = x0 | x0 i. We use the same notation for
Q and its extension to Φ× . Analogously, P| p0 i = p0 | p0 i, for any p0 ∈ Φ× .
• Since U is unitary, it preserves scalar products, so that, for arbitrary | gi, | f i ∈ Φ, we have
Z ∞ Z ∞
h g| f i = g∗ ( x ) f ( x ) dx = h g| x ih x | f i dx , (84)
−∞ −∞

which defines the following identity:

Z ∞
I := | x ih x | dx , (85)
−∞

that is the canonical injection I : Φ 7−→ Φ× with I | f i ∈ Φ× for any | f i ∈ Φ.

Another representation of this identity is
Z ∞
I= | pih p| dp . (86)
−∞

This means that, for any | f i ∈ Φ, I | f i ∈ Φ× can be written as

Z ∞ Z ∞
I| f i = | x ih x | f i dx = f ( x ) | x i dx , (87)
−∞ −∞

and
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1
I| f i = | pih p| f i dp = f ( p) | pi dp , with f ( p) = √ e−ipx f ( x ) dx . (88)
−∞ −∞ 2π −∞

• The conclusion of the above paragraph is that both sets of vectors {| x i} and {| pi} form a
continuous basis for the vectors in Φ. In addition, we have a discrete basis on H defined as

|ni := U −1 (ψn ( x )) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (89)

which has the properties,

∞
I= ∑ |nihn| , hn|mi = δn,m , (90)
n =0
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 17 of 40

where I is the identity operator on H. For any | f i = ∑∞

n=0 an | n i ∈ Φ, we have that
Z ∞ Z ∞
a∗n = h f |ni = ψn ( x ) f ∗ ( x ) dx = ψn ( x ) h f | x i dx , (91)
−∞ −∞

so that Z ∞
|ni = ψn ( x ) | x i dx , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (92)
−∞

identity that makes sense in Φ× . Considering Equations (85) and (91), and that hn| x i = ψn ( x ),
we may invert Equation (92). Take an arbitrary | f i ∈ Φ:
∞ ∞ Z ∞

h f |xi = ∑ a∗n hn| x i = ∑ −∞
ψn ( x 0 ) h f | x 0 i dx 0 hn| x i
n =0 n =0
∞ Z ∞  ∞
(93)
= ∑ −∞
0 0 0
h f | x ih x |ni dx ψn ( x ) = ∑ ψn (x) h f |ni ,
n =0 n =0

so that, if we omit the arbitrary bra h f |, we conclude that

∞
|xi = ∑ ψn (x) |ni , (94)
n =0

identity that makes sense in Φ× . Another property can be easily shown from Equation (69) and
f ( x ) = h x | f i ∈ Φ:
Z ∞
f (x0 ) = hx0 | f i = f ( x )h x 0 | x i dx ⇐⇒ h x 0 | x i = δ( x − x 0 ) . (95)
−∞

• Analogously, in the momentum representation, we have that

Z ∞
|ni = (−i )n ψn ( p) | pi dp , (96)
−∞

since the Fourier transform of ψn ( x ) is (−i )n ψn ( p)

∞
| pi = ∑ (−i)n ψn ( p) |ni , (97)
n =0

and h p| p0 i = δ( p − p0 ).

5.2. The Weyl–Heisenberg Lie Algebra

Let us consider the following operators, defined by their action on the normalized Hermite
functions [79]:

e n ( x ) := xψn ( x ) ,
Qψ e n ( x ) := i dψn ( x ) ,
Pψ e n ( x ) := nψn ( x ) ,
Nψ Iψn ( x ) := ψn ( x ) (98)
dx
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . These operators can be uniquely extended to S, and these extensions are essentially
self-adjoint and continuous on S with its own topology, so that they are extensible to weakly continuous
operators on S× . The properties of these operators are very well known. Let us name

e U −1 ,
Q := U Q P := U Pe U −1 , e U −1 ,
N := U N I := U eI U −1 , (99)
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 18 of 40

which have the same properties on Φ. As usual,

1 1
a := √ ( Q − iP) , a† := √ ( Q + iP) , (100)
2 2

so that, √
√
a |ni = n | n − 1i , a† |ni = n + 1 | n + 1i . (101)

Obviously, a and a† are continuous on Φ and extended with continuity to Φ× . The extensions are
defined using the duality formula in Equation (7). As a system of generators of the Weyl–Heisenberg
Lie algebra, we may use either { Q, P, N, I} or { a, a† , N, I}. Note that

1 1
N= ({ a, a† } − I) = ( Q2 + P2 − I) , (102)
2 2
where the brackets mean anti-commutator. On Φ, the Casimir operator vanishes:
 
1 1
C : = ( Q2 + P2 ) − N+ I ≡ 0. (103)
2 2

In addition, the universal enveloping algebra of the Weyl–Heisenberg group is irreducible on the
RHS Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× .

6. The Group SO(3,2) and the Spherical Harmonics

Let us consider the hollow unit sphere S2 in R3 . Any point in S2 is characterized by two angular
variables θ and φ, with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ φ < 2π. Let us consider the Hilbert space, L2 (S2 , dΩ),
with dΩ := d(cos θ ) dφ, of Lebesgue measurable complex functions, f (θ, φ), such that
Z 2π Z π
dφ d(cos θ ) | f (θ, φ)|2 < ∞ . (104)
0 0
√
An orthonormal basis for L2 (S2 , dΩ) is given by l + 1/2 Ylm (θ, φ), where Ylm (θ, φ) are the
spherical harmonics [69–71]
s
(l − m)! imφ m
Ylm (θ, φ) = e Pl (cos θ ) , (105)
2π (l + m)!

where l ∈ N, the set of natural numbers, m ∈ Z the set of integers, with |m| ≤ l and Plm are the
associated Legendre functions. This means, in particular, that for any f (θ, φ) ∈ L2 (S2 , dΩ)

∞ l √ ∞ l
f (θ, φ) = ∑ ∑ f l,m l + 1/2 Ylm (θ, φ) , with ∑ ∑ | f l,m |2 < ∞ , (106)
l =0 m=−l l =0 m=−l

and
√ Z 2π Z π
f l,m = l + 1/2 dφ d(cos θ ) Ylm (θ, φ)∗ f (θ, φ) . (107)
0 0
From the fact that the set of spherical harmonics is an orthonormal basis, we obtain the
following relations:
Z
dΩ Ylm (θ, φ)∗ (l + 1/2)Ylm (θ 0 , φ0 ) = δl,l 0 δm,m0 ,
S2
∞ ∞ (108)
∑ ∑ Ylm (θ, φ)∗ (l + 1/2)Ylm (θ 0 , φ0 ) = δ(cos θ − cos θ 0 ) δ(φ − φ0 ) ,
l =|m| m=−∞
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 19 of 40

with δ(cos θ − cos θ 0 ) = δ(θ − θ 0 )/ sin θ .

 

6.1. RHS Associated to the Spherical Harmonics

The Hilbert space L2 (S2 , dΩ) supports a representation of a UIR of the de-Sitter group SO(3, 2)
with quadratic Casimir Cso(3,2) = −5/4 on the spherical harmonics [80,81]. The action of the generators
of the Cartan subalgebra of the Lie algebra so (3, 2), L and M, is

L Ylm (θ, φ) = l Ylm (θ, φ) , M Ylm (θ, φ) = m Ylm (θ, φ) . (109)

Once we have established this Hilbert space which supports a representation of the Anti-de-Sitter
group, let us consider a unitarily equivalent abstract Hilbert space H ≡ U [ L2 (S2 , dΩ)], where U is
unitary. An orthonormal basis for this space is given by the vectors {|l, mi}, where for each pair
√
l, m (with |m| ≤ l), |l, mi := U [ 1 + 1/2 Ylm (θ, φ)]. If we define

L := ULU −1 ,
e e := U MU −1 ,
M (110)

we have
L |l, mi = l |l, mi ,
e e |l, mi = m |l, mi .
M (111)

The operators e L and Me on H, as well as L and M on L2 (S2 , dΩ), are obviously unbounded and
self-adjoint on its maximal domain as symmetric generators of a Lie algebra.
Next, we construct a RHS on which they are, in addition, continuous [81]. Let us consider the
∞ l
subspace Φ of all vectors | f i = ∑ ∑ f l,m |l, mi ∈ H, such that
l =0 m=−l

∞ l
  | f i  2 : = ∑ ∑  f l,m 2 (l + |m| + 1)2p ,
   
p
p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (112)
l =0 m=−l

The objects  −  p are indeed norms, which provides Φ of a metrizable locally convex topology.
 

For p = 0, we have the norm on H, so that the canonical injection i : Φ 7−→ H is continuous. Take the
anti-dual space Φ× and endow it with the weak topology compatible with the dual pair {Φ, Φ× }.
Thus, we have the RHS:
Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× . (113)

Then, define D := U −1 Φ, and transport the topology from Φ to D . This topology is given by
the norms
∞ l
 f (θ, φ)2 = ∑ ∑  f l,m 2 (l + |m| + 1)2p ,
   
p
p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (114)
l =0 m=−l

The anti-dual D × = U −1 Φ× is defined via the extension of U −1 to Φ× via a duality formula of the
type in Equation (9). We have the rigged Hilbert space

D ⊂ L2 (S2 , dΩ) ⊂ D × , (115)

unitarily equivalent to Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× in Equation (113).

6.2. Continuous Bases Depending on the Angular Variables

Let us begin with f (θ, φ) ∈ D and | f i = U [ f (θ, φ)] ∈ Φ. For fixed angles with values 0 ≤ θ < π,
0 ≤ φ < 2π, almost elsewhere, define the following continuous anti-linear functional, |θ, φi, on Φ:
For arbitrary | f i ∈ Φ, one defines the mapping |θ, φi as

h f |θ, φi := hθ, φ| f i∗ := f (θ, φ) , (116)

Axioms 2019, 8, 89 20 of 40

where the star denotes complex conjugation. The linearity of each |θ, φi on Φ is obvious. To prove the
continuity, take

∞ l √
h f |θ, φi = f (θ, φ) = ∑ ∑ f l,m l + 1/2 Ylm (θ, φ)
l =0 m=−l
∞ l
√ !
l + 1/2
= ∑ ∑ f l,m (l + |m| + 1) p
Y m (θ, φ)
( l + | m | + 1) p l
,
l =0 m=−l

where p is a natural number with p ≥ 3. Then, take the modulus in Equation (??) and use the Schwarz
inequality in the right-hand side. We have
v
 u∞
s
l
u
h f θ, φi ≤ t ∑  f l,m 2 (l + |m| + 1)2p × l + 1/2 Y (θ, φ)2 .
∑
     m 
l (117)
l =0 m=−l (l + |m| + 1)2p

The first factor on the right-hand side of Equation (117) is nothing else than || | f i|| p , while the second
factor converges due to the fact that |Ylm (θ, φ)|2 ≤ (2π )−1 for all θ, φ [82]. If we call C this second
factor, we finally conclude that
|h f |θ, φi| ≤ C || | f i|| p , (118)

which, after Equation (4), guarantees the continuity of the functional |θ, φi on Φ, so that |θ, φi ∈ Φ×
for almost all 0 ≤ θ < π, 0 ≤ φ < 2π. These functionals have some interesting properties:

• For any f (θ, φ) ∈ D , we can define the operator cos Θ f (θ, φ) := cos θ f (θ, φ). One has that
dΘ := U cos Θ U −1 ,
cos θ f (θ, φ) ∈ D and cos Θ is continuous on D . Therefore, we may define cos
which is a symmetric continuous linear operator on Φ and, hence, can be extended into the
anti-dual Φ× by the duality formula in Equation (7). For almost all 0 ≤ θ < π, 0 ≤ φ < 2π, we
can prove that
dΘ |θ, φi = cos θ |θ, φi .
cos (119)

• Analogously, if we define the operator eiΦ on f (θ, φ) ∈ D as eiΦ f (θ, φ) := eiφ f (θ, φ) and
iΦ : = U eiΦ U −1 , we have that
ec
iΦ | θ, φ i = eiφ | θ, φ i .
ec (120)

• Let | gi, | f i ∈ Φ. Their scalar product is

Z Z
h g | f i = hU −1 g |U −1 f i = dΩ g(θ, φ)∗ f (θ, φ) = dΩ h g|θ, φihθ, φ| f i . (121)
S2 S2

Then, we may write the following formal identity:

Z Z 2π Z π
I= dΩ |θ, φihθ, φ| = dφ d(cos θ ) |θ, φihθ, φ| . (122)
S2 0 0

We give below the meaning of this I.

Let us take the formal identity I as in Equation (122) and let us apply it to the arbitrary vector
| f i ∈ Φ. We have Z Z
|fi = I|fi = dΩ |θ, φihθ, φ| f i = dΩ f (θ, φ) |θ, φi . (123)
S2 S2

This gives a span of | f i in terms of the vectors of the form |θ, φi. This justifies the name of continuous
basis for the set of vectors {|θ, φi}, 0 ≤ θ < π, 0 ≤ φ < 2π. Furthermore, the formal expression in
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 21 of 40

Equation (123) is indeed a continuous anti-linear functional on Φ. If we apply it to an arbitrary vector

| gi ∈ Φ and take the modulus, it comes
 Z  Z
dΩ h gθ, φi · hθ, φ| f i ≤ 4π C2  | f i p ·  | gi p = K  gi p , (124)
            
h g| dΩ |θ, φihθ, φ| f i ≤
 S 2 S 2

with K = 4π C2  | f i p .
 
Thus, the right-hand side of Equation (123) makes sense as an
element of Φ× .
Consequently, the identity I represents the canonical identity from Φ into Φ× .
In particular, Equation (123) gives
Z √
|l, mi = dΩ l + 1/2 Ylm (θ, φ) |θ, φi . (125)
S2

Since {|l, mi} is a basis for H, the identity I on H may be written as

∞ l
I= ∑ ∑ |l, mihl, m| . (126)
l =0 m=−l

Thus, for each | f i ∈ Φ, we may write

∞ l ∞ l
f (θ, φ)∗ = h f |θ, φi = (h f |I)|θ, φi = ∑ ∑ h f |l, mihl, m|θ, φi = ∑ ∑ Ylm (θ, φ) h f |l, mi , (127)
l =0 m=−l l =0 m=−l

so that, omitting the arbitrary | f i ∈ Φ, we have that

∞ l
|θ, φi = ∑ ∑ Ylm (θ, φ) |l, mi , (128)
l =0 m=−l

which may be looked as the inversion formula for Equation (123) . If we multiply Equation (123) to the
left by hθ 0 , φ0 |, an operation which is legitimate, we immediately realize that

hθ 0 , φ0 |θ, φi = δ(cos θ 0 − cos θ 0 ) δ(φ0 − φ) , (129)

which is a textbook formula.

6.3. Continuity of the Generators of so (3, 2)

Along the present section, we use the following definitions for the generators of the so (3, 2) Lie
algebra, based on the action of these generators on the spherical harmonics [80]:
q
J± Ylm (θ, φ) := (l ∓ m)(l ± m + 1) Ylm+1 (θ, φ) ,
s
 2
1 1
K± Ylm (θ, φ) := l+ ± − m2 Ylm+1 (θ, φ) ,
2 2 (130)
q
R± Ylm (θ, φ) := (l + m + 1 ± 1)(l + m ± 1) Ylm++1 1 (θ, φ) ,
q
S± Ylm (θ, φ) := (l − m + 1 ± 1)(l − m ± 1) Ylm+−1 1 (θ, φ) .

These operators can be extended to closed linear operators on suitable dense domains. In addition,
we have the generators of the Cartan subalgebra, since the rank of the so (3, 2) Lie algebra is 2 and and
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 22 of 40

its dimension is 10. These generators are precisely the operators L and M defined in Equation (109).
Correspondingly, we have analogous operators densely defined on H as

J± = U J± U −1 , K
b b± = UK± U −1 , R
b ± = UR± U −1 , Sb± = US± U −1 . (131)

The action of the operators in Equation (131) on the elements of the basis {|l, mi} is obvious. The
continuity of these operators on Φ and Φ× has been established in [81,82]. For instance, assume that
| f i = ∑∞ l
l =0 ∑m=−l f l,m | l, m i ∈ Φ. Then, write

∞ l
L| f i =
b ∑ ∑ l f l,m |l, mi , (132)
l =0 m=−l

and

 2 ∞ l 2 ∞ l
∑ ∑ l 2  f l,m  (l + |m| + 1)2p ≤ ∑ ∑  f l,m 2 (l + |m| + 1)2p+2 =  | f i2 , (133)
     
bL| f i p = p +1
l =0 m=−l l =0 m=−l

L| f i ∈ Φ if | f i ∈ Φ. Due to Equations (6) and

an expression valid for p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . This means that b
L is symmetric, it is extensible to Φ× with continuity
L, it is continuous. Since b
(133) and the linearity of b
under the weak topology.
The proof for the continuity of the operators in Equation (131) on Φ is similar. To extend these
operators by continuity to Φ× , we have to realize first that all the operators with index + are the
formal adjoints of the corresponding operator with index − and vice versa, for instance K b+ and K b−
×
are formal adjoint of each other. Therefore, to extend these operators to Φ , we only have to use the
duality formula in Equation (7). Needless to say, L, M and the operators in Equation (130) have the
same properties on D ⊂ H ⊂ D × .

7. The su(1, 1) Lie Algebra and Laguerre Functions

The associated Laguerre polynomials with index α ∈ (−1, ∞), Lαn (y), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , are defined
on the half-line R+ ≡ [0, ∞) [69–71]. An orthonormal basis on the Hilbert space L2 (R+ ) is given by
the following functions
s
Γ ( n + 1)
Mnα (y) := yα/2 e−y/2 Lαn (y) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (134)
Γ ( n + a + 1)

and α fixed.
Let us consider the space, Dα , of vectors f (y) = ∑∞ 2 +
n=0 an Mn ( y ) ∈ L (R ), such that
α

∞
|| f (y)||2p := ∑ |an |2 (n + 1)2p (n + α + 2)2p < ∞, p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (135)
n =0

with the topology produced by the norms || − || p . With this topology, the space Dα is a Fréchet nuclear
space and is dense in L2 (R+ ). For p = 0, we have the Hilbert space norm, so that the canonical
injection i : Dα 7−→ H is continuous. In consequence, for any fixed α ∈ (−1, ∞),

Dα ⊂ L2 (R+ ) ⊂ Dα× , (136)

is a RHS.
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 23 of 40

7.1. Symmetries of the Laguerre Functions

The following operators defined on the functions Mnα (y) as

d
Y Mnα (y) := y Mnα (y) , Dy Mnα (y) := Mα (y) , N Mnα (y) := n Mnα (y) , (137)
dy n

admit closed extensions on L2 (R+ ). In addition, define the following operators [67]:

α−Y α+1
K ± : = ±Y D y + N + I + , K3 : = N + I, (138)
2 2

where I is the identity operator. The action of these operators on the functions of the basis { Mnα (y)} is
r
1 1 1 1
K± Mnα (y) = (n + ± )(n + α + ± ) Mnα+1 (y) , K3 Mnα (y) = (n + (α + 1)/2) Mnα (y). (139)
2 2 2 2

Note that K+ and K− are the formal adjoint of each other (i.e., (K± )† = K∓ ) and

Y = −(K+ + K− ) + 2N + (α + 1) I . (140)

The commutation relations of K± and K3 are

[ K3 , K ± ] = ± K ± , [K+ , K− ] = −2K3 , (141)

which are the commutation relations for the generators of the su(1, 1) Lie algebra [79]. The Casimir is

1 α2 − 1
C = K32 − { K+ , K− } = I. (142)
2 4
The next result concerns the continuity of these operators.

Proposition 2. The operators K± , K3 , Y and Y Dy are continuous on Dα for fixed α ∈ (−1, ∞).

Proof. Let f (y) = ∑∞

n=0 an Mn ( y ) ∈ Dα . Then,
α

∞ q
K+ f ( y ) = ∑ (n + 1)(n + α + 1) an Mnα (y) . (143)
n =0

We need to show that Equation (143) is well defined on Dα . For all p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , take,
∞
  K + f ( y )  2
2
∑ (n + 1)(n + α + 1)(n + 1)2p (n + α + 2)2p an 
  
p
=
n =0
∞
(144)
 2    2
≤ ∑ (n + 1)2p+2 (n + α + 1)2p+2 an  ≤  f (y) p+1 .
n =0

This shows both our claim and the continuity of K+ on Dα . Proofs for K− and K3 are similar.
The continuity of Y comes from Equation (140) and the continuity of Y Dy from Equation (138).

7.2. RHS and Continuous Bases

To define the continuous basis, we need an abstract RHS, which is the usual procedure. Let us
consider an abstract infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space H and a unitary operator U from H
to L2 (R+ ). We choose the operator U as that given by the Gelfand–Maurin theorem (Section 2), where
the role of A is played by the operator Y defined in Equation (140). This unitary operator U is not
necessarily unique, although this is irrelevant, choose any one that makes this job.
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 24 of 40

Then, define for each α ∈ (−1, ∞) the space Φα := U −1 Dα and transport the topology from Dα
to Φα by U −1 . Call |n, αi := U −1 Mnα (y). For any | f i = ∑∞ n=0 an | n, α i ∈ Φα , the norms defining the
topology are
∞  
 | f i2 := ∑  an 2 (n + 1)2p (n + α + 1)2p ,
 
p
p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (145)
n =0

We have the family of RHS’s given by Φα ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× α for each α ∈ (−1, ∞ ). Let us define the operator
e −
Y := U Y U , which is continuous on each of the Φα . After the Gelfand–Maurin theorem, we conclude
1

that there exists a set of functionals |yi ∈ Φ× +

α for y ∈ R , such that Y | y i = y | y i. In the kets | y i,
e
we omit the index α for simplicity. Furthermore, according to Equation (7), for any pair of vectors
| f i, | gi ∈ Φα , we have that
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
h f | gi = h f |yihy| gi dy , and h f |n, αi = h f |yihy|n, αi dy = f ∗ (y) Mnα (y) dy . (146)
0 0 0

If we omit the arbitrary bra h f | in both identities of Equation (146), we obtain the
following information:

1. For each | gi ∈ Φα , we have the decomposition

Z ∞ Z ∞
| gi = |yihy| gi dy = g(y) |yi dy , (147)
0 0

which shows that the functionals |yi, for all y ∈ R+ , form a continuous basis for Φα .
2. Vectors in the discrete and continuous basis are related by
Z ∞
|n, αi = Mnα (y) |yi dy . (148)
0

3. If, in addition, we omit the arbitrary ket | gi in Equation (146), we obtain the following identity,
Z ∞
I= |yihy| dy , (149)
0

which is the canonical injection I : Φα 7−→ Φ×

α.

8. The su(2, 2) Lie Algebra and Algebraic Jacobi Functions

α,β
The Jacobi polynomials of order n ∈ N, Jn ( x ), are usually defined as
! ! s  n−s
n
n+α n+β x+1 x−1
∑
(α,β)
Jn ( x ) := , (150)
s =0 s n−s 2 2

with !
a ( a + 1 − s)( a + 1 − s + 1) . . . a
:= , (151)
s s!

which are the generalized binomial coefficients, a is an arbitrary number and s a positive integer [69–71].
They verify the following second order differential equation:

d2
 
2 d (α,β)
(1 − x ) 2 − ((α + β + 2) x + (α − β)) + n(n + α + β + 1) Jn ( x ) = 0 . (152)
dx dx
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 25 of 40

8.1. Algebraic Jacobi Functions

Jacobi polynomials yield to the main concept of this section, the algebraic Jacobi functions [80,83–85],
defined as
s  m+q   m−q
Γ ( j + m + 1) Γ ( j − m + 1) 1 − x

m,q 2 1+x 2
(m+q,m−q)
J j ( x ) := Jj−m (x) , (153)
Γ ( j + q + 1) Γ ( j − q + 1) 2 2

where
α+β α+β
j := n + , m := , β := m − q . (154)
2 2
Considerations derived from the theory of group representations force the following restrictions in the
above parameters:
j ≥ |m| , j ≥ |q| , 2j ∈ N , j − m ∈ N , j − q ∈ N , (155)

and the parameters ( j, m, q) are all together integers or half-integers. We may rewrite conditions in
Equation (155) in terms of the original parameters (n, α, β) as

n ∈ N, α, β ∈ Z , α ≥ −n , β ≥ −n , α + β ≥ −n . (156)
m,q
The algebraic Jacobi functions J j ( x ) verify the following differential equation:

d2 2 m q x + m2 + q2
 
d m,q
−(1 − x2 ) + 2 x + − j ( j + 1 ) J j (x) = 0 , (157)
dx2 dx 1 − x2

where the symmetry under the interchange m ⇔ q is evident. In addition, for fixed m and q, the
algebraic Jacobi functions satisfy the following relations:
Z 1
m,q m,q
Jj ( x )( j + 1/2) J j0 ( x ) dx = δjj0 ,
−1
∞ (158)
∑
m,q m,q
Jj ( x )( j + 1/2) J j (y) = δ( x − y) .
j≥sup(|m|,|q|)

The indices j, m and q are either integer or half-integer. The relations in Equation (158) show that, for
m,q
fixed m and q, the set of functions given by { j + 1/2 Jj ( x )}∞
p
j≥sup(|m|,|q|)
form an orthonormal basis
of the Hilbert space L2 [−1, 1].
We may comment in passing the existence of a relation between the Legendre functions and some
of the algebraic Jacobi functions, which is
s
(l + m)! m,0
Plm ( x ) = (−1)m J (x) . (159)
(l − m)! l
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 26 of 40

8.2. Symmetries of the Algebraic Jacobi Functions

In addition, the ladder operators, A± , B± , C± , D± , E± , F± that appear in the theory of algebraic
Jacobi functions are generators of the su(2, 2) Lie algebra [83,84]. Their action on the algebraic Jacobi
functions is given by

m,q p m±1,q
A± J j (x) = ( j ∓ m)( j ± m + 1) J j (x) ,
m,q p m,q±1
B± J j (x) = ( j ∓ q)( j ± q + 1) J j (x) ,
q
m,q m±1/2, q±1/2
C± J j (x) = ( j + m + 12 ± 21 )( j + q + 12 ± 21 ) J j±1/2 ( x ),
q (160)
m,q 1 1 1 1 m±1/2, q∓1/2
D± J j ( x ) = (j + m + ± 2 2 )( j − q + 2 ± 2) J j±1/2 (x)
q
m,q m∓1/2, q±1/2
E± J j (x) = ( j − m + 12 ± 21 ) ( j + q + 12 ± 12 ) J j±1/2 ( x ),
q
m,q m∓1/2, q∓1/2
F± J j (x) = ( j − m + 12 ± 21 ) ( j − q + 12 ± 12 ) J j±1/2 (x) .

The generators of the Cartan subalgebra, J, M and Q, act on the algebraic Jacobi functions
as follows:
m,q m,q m,q m,q m,q m,q
J Jj (x) = j J j (x) , M Jj (x) = m J j (x) , Q Jj (x) = q J j (x) . (161)

All these operators can be extended to unbounded closed operators on L2 [−1, 1]. In the case of
J, M and Q, they admit self-adjoint extensions. Operators denoted with the same capital letter and
different sign are formal adjoint (conjugate Hermitian) of each other (i.e., ( X± )† = X∓ ). On functions
m,q
J j ( x ) with j ≥ |m| > |q|, one may define the following pair of mutually Hermitian formal
adjoint operators:
1
K± := F± C± p , (162)
( J + 1/2 ± 1/2)2 − Q2
so that q
m,q m,q
K± J j (x) = ( j + 1/2 ± 1/2)2 − m2 J j±1 ( x ) . (163)

These operators K± along K3 := J + 1/2 close a su(1, 1) Lie algebra, since

[K+ , K− ] = −2K3 , [ K3 , K ± ] = ± K ± , (164)

m,q m,q fixed

and the set of functions {J j ( x )} j≥|m|>|q| with |m| > |q| is a basis of the space supporting a UIR of
the group SU (1, 1) with Casimir C = m2 − 1/4.

8.3. Algebraic Jacobi Functions on the Hypersphere S 3

In the preceding analysis, we deal with situations in which the number of discrete and continuous
variables is the same. This idea revealed to be of importance in the analysis of the spaces which make
continuous the above operators, if we are really interested in a description encompassing the maximal
generality. To this end, we define the following functions:
m,q m,q
( x ) eimφ eiqχ ,
p
Nj ( x, φ, χ) := j + 1/2 J j (165)

where φ and χ are two angular variables, φ ∈ [0, 2π ) and χ ∈ [0, π ] (x could be considered as
x = cos θ with θ ∈ [0, π ] and in this case the Jacobi functions will live in the hypersphere S 3 ). Thus,
the N -functions defined in Equation (165) depend on the variables, x, φ, χ, and the discrete parameters
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 27 of 40

j, m, q. The properties of the Jacobi functions yield to the following orthogonality relations valid for
either j integer or j half-integer, with m, q = − j, − j + 1, . . . , j − 1, j and m0 , q0 = − j0 , − j0 + 1, . . . , j0 − 1, j0 :
Z 2π Z 1
1 m0 ,q0 ∗
Z π
m,q
dφ dχ dx N j ( x, φ, χ) N j0 ( x, φ, χ) = δjj0 δmm0 δqq0 . (166)
2π 2 0 0 −1

These functions satisfy a completeness relation of the type:

∞ j
∑ ∑
m,q
|N j ( x, φ, χ)|2 = I , (167)
jmin m,q=− j

where jmin = 0 if j is integer and jmin = 1/2 if j is half-integer and I is an identity. Note that we
have two different situations, one when j is an integer and the other when j is a half-integer. In
both cases, either eimφ or eiqχ span respective vector spaces of dimension 2j + 1. These spaces, being
isomorphic to C2j+1 , may be identified with it. Then, for either j integer or half-integer, the set of
m,q
functions N j ( x, φ, χ) with m, q = − j, − j + 1, . . . , j − 1, j is the basis for the following Hilbert spaces:

∞ ∞
L2 [−1, 1] ⊗ C2j+1 ⊗ C2j+1 , L2 [−1, 1] ⊗ C2j+1 ⊗ C2j+1 ,
M M
H I := H H := (168)
j =0 j=1/2

respectively. The subindices I and H stand for integer and half-integer, respectively. Then, let us take
f I ( x, φ, χ) ∈ H I and f H ( x, φ, χ) ∈ H H , so that

∞ j ∞ j
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
m,q m,q
f I ( x, φ, χ) = a j,m,q N j ( x, φ, χ) , f H ( x, φ, χ) = b j,m,q N j ( x, φ, χ) . (169)
j=0 m,q=− j j=1/2 m,q=− j

8.4. RHS Associated to the Algebraic Jacobi Functions

Next, we define two new rigged Hilbert spaces. The spaces of test functions Φ I and Φ H are the
functions in H I and H H , respectively, such that

h i2 ∞ j
I
pr,s ( fI) := ∑ ∑ | a j,m,q |2 ( j + |m| + 1)2r ( j + |q| + 1)2s < ∞ , (170)
j=0 m,q=− j

and
h i2 ∞ j
H
pr,s ( fH) := ∑ ∑ |b j,m,q |2 ( j + |m| + 1)2r ( j + |q| + 1)2s < ∞ , (171)
j=0 m,q=− j

respectively, with r, s = 0, 1, 2, . . . . Observe that Equations (170) and (171) define norms on H I and
H H , respectively, and they generate respective topologies on Φ I and Φ H . For r = s = 0, we recover
the Hilbert space topology, which shows that the canonical injections Φ I,H 7−→ H I,H are continuous,
so that
Φ I ⊂ H I ⊂ Φ× I , and Φ H ⊂ H H ⊂ Φ× H, (172)

are rigged Hilbert spaces.

Analogously, we define the spaces Ξ I and Ξ H as the spaces of functions in H I and H H verifying
the following relations:

∞ j
I
tr,s ( f I ) := ∑ ∑ | a j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1)r ( j + |q| + 1)s < ∞ , (173)
j=0 m,q=− j
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 28 of 40

and
∞ j
H
tr,s ( f H ) := ∑ ∑ |b j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1)r ( j + |q| + 1)s < ∞ , (174)
j=1/2 m,q=− j

respectively, with r, s = 0, 1, 2, . . . . These are also norms that endow respective topologies on Ξ I and
Ξ H . Since
I,H I,H
pr,s ( f I,H ) ≤ tr,s ( f I,H ) , r, s = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (175)

we conclude that Ξ I,H ⊂ Φ I,H and that the canonical injections Ξ I,H 7−→ Φ I,H are continuous. Thus,
we have two new RHS’s, and, in addition, we have the following subordinate relations with continuity

Ξ I,H ⊂ Φ I,H ⊂ H I,H ⊂ Φ× ×

I,H ⊂ Ξ I,H , (176)

where, in each sequence in Equation (176), we should keep either the subindex I or H.

8.5. Continuity of the su(2, 2) Operators

The operators J, M and Q, defined above in this section, admit obvious extensions to respective
dense subspaces of H I,H . For instance,

∞ j
∑ ∑
m,q
( J f I )( x, φ, χ) = j a j,m,q N j ( x, φ, χ) . (177)
j=0 m,q=− j

Thus,

2 ∞ j
I (J f )
∑ ∑ | a j,m,q |2 j2 ( j + |m| + 1)2r ( j + |q| + 1)2s

pr,s I =
j=0 m,q=− j
(178)
∞ j
≤ ∑ ∑ 2
| a j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1) 2(r +1)
( j + | q | + 1) 2s
= [ prI+1,s ( f I )]2 ,
j=0 m,q=− j

for r, s = 0, 1, 2, . . . , which proves that JΦ I ⊂ Φ I with continuity. Analogously,

∞ j
I (J f )
tr,s I = ∑ ∑ | a j,m,q | j ( j + |m| + 1)r ( j + |q| + 1)s
j=0 m,q=− j
(179)
∞ j
≤ ∑ ∑ | a j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1) r +1
( j + | q | + 1) =s
trI+1,s ( f I ) ,
j=0 m,q=− j

for r, s = 0, 1, 2, . . . , which proves that J Ξ I ⊂ Ξ I with continuity. It is the same for J on Φ H and Ξ H
and for M and Q in these four spaces. Since these operators are symmetric and self-adjoint on a proper
domain, they may be extended by continuity to the duals. A similar proof is also valid to show the
continuity of the ladder operators A± and B± , defined in Equation (160) and K± in Equation (162) on
all the spaces Ξ I,H and Φ I,H and therefore their extensions by continuity to the duals.
However, the ladder operators C± , D± , E± , F± have a different nature, as they transform algebraic
Jacobi functions of integer indices into the same type of functions with half-integer indices and vice
versa. Under the assumption that C− N j0,0 ( x, φ, χ) = 0 and the same for D− , E− and F− , we can easily
prove that all these operators are continuous from Φ I into Φ H and vice versa and the same from Ξ I
into Ξ H and vice versa. As they are the formal adjoint of each other, we conclude that they can also be
continuously extended as analogous relations between the duals.

8.6. Discrete and Continuous Basis

In the sequel, we omit the subindices I and H for simplicity. All results are valid for both cases.
As done in all precedent examples, let us consider an abstract infinite dimensional separable Hilbert
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 29 of 40

space G and a unitary mapping U : G 7−→ H. In fact, there are two of each: U I,H : G I,H 7−→ H I,H ,
although we omit the subindices, as mentioned. Take Θ := U −1 Ξ and Ψ := U −1 Φ, and endow Θ and
Φ with the topologies transported by U −1 from Ξ and Φ, respectively. Then, we have two new RHS’s,
Θ ⊂ G ⊂ Θ× and Ψ ⊂ G ⊂ Ψ× . We focus our attention on the former.
For any | f i ∈ Θ, we define the action of the ket | x, m, qi, x ∈ [−1, 1], m and q being fixed, as
∞ ∞
∑ ∑ a j,m,q
m,q p m,q
h f | x, m, qi := a j,m,q N j ( x, 0, 0) = j + 1/2 J j (x) . (180)
jmin j =0

This definition shows that | x, m, qi is an antilinear mapping on Θ, which is also continuous since,

∑ |a j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1)2 ( j + |q| + 1)

 
h f | x, m, qi ≤
j
j (181)
≤ ∑ ∑ | a j,m,q | ( j + |m| + 1)2 ( j + |q| + 1) = t2,1 (| f i) ,
j m,q=− j

with
∞ j
∑ ∑
m,q
U | f i = f ( x, φ, χ) = | a j,m,q | N j ( x, φ, χ) . (182)
jmin m,q=− j

Next, let us define the kets | j, m, qi for any j and any m, q = − j, − j + 1, . . . , j − 1, j as

m,q
| j, m, qi := U −1 N j ( x, φ, χ) , (183)

so that Equation (180) gives

m0 ,q0
h j, m0 , q0 | x, m, qi = ( x ) δmm0 δqq0 = h x, m, q| j, m0 , q0 i ,
p
j + 1/2 J j (184)

since Equation (184) is real. Observe that there exists the following formal relation between | x, m, qi
and | j, m, qi:
∞
| x, m, qi = ∑ | j, m, qi j + 1/2 J j ( x ) .
p m,q
(185)
jmin

This is easily justified by multiplying Equation (185) by h j, m0 , q0 |:

∞
∑ h j0 , m0 , q0 | j, m, qi
m,q
h j0 , m0 , q0 | x, m, qi =
p
j + 1/2 J j (x)
jmin
∞ (186)
∑ δjj0
p m,q p m,q
= j + 1/2 J j ( x ) δmm0 δqq0 = j + 1/2 J j ( x ) δmm0 δqq0 ,
jmin

which coincides with Equation (184). There are some other formal relations that can be easily obtained.
Proofs are published elsewhere [85]; they are simple notwithstanding. First, we have

m0 ,q
h x 0 , m0 , q0 | x, m, qi = ∑ N j
m,q
( x, φ, χ) N j ( x, φ, χ) δmm0 δqq0 = δ( x − x 0 ) δmm0 δqq0 . (187)
j

For any | f i ∈ Θ, we have the following relation:

∞ Z 1
h j0 , m0 , q0 | f i = ∑ h j0 , m0 , q0 | x, m, qi f m,q ( x ) dx , (188)
m,q=−∞ −1
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 30 of 40

where if | f i = ∑∞
j m,q
j=0 ∑m,q=− j a j,m,q
p
j + 1/2 J j ( x ), we have that

∞
∑ a j,m,q
m,q
f m,q ( x ) =
p
j + 1/2 J j (x) , (189)
jmin

so that
∞ Z 1
|fi = ∑ | x, m, qi f m,q ( x ) dx , (190)
m,q=−∞ −1

which shows that any | f i ∈ Θ may be written formally in terms of the elements of the set of functionals
{| x, m, qi}, which acquires the category of continuous basis due to this fact. Here, x ∈ [−1, 1], m, q
being the set either of the integers or the half-integers, either positive or negative.
m,q
For | j, m, qi, the functions f m,q ( x ) are equal to j + 1/2 J j ( x ) that, after Equation (190), gives
p

∞ Z 1
∑
p m,q
| j, m, qi = | x, m, qi j + 1/2 J j ( x ) dx , (191)
m,q=−∞ −1

which gives the inversion formula for Equation (185). We have completed the relation between discrete
and continuous basis. Moreover, note that

f m,q ( x ) = h x, m, q| f i , (192)

and
j Z 1
∑ dx | x, m, qih x, m, q| = I , (193)
m,q=− j −1

where I : Θ 7−→ Θ× is the canonical injection relating this dual pair. We close here the discussion on
Jacobi algebraic functions.

9. su(1,1)⊕su(1,1), Zernike Functions and RHS

The so-called Zernike polynomials were introduced by Zernike in 1934 in connection with some
applications in the analysis of optical images [11]. These Zernike polynomials Rm n (r ), also called
Zernike radial polynomials [86], as usually one takes 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 in applications, are the solutions of the
differential equation,

d2 m2
   
1 d
2
(1 − r ) 2 − 3r − + n ( n + 2) − 2 R m
n (r ) = 0 , (194)
dr r dr r

verifying
−m
Rm
n (1) = 1 , Rm
n (r ) = R n (r ) . (195)

Explicitly,
n−m ! !
2
n−k n − 2k
Rm
n (r ) = ∑ (−1) k
n−m r n−2k . (196)
k =0
k 2 −k

For each value of m, Zernike polynomials show orthogonality properties:

Z 1
δnn0
Rm m
n (r ) Rn0 (r ) r dr = , (197)
0 2( n + 1)
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 31 of 40

as well as a completeness relation such as

∞
δ (r − r 0 )
∑ Rm m 0
n (r ) R n (r ) ( n + 1) =
2r
. (198)
n=|m|
n≡m (mod 2)

They are also related to the Jacobi polynomials according to the following formula:

(n−m)/2 m (m,0)
Rm
n (r ) = (−1) r Jn (1 − 2r2 ) . (199)

Along Zernike polynomials, there exist the Zernike functions Znm (r, φ), which are defined on the
closed unit circle
D ≡ {(r, φ) , 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 , φ ∈ [0, 2π ) } , (200)

as follows:
Znm (r, φ) := Rm
n (r ) e
imφ
, n ∈ N, m ∈ Z, (201)
n−|m|
with the conditions |m| ≤ n and 2 ∈ N.

9.1. W-Zernike Functions

From Equation (201), we define the W-Zernike functions, Wu,v (r, φ), using the following
procedure [87]. First, introduce the parameters u and v, defined as

n+m n−m
u := , v := , (202)
2 2
which are positive integers and independent of each other, u, v = 0, 1, 2, . . . . With this notation,

|u−v|
Rm
n (r ) ≡ R u + v (r ) . (203)

The W-Zernike functions, Wu,v (r, φ), are functions on the closed unit circle D , verifying the relation
r r
u + v + 1 u−v u + v + 1 |u−v|
Wu,v (r, φ) = Zu+v (r, φ) = R u + v (r ) ei ( u − v ) φ . (204)
π π

In addition, the W-Zernike functions have some interesting properties:

• They are square integrable on D , so that they belong to the Hilbert space L2 (D , rdrdφ) ≡ L2 (D).
• They fulfill some symmetry relations such as

Wv,u (r, φ) = Wu,v (r, φ)∗ = Wu,v (r, −φ) , (205)

where the star denotes complex conjugation.

• They are orthonormal on L2 (D):
Z 2π Z 1
hWu0 ,v0 , Wu,v i = dφ dr r Wu0 ,v0 (r, φ)∗ Wu,v (r, φ) = δuu0 δvv0 , (206)
0 0

where h·, ·i denotes scalar product on L2 (D).

• A completeness relation holds:
∞
1
∑ ∗
Wu,v (r, φ) Wu,v (r 0 , φ 0 ) =
2r
δ (r − r 0 ) δ ( φ − φ 0 ) . (207)
u,v=0
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 32 of 40

• The fact that Zernike polynomials are bounded, | Rm

n (r )| ≤ 1, on the interval 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, implies an
interesting upper bound for the W-Zernike functions:
r
 
Wu,v (r, φ) ≤ u+v+1
, ∀ (r, φ) ∈ D . (208)
π

9.2. Rigged Hilbert Spaces and W-Zernike Functions

The set of W-Zernike functions forms an orthonormal basis for L2 (D) so that, for any square
integrable function f (r, φ) ∈ L2 (D), we have that
∞
f (r, φ) = ∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) , (209)
u,v=0

with Z 2π Z 1
∗
f u,v = dφ dr r Wu,v (r, φ) f (r, φ) . (210)
0 0
Let us define two different spaces, which are the spaces of test functions for respective RHS. The
first one is
 ∞
( )
Ψ1 := f (r, φ) ∈ L (D)  ∑ | f u,v | (u + v + 1) < ∞ , p = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
2 2 2p
(211)

u,v=0

The space Ψ1 is endowed with the Frèchet topology given by the following family of norms
∞
|| f (r, φ)||2p := ∑ | f u,v |2 (u + v + 1)2p < ∞ , p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (212)
u,v=0

The second space of test functions is defined by the following condition:

∞
( )

Ψ2 : = 2
f (r, φ) ∈ L (D)  ∑ q
| f u,v | (u + v + 1) < ∞ , q = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (213)

u,v=0

Its topology is given by the following sequence of norms:

∞
|| f (r, φ)||1,q := ∑ | f u,v | (u + v + 1)q , q = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (214)
u,v=0

Let us consider a sequence of complex numbers { an } such that the series ∑∞

n=0 | an | < ∞. Clearly,

∞ ∞
s
∑ | a n |2 ≤ ∑ | an | , (215)
n =0 n =0

which shows that

v
u ∞ ∞
∑ ∑  f u,v  (u + v + 1) p =  f (r, φ) ,
  u    
 f (r, φ) = t
p
| f u,v |2 (u + v + 1)2p ≤ 1,p
(216)
u,v=0 u,v=0

for p = 0, 1, 2, . . . . This shows that Ψ2 ⊂ Ψ1 and that the canonical injection i : Ψ2 7−→ Ψ1 is
continuous. This gives a couple of RHS’s where injections in all inclusions are continuous:

Ψ2 ⊂ Ψ1 ⊂ L2 (D) ⊂ Ψ1× ⊂ Ψ2× . (217)

Axioms 2019, 8, 89 33 of 40

An important property for the span of the functions f (r, φ) ∈ Ψ2 in terms of the W-Zernike
functions is given by the following result:

Theorem 3. For any f (r, φ) ∈ Ψ2 , the series

∞
f (r, φ) = ∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) , (218)
u,v

converges absolutely and uniformly and hence pointwise.

Proof. The proof is based on the bound in Equation (208) valid for the W-Zernike functions. Thus,
using Equation (208) and considering Equation (213), we have that

∞ ∞ ∞
r
u+v+1 1
∑ ∑ ∑  f u,v  (u + v + 1) < ∞ .
      
 f u,v  Wu,v (r, φ) ≤  f u,v  ≤ √ (219)
u,v=0 u,v=0
π π u,v=0

Then, the Weiersstrass M-Theorem guarantees the absolute and uniform convergence of the series.

9.3. Continuity of Relevant Operators Acting on the W-Zernike Functions

In the discussion on the continuous basis below, we see the relevance of the following operator
on L2 (D):
P f (r, φ) = r eiφ f (r, φ) . (220)

In [87], we prove that

P Wu,v (r, φ) = αvu Wu+1,v (r, φ) + βvu Wu,v−1 (r, φ) , (221)

with
u+1 v
αvu = p , βvu = p . (222)
(u + v + 1)(u + v + 2) (u + v)(u + v + 1)
Note that 0 ≤ αvu , βvu ≤ 1 and f −1,0 = 0.
We want to show that PΨ2 ⊂ Ψ2 with continuity. Let us take f (r, φ) = ∑∞
u,v=0 f u,v Wu,v (r, φ ) ∈ Ψ2 ,
so that
  ∞  
P ∑∞ ∑
 v
u,v=0 f u,v Wu,v (r, φ )   = αu−1 f u−1,v + βvu+1 f u,v+1 (u + v + 1)r
  
1,r u,v=0
∞  ∞ (223)
∑  f u−1,v (u + v + 1)r + ∑  f u,v+1 (u + v + 1)r .
  
≤
u,v=0 u,v=0

Since f −1,0 = 0, the first term of the second row in Equation (205) gives
∞ ∞ ∞
∑ | f u−1,v |(u + v + 1)r = ∑ | f u,v |(u + v + 2)r ≤ 2r ∑ | f u−1,v |(u + v + 1)r
u,v=0 u,v=0 u,v=0
 ∞  (224)
= 2r   ∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) .
 
u,v=0 1,r

The second term in the same row gives,

∞ ∞ ∞
∑ | f u,v+1 |(u + v + 1)r ≤ ∑ | f u,v |(u + v)r ≤ ∑ | f u,v |(u + v + 1)r
u,v=0 u,v=0 u,v=0
 ∞  (225)
=  ∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) .
 
u,v=0 1,r
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 34 of 40

Equations (224) and (225) together show that

 ∞   ∞ 
∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) ≤ ( 2r + 1 )   ∑ f u,v Wu,v (r, φ) , (226)
   
P
u,v=0 1,r u,v=0 1,r

which shows our claim.

Other important operators are the generators of the Lie algebra su(1, 1) ⊕ su(1, 1), U, V, A± , B± ,
A3 = U + 1/2 and B3 = V + 1/2. Their commutation relations are the following:

[U, A± ] = ± A± , [V, B± ] = ± B± , [ A+ , A− ] = −2A3 ,

(227)
[ A3 , A± ] = ± A± , [ B+ , B− ] = −2B3 , [ B3 , B± ] = ± B± .

All the A operators commute with all the B operators. The Casimirs are

1 1
C A = A23 − { A+ , A− } , CB = B32 − { B+ , B− } , (228)
2 2

with { X, Y } = XY + YX.
On the W-Zernike functions, all these operators act as follows [87]:

U Wu,v (r, φ) = u Wu,v (r, φ) , V Wu,v (r, φ) = v Wu,v (r, φ) ,

A+ Wu,v (r, φ) = (u + 1) Wu+1,v (r, φ) , A− Wu,v (r, φ) = u Wu−1,v (r, φ) , (229)

B+ Wu,v (r, φ) = (v + 1) Wu,v+1 (r, φ) , B− Wu,v (r, φ) = v Wu,v−1 (r, φ) .

All these operators are densely defined and unbounded on L2 (D). Furthermore,

Proposition 3. The operators U, V, A± and B± are continuous on Ψ2 . In addition, A+ and A− are formal
adjoint of each other and same for B+ and B− and U and V are essentially self-adjoint on Ψ2 .

Proof. That A+ and A− and also B+ and B− are formal adjoint of each other is obvious from
Equation (212). The proof of the continuity on Ψ2 of all these operators is the same. Take for instance
A+ . The formal action of A+ on f (r, φ) ∈ Ψ2 is given by
∞
A+ f (r, φ) = ∑ f u,v (u + 1) Wu+1,v (r, φ) . (230)
u,v=0

Then,
∞
∑ | f u,v | (u + 1)(u + v + 1)r
 
 A+ f (r, φ) =
1,r
u=1,v=0
∞ (231)
≤ ∑ | f u,v |(u + v + 1)r+1 = || f (r, φ)||1,r+1 ,
u,v=0

which proves that A+ Ψ2 ⊂ Ψ2 with continuity. It is the same for all other operators. Finally, U and V
are obviously symmetric on Ψ2 and the ranges of U ± iI and V ± iI on Ψ2 are Ψ2 itself, so that U and
V are essentially self-adjoint with domain Ψ2 .

9.4. Continuous Bases and RHS

Let H be an arbitrary infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space and U a unitary operator
U : H 7−→ L2 (D). As in previous cases, we define Φi := U −1 Ψi , i = 1, 2 (217), and transport the
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 35 of 40

topologies on Ψi to Φi by U −1 . We have a couple of RHS’s in correspondence. Thus, we have the

following diagram
Ψ2 ⊂ Ψ1 ⊂ L2 (D) ⊂ Ψ1× ⊂ Ψ2×
U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ U −1 ↓ .
Φ2 ⊂ Φ1 ⊂ H ⊂ Φ1× ⊂ Φ2×
Nevertheless, our rigged Hilbert space of reference here is: Φ2 ⊂ H ⊂ Φ2× . Take any vector
U −1 f (r, φ) = | f i ∈ Φ2 , and for (almost with respect to the Lebesgue measure) each 0 ≤ r ≤ 1
and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π define the mapping |r, φi by h f |r, φi := f ∗ (r, φ) = hr, φ| f i∗ . Clearly, |r, φi is linear for
each r and φ. In addition, this is continuous so that |r, φi ∈ Φ2× . To prove the continuity, note that U −1
transports the given topology from Ψ2 to Φ2 . Let |u, vi := U −1 Wu,v (r, φ) for each u, v = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Then, if | f i = ∑∞ u,v=0 f u,v | u, v i, we have that the norms || | f i||1,q defining the topology on Ψ2 are
identical to Equation (214). Thus, considering Equation (208), we have

∞ ∞
r
u+v+1
∗
∑ ∑
    
h f |r, φi = |hr, φ| f i | = | f (r, φ)| ≤  f u,v  Wu,v (r, φ) ≤ | f u,v |
u,v=0 u,v=0
π
∞
(232)
1 1 
√ ∑ | f u,v | (u + v + 1) = √  | f i1,1 .

≤
π u,v=0 π

The scalar product of two vectors | f i , | gi ∈ Φ2 is given by

Z 2π Z 1 Z 2π Z 1
h f | gi = dφ dr r f ∗ (r, φ) g(r, φ) = dφ dr r h f |r, φihr, φ| gi , (233)
0 0 0 0

so that we have the identity

Z 2π Z 1
I := dφ dr r |r, φihr, φ| , (234)
0 0

which should be interpreted as the canonical injection I : Φ2 7−→ Φ2× . In particular, if we apply
Equation (234) to |u, vi, we have that
Z 2π Z 1 Z 2π Z 1
|u, vi = dφ dr r |r, φihr, φ|u, vi = dφ dr r |r, φi Wu,v (r, φ) , (235)
0 0 0 0

which may be looked as a relation between the discrete basis {|u, vi} in H and the continuous basis
{|r, φi}. Note that, according to our definition, hr, φ|u, vi = Wu,v (r, φ). If we multiply Equation (235)
to the left by hr, φ|, we have:
Z 2π Z 1
0 0 0 0
hr , φ |u, vi = Wu,v (r , φ ) = dφ dr r hr 0 , φ0 |r, φi Wu,v (r, φ) , (236)
0 0

so that
1
hr 0 , φ0 |r, φi = δ (r − r 0 ) δ ( φ − φ 0 ) . (237)
r
The relation in Equation (237) suggests an inversion formula for Equation (235). As {|u, vi} is an
orthonormal basis for H, we may write the identity on H as
∞
I= ∑ |u, vihu, v| . (238)
u,v=0

As |u, vi ∈ Φ2 , we may write

∞ ∞
|r, φi = ∑ |u, vihu, v|r, φi = ∑ ∗
|u, vi Wu,v (r, φ) . (239)
u,v=0 u,v=0
Axioms 2019, 8, 89 36 of 40

This inversion formula is totally consistent, as one may check by formal multiplication to the left by
hr 0 , φ0 | and the comparison of the given result with Equation (237) on one side and Equation (207) on
the other. In conclusion, each | f i ∈ Φ2 admits two different expansions in terms of the discrete basis
{|u, vi} and the continuous basis {|r, φi}. They are, respectively,
∞ ∞
|fi = ∑ |u, vihu, v| f i = ∑ |u, vi f u,v , (240)
u,v=0 u,v=0

and Z 2π Z 1 Z 2π Z 1
|fi = dφ dr r |r, φihr, φ| f i = dφ dr r |r, φi f (r, φ) . (241)
0 0 0 0
As a final remark, all operators in Equation (227) have their counterparts as operators on H with
exactly the same properties. In particular, they are continuous on Φ2 .

10. Concluding Remarks

Specific RHS’s are constructed starting from well defined special functions and a particular UIR of
a Lie group, which is the symmetry group of the corresponding special functions. The Lie generators
of these groups are continuous operators with the topologies carried by the RHS’s.
It is a general property that in a RHS the variables and the parameters are one-to-one related.
This implies that, starting from special functions with n p parameters and nv continuous variables,
it is possible to construct different RHS’s. Indeed, when n p = nv , we can construct not only a RHS
involving all parameters and variables but also RHS’s involving subsets of equal number of parameters
and variables, saving the role of spectators for the remaining ones. If n p > nv , the possible RHS’s are
limited to nv and the exceeding parameters remain spectators (as happens with j in Section 4 and α in
Section 7) but it is impossible to construct a RHS based on the Γ(z) functions where we do not have
parameters at all. An alternative is shown by the Spherical Harmonics where a new variable φ is added
to the Associated Legendre polynomials, by the extension of Jacobi polynomials to the Jacobi functions
defined on the hypersphere S 3 in Section 8.3 and by the generalization of Zernike polynomials defined
on the interval [0, 1] to Zernike functions defined on the unit circle in Section 9.
Special functions are transition matrices between discrete and continuous bases (for instance,
generalization of the exponential, i.e., eimφ = hm|φi, in Section 3 and spherical harmonics, given by
Ylm (θ, φ) = hl, m|θ, φi, in Section 6).
The UIR of the corresponding Lie group defines the basis vectors of the discrete basis in the space
Φ, while the regular representation of the Lie group defines the basis vectors of the continuous basis in
Φ x of the RHS Φ ⊂ H ⊂ Φ× .
Special functions determine a basis in the related space of square integrable functions. As they
define a basis also of a unitary irreducible representation of the group, all other bases of the space are
simply obtained applying on them an arbitrary element of the group.

Funding: This research is supported in part by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain under
grant MTM2014-57129-C2-1-P and the Junta de Castilla y León (Projects VA137G18 and BU229P18).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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