AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT REPORT

Prepared by

USAID Collaborative Research Support Programs Team

May 2000
 AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

Executive Summary

USAID/Ethiopia has signed an agreement production of field and horticultural crops,

to assist the Government of Ethiopia, in livestock and apiculture. It also looked at
particular the Amhara Regional Authority, technology related to the seed industry,
to design activities that will result in agroclimatic analysis, watershed manage-
increased rural income, and thereby ment, soil erosion and fertility, food
increase food security. An important goal science, socio-economic factors, and the
of the agreement is to increase rural structure of the research system.
incomes through participatory agricultural
research, giving technology users an It is clear that land degradation from
important say in technology development, overgrazing, soil erosion, deforestation,
and transforming a top-down, supply and cultivation of steep, fragile lands has
driven technology transfer system to a resulted in loss of biodiversity,
bottom-up, demand-driven one. productivity, stability, and resiliency in the
region. In the three ANRS research
To this end, USAID/Ethiopia requested centers the team visited, the staff is young
field support from USAID’s Washington and enthusiastic. They expressed the
Global Bureau’s Collaborative Research need for more senior and experienced
Support Programs. A ten-member inter- scientists who would provide leadership
disciplinary team was convened to conduct and guidance to them and the overall
an assessment into the availability of research programs. The research staff are
technology in the region and the capacity also constrained by inadequate facilities,
of regional research centers to generate equipment, and supplies. The research
and disseminate technology. This report capability needs to be strengthened in
outlines the team’s findings and suggests several ways, including increasing the
an action plan designed to strengthen the research efficiency of the current system,
research component of the agreement. along with strategic expansion and
The action plan is followed by a set of upgrading of the centers. In general, the
anticipated results that should contribute to efficiency of current research investments
the attainment of food security in the should be addressed first, followed by
region. upgrading and expansion. Unless this
situation is corrected, the lack of adequate
Assessment. Forty-eight of the 105 research capabilities will continue to be a
woredas of the Amhara region are bottleneck for attainment of food security.
drought-prone and suffer from frequent
food shortages. Many households are The extension capabilities for the transfer
only able to produce sufficient food to of technology packages are organ-
meet their food requirements for less than izationally in place, and the research
six months of the year. centers are relatively well staffed.
However, considerable capability building
The team assessed the availability of is required to upgrade the technological
technology in the region and the capacity expertise of the extension staff, as well as
of those present to generate and subject-matter specialists and develop-
disseminate technology in furthering the ment agents. The extension staff need

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much more technical support and research region initiate a plan to prepare a high
information if they are to be more effective resolution, geo-referenced data base that
in their work. characterizes the socioeconomic and
biophysical conditions down to the village
Immediate Action. Based on the level. This human and natural resource
assessment, the team formulated a data base is needed to transfer successful
research action plan that would contribute technologies discovered through
to the reversal of the current situation and participatory adaptive research to other
set in motion advancement toward food similar locations where they are likely to
security. The first action deals with succeed. Without this spatial data base,
institutionalizing an adaptive, participatory technology will continue to be transferred
research methodology in which by slow, expensive and unreliable trial-
researchers, members of the extension and-error methods.
service, and households have equal say
in setting research priorities. This action The urgency of the situation, however,
will ensure that efforts of research and requires that immediate action be taken to
extension personnel are demand-driven, lessen long standing food security
rather than supply-driven as it is now. This constraints with readily available
research approach should be initiated technologies. For this purpose, a list of
immediately and be ready for imple- technologies for early on-farm testing is
mentation in the coming cropping season. provided. These technologies address
problems which farm households have
The second action is designed to provide repeatedly cited as causes of crop
training, mentoring, and higher education failures. It is expected that as farmers,
opportunity for a young and inexperienced researchers, and development agents
research staff. Isolation from the global work together to test technologies, many
research community, in general, and the more existing technologies will be found
regional and national research centers, in suitable for local adoption.
particular, makes it impossible for
researchers to apply existing and new Technical Assistance. The regional
technologies in the region. The research research units will require additional
libraries are virtually empty and support to conduct on-farm testing of the
telephones are rare. To rectify this listed technologies. In particular, the
situation, the team recommends the third young staff can benefit from working with
action, the installation of a modern experienced researchers invited to
information, computer, and commun- participate in the implementation of the
ication system to link every research on-farm trials. Such senior researchers
center in the region to every other regional can be invited from national and
center and to the national and global international research organizations,
research community. including USAID supported Collaborative
Research Support Programs, which are
The fourth action calls for modernizing designed to participate in these kinds of
the research laboratories and equipment, activities.
and making provisions for timely
replacement of parts and supplies, and Results. Assuming that all components
the fifth action recommends that the for attaining food security are in place, the

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action plan for research proposed above as reforestation, erosion control,
should result in attainment of four increased biodiversity, water harvesting,
conditions that define sustainable and elimination of over-grazing can
agroecosystems. The verifiable indicators measurably increase resiliency. Indicators
of the four conditions are: of resiliency include reduced sediment
load in the Blue Nile and its tributaries,
1. Increased productivity, which refers to increased biodiversity in field crops, trees
increased yields and increased income and livestock, and expanded reforested
per unit input of land, labor, and capital. areas and reduced hectares of
Yields and income are the indicators of overgrazed land.
this condition.
4. Increased equitability, which refers to
2. Increased stability, which refers to the the equal sharing of benefits derived from
reduction in wide yield and income the agroecosystem. The benefits should
fluctuation or feast to famine cycles. include access to adequate amounts of
Risk-minimizing technologies identified nutritious food through household
through participatory, adaptive research production and/or purchases. Two
will contribute to increased stability of the indicators measure the status of
Amhara region agroecosystems. The equitability. These measures are the
verifiable indicator of increased stability is mean household incomes and its
a decline in the coefficient of variation in variance. The aim is to achieve high
the year-to-year fluctuation in yield and means and low variances which
income. translates to high income, reduction in
the number of poor households and a
3. Increased resiliency, which refers to general improvement in the quality of life
the capacity of the agroecosystem to for members of the population that have
withstand and recover from stresses and traditionally suffered chronic poverty.
perturbations imposed on the system by
humans and natural events. Actions such

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK ..........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope ........................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Deliverable ................................................................................................................................1

2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS ..............................................................................................................2

3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN THE AMHARA REGION ......................................................3

4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT..............................................................................................................4

4.1 Diversification of Productive Activities ......................................................................................5

4.2 Risk Management ....................................................................................................................5

4.3 Adaptive Research Linking Research, Extension, and Rural ..................................................5

Households for Technology Adoption

4.4 Natural Resource Conservation, including Biological Components ........................................5

4.5 Reinforcement of High Potential Successes ............................................................................6

4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition ......................................................................................................6

4.7 Need for Increased Research Capability and Coordination ....................................................6

5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY, GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION ........................................7

5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility ..........................................................................................................7

5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and Watershed Management ................................................................9

5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready Genetic Material ..................................................................11

5.4 Field Crop Production ............................................................................................................12

5.5 Vegetable Production ..............................................................................................................14

5.6 Other High Value Crops ..........................................................................................................15

5.7 Seed Industry ..........................................................................................................................16

5.8 Livestock Production ................................................................................................................17

5.9 Apiculture ................................................................................................................................20

5.10 Food Science ........................................................................................................................21

5.11 Socio-Economic Factors ........................................................................................................22

5.12 Capability and Structure of the Research System ................................................................24

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6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH PROCESS ..............................................................28

6.1 Why Participatory Research? ..................................................................................................28

6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Participation ......................................................................................28

7.0 ACTION PLAN ..............................................................................................................................29

7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing Adaptive, Participatory Research ..........................................30

7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring and Higher Education ......................................................32

7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing Computer and Communication Technology ................................32

7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing Research Facilities and Supply Delivery System ........................33

7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial Data Base ..................................................33

8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMMEDIATE ON-FARM TRIALS ..............................................................34

9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION, ASSESSMENT,

AND DISSEMINATION ........................................................................................................................37

10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND INDICATORS OF SUCCESS ....................................................38

11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET CATEGORIES ......................................................................................39

12.0 ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................................41

12.1 Research Assessment Team ................................................................................................41

12.2 Itinerary ..................................................................................................................................43

12.3 Organizations and Persons Contacted ..................................................................................49

12.4 Literature Reviewed ..............................................................................................................52

12.6 Acronyms ..............................................................................................................................56

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 NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK 1.2 Deliverable. A comprehensive report

will be due in draft form at the end of the
1.1 Scope. USAID/Ethiopia has signed an visit. It will contain analyses of the current
agreement to assist the Government of agricultural and natural resource
Ethiopia, in particular the Amhara National management research and extension
Regional State (ANRS), to design capabilities and make recommendations
activities which will result in increased for reinforcing these capabilities through
rural incomes, thereby increasing food long- and short-term technical assistance
security. These activities will initially focus and training. Recommendations of the
on the 48 chronically food-insecure report will support Strategic Objective 1
districts (woredas) of the ANRS, with the and include actions, the results of which
objective of decreasing the number of will be measurable by the three principal
chronically vulnerable households over indicators of achievement, food
the next five years. An important goal availability, cash income, and nutrition
under Strategic Objective 1 of in the 48 chronically food-insecure
USAID/Ethiopia, which is “Rural woredas in the Amhara region for the next
household production and productivity five years. The report will make specific
increased,” will be participatory recommendations for USAID assistance to
agricultural research giving technology be directed towards two principal activity
users an important say in technology areas: 1) technical and operational support
development. An assessment will be for the design and implementation of
conducted to determine the level of applied research plans; and 2) the
technology currently available, both in- promotion of effective interaction and
country and elsewhere, that can be communication between researchers,
adapted for dissemination and use in extension agents, and rural households.
rural, food-insecure areas of Ethiopia. The assessment and recommendations
Information gained during this should include the entire Amhara region, so
assessment is critical to determine the that successful activities may be expanded
levels of technical assistance and training to other woredas within the Amhara region
required for achieving success and or to other national regional states subject
providing benchmark indicators and to the mutual agreement of the
reasonable timetables. The Collaborative Government of Ethiopia and USAID/
Research Support Programs of USAID’s Ethiopia. Contained in this report are:
Global Bureau are to provide expertise for
the agricultural and natural resource • An assessment of the availability,
technology assessment, which will be generation and dissemination of
conducted in collaboration with USAID, technology.
the ANRS Integrated Food Security Unit, • An action plan for strengthening
the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, other applied, agricultural research.
stakeholders in the Amhara region, and • The anticipated results from
regional, national and international implementing the action plan and
research organizations. identification of indicators to measure
success.

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2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS literature (Annex 10.4). To make first-hand
observations of food production in Amhara
The Amhara Agricultural and Natural region, the team travelled both by air and
Resource (Research) Technology on the ground. The team’s itinerary began
Assessment was conducted by an with reviewing documents and meeting in
interdisciplinary team with expertise in Addis Ababa with officials of the U.S.
agro-climatology, agro-ecology, animal Agency for International Development
science, crop protection, economics, (USAID/Ethiopia), the Ethiopian Agri-
sociology, soil science,vegetable crops cultural Research Organization (EARO),
production and participatory watershed the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento
management (Annex 10.1). The team de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), the Inter-
evaluated potentials to facilitate rural national Livestock Research Institute
participation in developing, adapting and (ILRI), and the Swedish International
disseminating technology essential to Development Agency (SIDA) (Annex 10.3)
increase food security in the Amhara to obtain information regarding the
region. The team used “household” instead activities of the organizations contributing
of “farmer” to remove the “male farmer” to food security of the Amhara National
stereotype embedded in agricultural Regional State (ANRS).
research and extension and to understand
the complex intra-household dynamics that The team next travelled by air to Bahir Dar,
influence farm and non-farm activities the capital of the Amhara region, and took
taken up by men, women, and children a ten-day road trip back to Addis Ababa to
within a household. Using the household gather information by meeting with
as the unit of analysis enabled the results research and extension personnel at the
of research and extension to be scaled up kebele, woreda zone and regional levels,
to various levels of heirarchies. A as well as with members of rural house-
heirarchical, systems approach was used holds in several zones of the Amhara
to conduct the assessment of agricultural region. During the trip, the team was
technologies in the Amhara region. This briefed by ANRS officials of the Food
method recognizes that the ANRS includes Security Unit, the Bureau of Agriculture, the
approximately 2.5 million households and three Agricultural Research Centers, the
that policies and decisions are made and Plant Health Clinic in Combolcha, and the
implemented at many levels, encom- Regional Sheep Breeding Center at Amed
passing different numbers of people: the Guya, farmers and peasant association
household, peasant association (PA), leaders (Annex 10.3). At each visit, the
kebele, woreda, zone, region, and nation. team was briefed, obtained documents,
and interviewed employees to gain specific
The team’s itinerary (Annex 10.2) to collect information relevant to the scope of work.
information included visits to Ethiopian Field visits with woreda and zonal officials
organizations at the national, regional, and with rural household members
zonal, woreda and kebele level as well as engaged in agriculture and animal hus-
visits with rural household members bandry were included to give team
(Annex 10.3). The team also met with members an opportunity to observe first-
members of two International Agricultural hand agricultural and animal husbandry
Research Centers (Annex 10.3) and activities and natural resource man-
reviewed published and unpublished agement.

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3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN insecure. There has been no single year
THE AMHARA REGION since 1950 where there was no drought in
the eastern part of the region. Famines
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in have been recorded as far back as biblical
the world. Per capita incomes are times. On the other hand, much of the
estimated at just over $100 per year. western half of the region has good soils
Estimated life expectancy is and adequate rainfall and typically
approximately 48 years. Just 3 percent of produce agricultural surpluses.
rural dwellers in the Amhara region have
access to potable water. Adult literacy The population of the Amhara region is
stands at 35 percent of the total approximately 15 million people of whom
population and only 22 percent of children 89 percent live in rural, agricultural
in the relevant age bracket attend primary households. Cereals account for more
school. Between forty and sixty percent of that 80 percent of cultivated land and 85
children are chronically undernourished percent of total crop production. The
and in the Amhara region 80 percent principal cereal crops in the Amhara
suffer from stunted growth. Nationally, 23 region are teff, barley, wheat, maize,
percent die before reaching adolescence. sorghum and finger millet. Pulses and oil
crops are the other major categories of
Per capita food consumption showed a field crops. Nationally, livestock population
steady decline from 1979 to 1994. This is is the largest in Africa (29.8 million cattle,
true both in terms of consumption of 11.5 million sheep, 9.6 million goat, 3.9
domestic production as well as total million equines, 0.25 million camel and
consumption including imports and food 25.8 million poultry) but is characterized
aid. An erratic, but general, trend towards by low productivity. About 27.9 percent of
improvement in total agricultural the livestock in Ethiopia, 30.7 percent of
production has been achieved since 1995 the poultry, and 18.5 percent of the
due to generally adequate rainfall, some beehives are found in the Amhara region.
liberalization of agricultural production,
and increased provision of modern inputs Most of the region is on the highland
to farm households. Surplus production, plateau and is characterized by rugged
however, has led to sharp drops in prices mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys and
of agricultural outputs due to limited gorges. Hence, the region has varied
commercialization infrastructure. Even in landscapes composed of steep fault
recent good harvest years, approximately escarpments and adjoining lowland plains
40 percent of Ethiopians have been in the east, nearly flat plateaus and
unable to meet their basic nutritional mountains in the center, and eroded
requirements. In 1999, failure of the belg landforms in the north. Most of the
(short season) rains in many regions of western part is a flat plain extending into
the country led to a five year high of 6.8 the Sudan lowlands. The topographical
million people depending upon food aid. features represent diversified elevations
ranging from 700 meters above sea level
The Amhara region suffers from recurrent (m.a.s.l.) in the eastern edge to over 4600
droughts and pest invasions. Of the 105 m.a.s.l. in the northwest. Based on
woredas in the region, forty-eight are moisture availability and thermal zones,
drought-prone and chronically food- ten major agro-ecological zones and 18

3
sub-zones have been identified in the the plateaus and low-lying areas is
region. A little over 50 percent of the total another major constraint.
area of the region is considered potentially
arable for agricultural production activities. The traditional method of soil fertility
regeneration by fallowing and use of
A population growth rate of 3 percent a organic fertilizer has almost completely
year is leading to a doubling of the human broken down due to land scarcity resulting
population every 25 years. This rapid from overpopulation. In addition, most
population growth rate has led to severe crop residue is removed by farmers for
land shortages and rapid natural resource either fuel or construction purposes.
degradation. In the Amhara region, 94 Remaining organic matter in fields is
percent of households have insufficient removed by livestock stubble grazing. Dry
land to meet their food needs. Rural manure is used for fuel due to the chronic
households are compelled to clear and shortage of firewood and lack of
cultivate marginal lands on steep hillsides. alternative sources of energy. In sum,
Only one to three percent of the Amhara increasing populations and a declining
region remains forested. Overgrazing availability of land that is increasingly
further denudes the land of vegetative eroded and experiencing a chronic net
cover. Forage requirements are estimated decline in nutrients stocks is undermining
to be 40 percent below needed levels to the ability of the agricultural sector to meet
maintain the current livestock population. the basic food requirements of the
Amharan people.
Much of Ethiopia in general and the
Amhara region in particular is
characterized by mountainous agriculture 4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT
with slope gradients ranging from 5-45
percent. Much of the annual rainfall Individuals have food security when they
comes in short violent events of up to 100 have adequate access to food, in both
mm/day. The exposure of denuded slope quantitative and qualitative terms, either
areas to this type of rainfall results in by producing or purchasing it. The overall
Ethiopia having one of the most serious objective to achieve food security should
soil degradation problems in the world. be to increase household production and
Annual rates of soil loss in the Amhara productivity. Progress toward achieving
region in some steep lands and food security can be measured by:
overgrazed slopes exceed 300 increasing food availability
tons/ha/year, or 250 mm/year. Lesser (kilocalories/person/day), increasing
rates of soil erosion in ANRS are also of household incomes, and improved
concern, since loss of soil reduces the nutritional status of children in the region.
land’s waterholding capacity and soil
fertility. In the ANRS, yields are estimated Based upon the assessment methods
to decline by 1-2 percent per year due to described in Section 2.0, the following
soil erosion. Nationally, on over 2 million summary assessment describes key
hectares, the soil depth is so reduced that elements needed to achieve the goal of
the land is no longer able to support food security in the Amhara region. This
cultivation. Water logging problems summary assessment is based on the
associated with the Vertisols in some of ideas and proposals encountered in the

4
team’s contacts with individuals and can also contribute to more reliable
institutions on both the national and production of field crops and horticultural
(Amhara) regional level. Nevertheless, crops. Management of risk can also be
this is a preliminary draft and the team addressed by the development of
welcomes comments to help modify and appropriate germplasm adapted to the
improve this report. The key elements are above-mentioned production constraints.
summarized in the subsections below and Tree crop production of fruit, fodder, and
will be referred to throughout this fuelwood that is less susceptible to
document. drought is a further risk-coping strategy,
as well as the access to off-farm
4.1 Diversification of Productive employment.
Activities. Three factors contribute to the
need for diversification of the productive 4.3 Adaptive Research Linking
activities of rural households: 1) yield Research, Extension, and Rural
variability affected by such factors as Households for Technology Adoption.
drought, frost and pests that make rural Given the high variability of agro-
households vulnerable when relying ecological zones, risk, and resource
predominantly on cereal crops, 2) price constraints facing rural households, there
variability in output and input markets, and is a need for adaptive research that takes
3) the overall inability of the agricultural into account the diversity of conditions
sector in many areas to produce enough facing rural households. Establishing
food to feed increasing populations. systematic linkages between research,
Diversification is therefore needed both in extension, and rural households is an
terms of agricultural production activities effective means of generating
(e.g,. field crops, fruits and vegetables, technologies appropriate for these
poultry, livestock) and in terms of off-farm conditions. Researchers must have
income-generating activities (e.g., frequent feedback about what is and is not
artisanry, petty commerce, paid working in terms of benefits to farmers.
agricultural labor, small business Rural household members and extension
enterprises) that allow rural households to agents can not only provide that
purchase food. information but are often the best source
of ideas on how to adapt a technology to
4.2 Risk Management. Rural households local conditions. In addition, linkages
operate in a highly risky environment due involving rural households to set the
to production risks (climate, pests, research agenda helps ensure that new
diseases, etc.) and the variability of technologies are not only technologically
prices. The diversification of agriculture viable but indeed address priority
discussed in 4.1 is one strategy to problems as perceived by rural
minimize risk. Practices that conserve households who are the ultimate users of
moisture for crops are another example of technological solutions.
a useful strategy. This is particularly
important to rural households who wish to 4.4 Natural Resource Conservation
invest in productivity-enhancing inputs Including Biological Components.
such as improved seeds and fertilizer that Natural resources such as soils, water,
need adequate moisture to be effective. plants, and animals are key factors
Irrigation and wells, where appropriate, affecting farm productivity. Massive land

5
degradation is undermining the productive potential areas can reduce degradation in
capability of the agricultural sector. marginal areas by reducing production
Conservation efforts that have focused on pressures on degraded and marginal land.
physical structures (terraces, soil bunds, Further, high potential areas have greater
drainage ditches, etc.) have been only capacity to generate off-farm income for
partly successful and need to be household members from low potential
rethought and reinforced. Greater areas by employing labor in upstream
emphasis on planting trees, shrubs and (input provision) and downstream
grasses on a denuded landscape can (agriculture product transformation)
result in greater resiliency of production agricultural sector activities and other
systems. Vegetative cover not only helps small businesses. On the other hand, the
control erosion and conserve water, but technology packages used in high
also serves to recycle nutrients, reduce potential zones are generally not
evaporative demand on crops and soils, appropriate and need to be adapted for
and increase soil organic matter. more marginal, drought-prone areas.
Furthermore, biological components can
serve the dual purpose of natural resource 4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition. Food
conservation and can also provide income security includes both quantitative and
generating products such as fodder, qualitative aspects. Individuals, in
fuelwood, fruit, and medicine. Systematic particular children, may suffer from
adaptive research needs to be conducted vitamin and protein deficiencies even
on dual purpose conservation-income- when they have an adequate level of total
generating techniques such as grass caloric intake. Diversification of
strips, upper watershed reforestation, agricultural production and off-farm
homestead vegetation and alley cropping. income for food purchase are proven
means to enable individuals to obtain a
4.5 Reinforce High Potential more balanced diet. Research and
Successes. Ethiopia has extensive areas extension programs need to identify and
endowed with both fertile soils and take into account nutritional shortcomings
adequate moisture that are rare in other in planning their strategic objectives.
regions of Africa. Recent experiences by Orienting small-scale horticultural
Ethiopian research and extension in promotion toward improved nutrition is
collaboration with Sasakawa Global 2000 one example. In general, efforts should be
showed that a doubling to tripling of yields made to coordinate with health and
is possible in high potential areas with educational services to address nutritional
good soils and adequate water with a issues in a comprehensive manner.
technological package including improved
seed, fertilizer and credit. Economic 4.7 Need for Increased Research
analysis showed that these packages also Capability and Coordination. The
substantially increased net income for current ANRS research capability is not
rural households in these areas. Food adequate for addressing the seriousness
security cannot be achieved by focusing and diversity of problems faced by the
only on chronically food insecure zones. agricultural sector in the Amhara region.
The production of agricultural surpluses The research centers in general lack
from high potential zones can provide low adequate human resources in terms of
cost food to deficit areas. Success in high senior research personnel with advanced

6
degrees as well as trained technical While these factors are critical for food
support staff. In addition, there is need for security, they are beyond the scope of the
greater material resources such as assessment mandate and are best
vehicles to reach the field and equipment covered in other planning reports
to conduct on-station experiments.
Furthermore, the agricultural research
system is in a period of transition due the 5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY,
process of regionalization. A clear division GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION
of research tasks that takes advantage of
the comparative advantages of the 5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility.
different research centers at the regional, Approximately 39 percent of the land in
national, and international levels and the Amhara region is estimated to be used
which avoids unnecessary duplication is for grazing and browsing and 27 percent
needed. Support for increased capability is under cultivation, much of it being
should be accompanied by greater cultivated for three millenia or longer.
coordination in order to be effective. Many of the soils which shrink and swell
have severe drainage and waterlogging
The team also identified a number of other problems during the rainy season. A
factors that are necessary to achieve food majority of the land is steep, infiltration
security but which are not explicitly rates are low, and little surface cover is left
addressed in this document. These after extensive cropping or grazing. Soil
factors include: conservation measures are needed, but a
high percentage of the land has already
• Land tenure policies to give been severely degraded. Rainfall is
households greater tenure security variable and must be utilized effectively. If
in order to encourage long-term during the high rainfall period some of the
investments to increase productivity excess water could be stored in or on the
and to promote natural resource soil using water management
conservation. technologies, the risk of crop failure and
• Control of population pressures that erosion associated with rainfall variation
are outpacing the ability of the could be reduced.
agricultural sector to increase food
production and are leading to Continuous cropping, loss of surface soil
increased natural resource by erosion, and relatively little application
degradation. of mineral nutrients has resulted in low soil
• Transportation and communication fertility. Soil erosion and low fertility pose
infrastructure to improve the both long- and short-term problems.
commercialization of agricultural Furthermore, these conditions are often
production and inputs as well as to interrelated. The topsoil loss magnifies
improve research-extension-rural deficiencies of nitrogen (N) and
household linkages. phosphorus (P), currently the major
• Supportive economic policies such causes of low soil fertility.
as credit, promotion of the private
sector, improved marketing Ethiopia is considered to have one of the
efficiency. most serious soil degradation problems in
the world. The average annual rate of soil

7
loss in Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 to potassium fertilizer has not been
tons/ha/yr, and it can drastically exceed studied appreciably as soil levels are not
this on steep slopes with soil loss rates low. Additional potash may reduce frost
greater than 300 tons/ha/year, or 250 damage, however, and this aspect should
mm/year, where vegetation is denuded. be evaluated.
On over 2 million hectares, the soil depth
is so reduced that the land is no longer Prior soil tests, such as those by H. F.
able to support cultivation. The Ethiopian Murphy, have shown phosphorus (P)
government launched a massive soil deficiency to be a major problem for crop
conservation program beginning in the production in the Amhara region. A
mid-1970s. Between 1976 and 1990, standard rate of phosphate is now
71,000 ha of soil and stone bunds, recommended, but applications should be
233,000 ha of hillside terraces for based on diagnostic analysis, because
afforestation, 12,000 km of checkdams in availability of soil P may vary.
gullied lands, 390,000 ha of closed areas Participatory, adaptive research is needed
for natural regeneration, 448,000 ha of to achieve efficient fertilization. Soil test
land planted with different tree species, labs exist at some of the research stations
and 526,425 ha of bench terrace and others are being constructed. Simple
interventions were completed. However, procedures, common among all labs in
by 1990, only 30 percent of soil bunds, 25 the region and in the country, should be
percent of the stone bunds, 60 percent of employed. Reports from a program, the
the hillside terraces, 22 percent of land International Soil Fertility and Evaluation
planted in trees, and 7 percent of the Project, sponsored by USAID about 20
reserve areas still survived. Clearly, years ago, should serve as a guide. The
interventions that reduce the land national research organization, EARO,
degradation rate and that are localized to should try to standardize such procedures
existing environmental conditions are across regions.
necessary.
In general, technology to stabilize soil on
5.1.1 Available technology. The three common grazing lands near stream banks
regional laboratories are beginning to using vegetation is beginning to become
generate information regarding the rates available at Adet and Sirinka. Additional
of fertilizer applications for areas of highly research on tree species other than
variable rainfall to refine the general Eucalyptus is urgently needed. Many rural
recommendations supplied by EARO, households have created surface drains
ICRISAT, and CIMMYT. For cereals grown to remove excess water to prevent
under the various conditions in the region, waterlogging. The removal of this water
adaptive research is needed. Adequate has often caused gully erosion.
nitrogen (N) will increase protein in grain Technology being evaluated is terrace
and forage and will aid human nutrition. building and reducing the land
Legumes grown in rotation with cereals degradation rate using agroforestry
contribute small amounts of N. Other techniques. Much soil conservation and
possible means of increasing N are from water harvesting technology is available in
green manure crops and agroforestry, but the country from EARO and ICRISAT, and
economic analysis is needed to assess additional technology from ICRAF could
their economic feasibility. Crop response be utilized.

8
5.1.2 Capability to generate new positions in the landscape. With
technology. Research on erosion, water increased human population has come
management and soil fertility is being decreased use of fallow land, increased
conducted at the research stations, livestock pressure, and degradation of
substations or on the fields of rural the natural resource base, including soil,
households. Most of the researchers lack water, and native flora and fauna. By
advanced degrees and training could taking a watershed approach across a
become more effective with increased range of hierarchies, from small
funding to conduct adaptive research catchments to larger streams and even
programs. rivers, issues such as upstream-
downstream effects and interactions
5.1.3 Extension capability. The among components of the system can be
Extension Service has increased its addressed. Local communities have
capability to reach farmers through institutional capability to implement,
numerous Development Agents (DA). monitor, and enforce decisions made
With common packages, the DAs, with regarding interventions. The problems to
only brief training in agriculture, can be addressed will determine the size of
contact and advise farmers. Additional the watershed selected, but in watershed
training for DAs and their supervisors research, a focus on scaling up needs to
would allow development of flexible be addressed. Precipitation is one of the
extension recommendations for individual most variable aspects of the environment
farms and actual rainfall. This training that limits productivity and food security.
would also allow the DA to evaluate Due to the inherently low precipitation in
problems that need to be researched. many regions and the variable nature of
When soil testing becomes a practice the timing and amount of rain across food
available to rural householders, the DA insecure regions, the indigenous
could assist them in getting representative producers are risk adverse. A better
soil samples. understanding and predictability of the
weather could enhance adoption of new
5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and technologies. Irrigation can also provide
Watershed Management. Many of the stability in the water supply and therefore
problems faced by people in the highly in production potential, but irrigation has
complex and variable Amhara region not been developed on a large scale.
cannot be solved on a field-by-field basis Solutions to problems such as land use
or by using a disciplinary approach. The distribution and water management within
landscape is spatially variable, with steep a land-scape/watershed will require a
upper slopes suited to perennial part-icipatory, systems approach to
vegetation, relatively level lowlands and research, extension, and development,
highlands that are primarily used for field because the research arena involves the
crop production, and intermediate zones, livelihoods and lives of the people in the
often with mixed use of crop production watershed.
interspersed with communal pastures.
Human population pressures are high 5.2.1 Available technology. Although
and increasing, with decreased meteorological data are limited, some
landholding size per household and relatively long-term weather stations exist
movement of people from lower to higher in the Amhara region and detailed

9
analysis of some of these sites was available from the Famine Early Warning
reported by IAR, ILRI, and ICRISAT in the System (FEWS) might provide useful
mid-1980s, giving probability distributions information for implementing more
by month or week of the year, along with flexible approaches to adaptive and
mean and standard deviation on an demonstrative research for highly
annual and monthly basis. Some of the variable rainfall areas.
sites also included temperature analysis,
although analysis of risks associated with There has been limited development of
frost has been limited and should be water supplies for irrigation along streams
pursued where historical data from high and even less development of small
altitudes are available. The research ponds (along with protected source areas
centers each maintain one or more upstream) to capture and store water
weather stations, but there appears to during the rainfall surplus months for use
have been little analysis of the data. during the dry months. Technology
Agroclimatic analysis of geo-referenced developed by ILRI (1999) for PAs to build
weather records needs to be conducted ponds using animal power could provide
for all long term stations (>10 years) in or household and livestock water supply
near the region to develop maps of (and/or along with small scale irrigation)
agroclimatic patterns and to determine if for gardens or high-value cash crops. It
precipitation amounts and patterns would also serve the added benefit of
(starting dates, ending dates, length of reducing erosion hazard from intense
the belg (short season) and meher (long storms by increasing water retention
season) rainy seasons) are changing capacity in the landscape. Development of
over time—as is widely believed in the such systems would clearly require the
region—or if recent dry seasons are participation of households, villages and
within the normal range of variability of extension at several levels, as well as
the climate. The “response farming” adaptive research, and, on
approach developed in the 1970s-1980s occasion,Bureaus such as Water and/or
in Kenya and expanded to sub-Saharan Health. In addition, design (based on
West Africa (linear relationships between agroclimatic, soils, topographic, and
date of onset of rains to probable length demand analysis), engineering, and
of the season and total rainfall) should be construction of dams and ponds or other
evaluated to determine if simple irrigation schemes should be balanced
indicators could be identified that would with the design of the production systems
guide cropping and forage production that would use the water to produce high
toward those options having high value crops or nutritive food supply for
productivity potential with the lowest risk households and communities.
for that particular season. If such
relationships could be developed, then Research methods and approaches that
training of SMSs and DAs in rainfall can be adapted and applied to implement
probability along with establishment of integrated watershed based research and
rain-gauge sites at woreda or kebele development include participatory rapid
levels could be established on a pilot appraisal techniques, visioning, system-
basis to guide extension recom- atic benchmark surveys, simulation
mendations. Other approaches to systems that integrate biophysical and
weather forecasting and monitoring socioeconomic models (e.g., ILRI & Texas

10
A&M), and monitoring tools (e.g., Water landscape hydrology or sociology.
Watch in Alabama, The Philippines, and Researchers and extensionists in ANRS
Ecuador ). would benefit from formal training or
experience in participatory research and
Many of the intervention technologies to extension methods. Communities would
improve components of the system exist: greatly benefit from training to develop
for example, species and varieties for institutional capabilities to implement
agroforestry and diversification of practices within watersheds. Local
production, soil and water conservation governments and community groups will
technologies (particularly water also need training and capability building
conservation technologies developed for in participatory approaches. Linkages with
vertisols by ICRISAT and others), and other departments or Bureaus (e.g.,
plant and animal health technologies. Health, Education, Water) need to be
developed or strengthened for watershed-
5.2.2 Capability to generate new based research and development and
technology. There was little evidence of mechanisms for cooperation across
use of agroclimatic information or government or institutional boundaries
analyses to guide research or extension in agreed upon. Human, physical, and
the region. Remote sensing technologies financial resources for implementation of
such as those used by FEWS could be integrated systems research and
investigated for application of early development at a watershed scale, even
detection of regional weather patterns to at a pilot level, are limited.
guide extension recommendations.
Research and SMS staff at various places 5.2.3 Extension capability. Investment in
in the region include some agricultural participatory, watershed-based research
engineers, but their capability to conduct is for the long-term, because this type of
the needed adaptive research or to research is new, not only in Ethiopia, but
generate new technologies in water elsewhere. The pilot approach is
conservation and use or small-scale appropriate at this time while
irrigation and management appears methodologies are developed and
limited. Research and extension soil and capacities are increased.
water conservation programs focus
strongly on soil conservation practices 5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready
and may fail to capitalize on the water Genetic Material. Improved genetic
conservation benefits of practices such as resources of both plants and animals are
terracing and tied-ridges. essential in any effort to solve the food
security problems of the region. In such an
There is demonstrated understanding of effort, the genetic materials must be
the need for watershed approach and suitable for the target ecological zones.
commitment to pilot project planning in the
region. An Ethiopian study team visited 5.3.1 Available technology. The range of
watershed-based research sites in The available, improved and adaptable
Philippines and Georgia. However, no cultivars or genetic stocks for the food
formal training among the research deficit parts of the Amhara region varies
centers or extension systems exists in for field crops, livestock, and trees. The
systems research, landscape ecology, crops grown in the region cover a wide

11
range of cereals, pulses, and horticultural limited. The bulk of the afforestation
crops. For the major cereals, which are program underway in the region is based
wheat, barley, tef, sorghum and maize, on planting Eucalyptus trees with
improved cultivars such as ET13, HAR sporadic planting of Cupresses species.
604 (wheat), HB-42 and HB-120 (barley), Indigenous tree and shrub species have
DZ-01-196 (tef), Meko, 76-T1-23, mostly disappeared, apart from protected
Gambella 1107(sorghum), maize and isolated church compounds where
(Katumani composite) are available. In some of the indigenous tree and shrub
addition, there are cultivars in the species remain. Trials are underway at
breeding and varietal release pipelines of some of the research and testing sites to
EARO across most of the crops. Some identify suitable indigenous and exotic
examples which were mentioned are tree species for various ecological
three Striga resistant sorghum varieties conditions. Accelerated efforts are
pending approval by the variety release needed to identify suitable tree species
committee. The major pulses in the region for the diverse ecological zones of the
are lentil, field peas, faba beans and region.
chickpeas, while the major oil crops are
noug, safflower and sesame. Availability 5.3.2 Capability to develop new
of improved cultivars in these crops is technology. In the short term, screening
limited, although indigenous varieties are of improved varieties from national and
available in a wide range of genetic international sources in the different
diversity. EARO and the IARCs (e.g., ecological zones would be the most
CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIP, CIAT, ICRAF) are practical and cost effective approach to
the main sources of improved develop improved genetic materials.
germplasm. However, over the long term,
comprehensive breeding programs to
The animal genetic resources in the meet needs identified by rural households
Amhara region cover different species of would be necessary to meet the changing
animals existing in diverse ecological needs of the region.
zones. These include cattle, sheep, goats,
poultry, donkeys, horses, mules, fish and 5.3.3 Extension capability. Currently, the
bee colonies. Other species of animals contribution of technology generated by
such as pigs are not common. The the research centers in the region to
different species of animals are available extension efforts in the area of crop and
in abundant numbers and diversity in the livestock improvement is minimal, mainly
different agro-ecological zones. These because the centers are relatively new,
animals are indigenous and have been inadequately staffed in terms of
selected for adaptive traits in the diverse experience, and have inadequate
ecological zones. Although some facilities.
improved breeds of poultry, dairy and
sheep are available, the overall availability 5.4 Field Crop Production. Cereals,
of improved and adapted animal genetic pulses, oil crops and other field crops
stocks is minimal. dominate the agriculture of the Amhara
region. The main field crops in the Amhara
In trees, shrubs and forage crops, the region are:
availability of improved genetic stocks is

12
Cereals Pulses Oil crops tolerance to some of the stress factors.
Examples are ET13, HR604, Enkoy,
Barley Lentil Noug (Niger seed)
Boohai, and Mamba for wheat; HB-42 and
Wheat Field pea Safflower HB-120 for barley; DZ-196, DZ-354, DZ-
01-99, and DZ-CR-37 for tef; Katumani
Tef Chick pea Sesame composite, A-511, BH-140, Alemaya
Composite for maize; and 76-TI-23,
Sorghum Faba bean Sunflower Gambella 1107, Dinkmash, Birmash,
Alemaya 70, and ETS2752 for sorghum.
Maize Cowpea Linseed
The range of available improved cultivars
Finger millet Rapeseed for pulses and oil crops is much narrower
and in some cases, there are none
Oat available. Some examples are Fogera-1
(noug), CS-20DK (faba bean), and Chilalo
A wide range of both abiotic and biotic (linseed) Some of the improved cultivars
stresses constrain field crops production such as Katumani maize and 76-TI-23
in the region. Among the major abiotic sorghum are early maturing and thus
stresses are drought, waterlogging, frost, escape drought and produce stable yields
and low fertility. The main biological in relatively short growing seasons.
constraints are insects, diseases and Improved crop management technologies
weeds. Some examples are: for stable and high yield production of
crops are also available. Examples are
the use of tied-ridges for moisture
Insects Diseases Weeds conservation, the broad bed maker for
improved drainage, row planting for more
Aphids Rusts (leaf, Striga
stem, stripe) efficient weed control and fertilizer
Stem borer Smuts Parthenium application, intercropping for minimizing
(Congress weed) pest damage and improving yield stability,
Shoot fly Leaf blight Grasses legume-cereal rotation for improved soil
Wollo-Bush Septoria Broad leaf fertility , pest control, and higher yield, and
cricket
crop substitution for shorter growing
Pachnoda Scald Wild oats
beetle seasons. Combinations of improved
Termites Net blotch cultivars and appropriate management
Migratory practices should give higher and stable
pests yields from year to year. Scientists at the
Weevils research centers have been working with
Other storage
scientists at EARO and ILRI to develop
pests
technologies for cultivation of waterlogged
Vertisols. Among these techniques is a
5.4.1 Available technology. The
method of using 80-cm beds separated by
judicious management of abiotic and
40-cm furrows to allow adequate drainage
biotic stresses requires the deployment of
when the rate of rainfall exceeds the rate
both genetic resistance and appropriate
of infiltration of water into the soil.
management practices. For some of the
important crops mentioned above, there
5.4.2 Capability to develop new
are improved cultivars in Ethiopia which
technology. The three regional research
have high yield potential and resistance/

13
centers have personnel who can develop integral effort to promote a market-based
new technologies through participative economy. Diversified cropping systems,
research for field crops production, pest including the production of cash crops, as
control and storage. Further training, well as off-farm activities, are considered
linkages to researchers within and outside by the ANRS Integrated Food Security
Amhara region, and infrastructural support Program to be important mechanisms
will be needed to increase the efficiency of used by households to cope with seasonal
the Amhara region agricultural researchers food shortage vulnerabilities. Because the
in order to generate new and appropriate ANRS economy is largely dependent
technologies through participatory re- upon production of cereals and livestock,
search. At present, collaboration with wider production of high-value vegetables
EARO and ILRI scientists would be in the region can provide a viable
beneficial to the region. mechanism to generate additional
household income and to supplement
5.4.3 Extension capability. The three nutritional intake.
research centers have been involved in
demonstrating improved crop production Vegetables have not been grown to a
and protection packages. Field days for large extent in Amhara region and per
rural households are usually held to capita consumption is relatively low.
introduce crop producers to improved However, small pockets of production
technologies. Improved seeds are also have long existed, and minor consumption
sometimes distributed by the research of a variety of species such as tomato,
centers to farmers to make new cultivars cabbage, carrot, onions, shallots, garlic,
available to producers. The extension potato and the green seed of several
service also popularizes improved crop pulses exists. These crops have
production technologies through traditionally been grown during the rainy
implementing improved crop production season, or near riverbanks or springs
packages on demonstration fields of rural where there is access to irrigation.
households. The technical packages of Interventions that are required to raise
maize and wheat usually cover improved vegetable production and consumption in
seeds, fertilizer, pest control, and improved the ANRS include: raise consciousness
management practices. Although the about the economic and nutritional value
technical production packages have given of these crops; develop appropriate
rural households’ higher yields, because of technology packages for the production,
higher production costs and low market postharvest handling, and marketing of
values, producers have not always these crops, based on currently available
realized increased profitability. The information; conduct adaptive research to
extension staff need much more technical introduce new potential species, varieties
support and research information to be and technologies used in other
more effective in their work. regions/countries; expand the land under
irrigation for the production of vegetables
5.5 Vegetable Production and other high-value crops during the dry
season or to mitigate periods of drought;
5.5.1 Available technology. The and conduct marketing research to
promotion of income generating activities explore expansion potentials into local
in the Amhara region is a part of an and export markets.

14
5.5.2 Capability to develop new 5.6 Other High Value Crops. Income-
technology. The current ANRS capability generating cash crops and off-farm
to implement available technology used in activities provide effective mechanisms for
other regions and to develop and assisting households to cope with periods
implement new technology is minimal. of food shortage. A wide diversity of
The reasons are an inadequate research specialty high-value agricultural products
infrastructure to conduct horticultural are already produced or have potential for
research and the need for appropriately small-scale production in the region.
trained and experienced research These include vegetables (Section 5.4),
personnel. Such support is essential in the apiary products (Sect. 5.6), horticultural
areas of germplasm evaluation, seed seed and seedling production (Sect. 5.7),
production, fertility, irrigation, pest processed products (Sect. 5.10) as well
management, postharvest management as fruits, herbs and spices, oil crops,
and marketing. Nationally, EARO, and medicinals, botanicals, wood products for
staff from other support agencies (such as fuel and construction, and non-woody
the National Soils Lab), have the technical forestry products, sugarcane, cotton and
expertise to provide support on several of fiber crops, among others.
these areas, but specific expertise on
vegetable production is clearly minimal. 5.6.1 Available technology. Indigenous
Nevertheless, an extensive and available knowledge exists to ensure the production
international technical knowledge base for of a variety of specialty agricultural
the production of vegetables does exist. products in the region. Moreover,
Agencies such as the International Potato technology exists, both in the country and
Center (root crops), the Asian Vegetable internationally, which would improve the
Research and Development Center, and productivity, efficiency,and ability to better
CRSP would be instrumental in identifying market these products. Limitations that
existing crops/ technologies applicable to currently prevent the expansion of these
the Amhara region and for capability localized industries, and the income that
building of ANRS research staff. households receive from these products,
include: marked seasonal price
5.5.3 Extension capability. Organ- fluctuations; low productivity; poor
izationally, the extension capabilities to postharvest practices, a lack of market
raise awareness about new potential infrastructure (e.g., credit and financial
vegetable enterprises and for transferring services), seasonal product consistency,
“simplified” technology packages (blanket enterpreneurship, market knowledge, and
recommendations, such as kind of seed, improved, efficient production practices.
planting densities and fertilizer rates) are The following interventions are therefore
established. However, considerable needed to develop market niches for
capability building is required to upgrade particular products and to improve the
the technological expertise of the efficiency of production and marketability
extension staff (Subject Matter Specialists of high value crops for sale or export:
and DAs) in practically all areas of the
vegetable crop production, management • System appraisals at local (woreda)
and marketing process. This expertise will level to assess market/geographical
be essential to support a horticulture opportunities to develop niche markets
industry in the region. for particular products.

15
 • Market analyses studies to evaluate 5.6.3 Extension capability. Extension
seasonal price fluctuations and capabilities to raise awareness about new
volatility, seasonal market windows products and market opportunities and to
and opportunities for inter-regional transfer technology are organizationally in
trade and export. place, and the research stations are
• A synthesis of available information for relatively well staffed. However, con-
each product in the form of technology siderable capability building is required to
production packages. upgrade the technological expertise of the
• On-going research to improve the extension staff (Experts and DAs) in the
productivity and market quality of area of production and marketing of
these products on a variety of key specialty cash crops.
topics including fertility, germplasm
evaluation, pest management, 5.7 Seed Industry. A strong seed industry
postharvest quality and management that provides high quality seeds of
and value-added potentials. improved or indigenous crop germplasm
• Assistance in the development of in a timely manner is a prerequisite for the
community marketing programs (such overall food security efforts of the Amhara
as cooperatives). region. The current activities and area
• Available irrigation in some cases. coverages of the Ethiopian Seed
Enterprise in the Amhara region is
5.6.2 Capability to develop new tech- insignificant compared to the overall
nology. The current ANRS capability to regional demand for high quality seed for
implement available technology and to all crops including cereals, forages,
develop new technology, in terms of pulses, oil crops, vegetables and trees.
physical Experiment Station infrastructure The research centers must play a lead
and experienced research personnel, is in role in developing or obtaining breeder
its initial stages of development and and basic seed, as well as in producing
needs substantial improvement to fulfill foundation seed for their respective
the needs of the Amhara region. Support zones. The research centers should also
is needed in the topics listed above (under ensure good quality seed control in both
section 5.6.1). Nationally, EARO conducts production and distribution the region.
ongoing evaluation trials for a variety of Policy and quality control issues are the
fruit, forestry, oil and other products. responsibility of the National Seed
However, specialized research should be Industry Agency, and the ANRS must
earmarked to focus on specific niche develop regional capacity regarding seed
products and on particular technological regulatory policies, strategy and
and market informational needs. enforcement.
International research and development
agencies could also be tapped to cover 5.7.1 Available technology. The avail-
current informational and technological ability and effectiveness function of seed
gaps in the production and postharvest production, processing, storage and
management of most products. marketing in the Amhara region is minimal
Considerable local market and production at present, and these functions should be
research are necessary, however, to strengthened and expanded. Since
develop appropriate localized technology comprehensive plans to establish or
packages. strengthen the overall seed industry in the

16
region are essential prerequisites for a advanced seed-technology capabilities,
sustainable food security effort, both the such as CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIAT,
public and the private sector should ICARDA, CIP, ICRAF, AVRDC and the
participate in a complementary manner to CRSPs.
establish and nurture a viable seed
industry that serves the entire region. 5.7.3 Extension capability. Extension
capabilities to raise awareness about
The public sector could play the key role seed technology and for the dissemination
to the development and production of of seeds to producers are organizationally
breeder, basic and foundation seed stocks in place, and in most situations, farmers
and take a leadership role in quality save their own seed and exchange seeds
control. The private sector, in turn, could with their neighbors. The dissemination of
be encouraged to use this technology to improved seed to farmers is at times
produce, process, and market commercial restricted, however, by lack of availability
seed. The extension service could and by the high production costs of seeds
continue to assist and facilitate the for some crops, such as horticultural
dissemination and marketing of crops.
commercial seed. Showa Robit is an
example of a private seed and agricultural 5.8 Livestock Production. Livestock
inputs supplier who meets the demands of management includes the introduction of
seed producers. Such suppliers should be new genetic material and types, rangeland
encouraged to establish agricultural management, land-carrying capacity
supply businesses throughout the Amhara improvement and enhanced forage and
region. feed crop production.

5.7.2 Capability to develop new 5.8.1 Available technology. Tremendous

technology. Currently, the capability to animal resources exist in the Amhara
develop and establish a viable seed region, including cattle, sheep, goats,
industry, both in the public and the private camels, fish, honeybee, poultry and
sector, is minimal because of inadequate equine species, while the genetic
investment in and attention to this composition of these resources have wide
important sector. Also at the infant stage is variability. However, productivity of the
the capability of the research sector to animal resources has not been effectively
generate new seed based technology utilized, so a great need exists to improve
because sufficient personnel with the productivity and conserve the available
required experience are not in place. This animal genetic resource. In some
limitation is especially critical for the instances, the introduction of genetic
production of improved seed for high materials from outside the region, which
value crops, such as potatoes and other might include exotic dairy breeds for
cash crops. Support is needed at all improvement of the dairy sector and
stages of the seed technology process, sheep breeds for improved mutton and
beginning with the development of wool production, would be beneficial.
breeder and basic seed to the processing, Availability of improved genetic materials
storage, marketing and dissemination of could then be enhanced and expanded to
commercial seed. Critical for this process benefit rural households through the
are linkages with organizations that have selective and systematic application of

17
reproductive biotechnology, like artificial strategy to improve milk production
insemination and embryo transfer. potential may be crossbreeding the
indigenous zebu cows with exotic dairy
Animal power: Almost all agricultural breeds, although any such effort needs to
activities depend on animal power. In be an integrated one, since it would
most woredas of the region, however, up require intensified animal production.
to 75 percent of the farmers have either Technologies using improved genotypes,
one or no ox, and the extension package feed resource development, feeding
for cereal crops production does not systems and strategies, breeding and
include any strategy to ensure the reproductive management, artificial
availability of oxen to farmers at the right insemination, animal health management,
time of the year, drastically affecting water resources development, manure
agricultural production, particularly under handling and management, milk handling
unpredictable environmental conditions. and hygiene management, milk pro-
Other traditional arrangements (e.g., cessing and marketing are critical
sharing, borrowing, pairing, renting) to components in the success of such an
enable animal power also interfere with operation. Moreover, a number of policy
the right time of land preparation and issues, such as land use, price, credit and
cultivation. The zebu oxen are suitable for marketing, need to be addressed in order
animal traction and, thus, do not need to create a conducive environment for the
improved genetics. However, alternative success of this type of operation.
sources of animal power other than oxen
(e.g., horses, donkeys, cows) need to be Sheep and goat production: Enormous
investigated, as do appropriate potential exists for improved sheep and
implements associated with different on- goat production in the region, since the
farm and off-farm operations. The use of cool tropics are exceptionally suitable for
animal power in soil and water sheep production of both mutton and
conservation activities, and the wool. Current efforts should be strength-
technologies developed by ILRI and ened to encompass production, pro-
EARO in this regard, need further cessing and marketing, particularly for
examination. wool, while appropriate animal genotypes
in adequate numbers are determined for
Milk production: Zebu animals have been the different agro-ecosystems. There
naturally selected for their ability to would still, however, be a strong need to
survive stress rather than for their ability to develop a market-oriented breeding and
produce meat and dairy products. As a feeding strategy for sheep and goat
result, the milk production potential of production.
these animals is generally lower than the
improved dairy breeds. However, they are Poultry production: Although backyard
hardy animals with relatively high disease poultry production is quite common in all
and drought resistance, low feed and agro-ecological zones, modern poultry
management requirements and high production for both egg and meat needs
butterfat content. Improved milk pro- further intensification. Special attention
duction in the region, particularly around should be paid to the access of
urban centers, ensuring adequate supply dependable genetic material, feed
of fluid milk, is needed. One possible resources, health services and markets,

18
and organizing and strengthening the augment the expansion of forage crops in
processing and marketing component the region.
should be made.
5.8.2 Capacity to develop new
Fisheries: Lake Tana and other fresh technology. At present, the three
waters in the region contain a variety of research centers focus on cereal crops
fish with a great potential for fisheries research, lack a production systems
development in the region. Strengthening approach and have a limited capacity to
current efforts and developing fish develop new animal science technologies.
farming, processing and marketing in The animal science sections are
other natural and man-made water bodies maintained at a nominal level, and in
are essential. some cases, only animal feeds and
nutrition sections exist. Insufficient
Rangelands management: Although the attention has been focused on research
proportion of grazing lands is shrinking in facilities and research staff, and a strong
many of the farming systems due to high need exists to assess the relevance and
population pressure and a dearth of land suitability of technologies developed by
use policy, communal grazing is a ILRI regarding genetics, management,
common practice in many parts of the feed resources and feeding systems,
region. These grazing lands, however, are animal power and farm implements. The
overstocked and the land is overgrazed regional research system should be
and degraded. Loss of biodiversity is of a strengthened to develop and advance
major concern. Developing strategies to technologies in animal power, dairy
improve the carrying capacity of grazing production, small ruminants production,
lands, such as regulation of stocking rates poultry, fisheries and apiculture that are
and preventing oversowing during the suitable to the diverse agro-ecological
rainy season would improve these land zones in the region..
areas.
5.8.3 Extension capabilities. The exten-
Improved forages and feed crops sion service’s main focus is on cereal crop
production: As well as depletion of the production and natural resource man-
feed resource base, improved forage and agement. At all levels, animal science
feed crops production has not been extension experts are few and in most
integrated into the farming systems. instances are heavily involved in
Genetic materials suitable for the various implementing soil conservation and cereal
agro-ecologies are available. For exam- crops extension activities. Benefit would
ple, ILRI has a global collection of over accrue from additional staffing in animal
13,000 accessions of different forage science with strong links to research in
genetic resources. The need exists to order that appropriate technologies for the
quickly screen and identify suitable grass, rural household are developed.
legume crops and multi-purpose tree Improvement of the Menz sheep for
species and to develop strategies for mutton and wool production in on-farm
integrating them into the farming systems. activities are encouraging and should be
Developing seed production capacity and expanded, improved, and strengthened.
availability of forage crops would increase Available technologies in animal power,
the availability of seed and cuttings and dairy production, small ruminants

19
production, poultry, feed resources, production, handling, processing and
fisheries, and apiculture need to also be marketing aspects.
increased, encompassing the production-
to-marketing continuum. Projects 5.9.1 Available technology. Even though
involving follow up and expansion of there are a substantial number of bee
breeding activities need to explore colonies in the different agro-ecosystems
alternative supply systems involving of the region, and traditional honey
farmers. Such activities might include production is a common practice, the
mechanisms of farmer participatory indigenous apiculture knowledge has not
delivery systems, such as “heifer in trust” been supported by adequate research
or “passing the gift”, for expanded use of and extension efforts. Moreover, modern
improved genotypes of animals. apiculture, including product handling,
processing and marketing, has not been
5.9 Apiculture. Considering that honey- well developed and organized, nor has
bee production is a relatively low input diversifying the production of honeybee
operation and that the Amhara region is products, such as nectar production.
one of the major honey-producing regions Improving the design of hives so that
in the country, a large potential for beekeepers in the ANRS could extract the
improvement exists. Honey production honey and wax without destroying them,
occurs in all zones in the region, reflecting as is currently done, would greatly
the suitability of many ecosystems in the increasing the productivity of honey and
ANRS, as well as the existence of a long wax production.
tradition of honey production. Current
estimates indicate that over 692,000 5.9.2 Capability to develop new
beehives in the region produce about 3.3 technology. Programs, staff and facilities
thousand metric tonnes of honey annually. for apiculture research do not exist at the
The estimated amount of wax produced is three research centers. It would be
also substantial. Since over 95 percent of necessary to develop research center
the honey is produced and processed by capacity to undertake apiculture research
the traditional system,there exists in strategically selected locations.
tremendous potential for improving both Meanwhile, available technologies
the quantity and quality of honey and developed by the Holetta Apiculture
honey by-products. It is thought modern Center in modern honeybee production,
honeybee production techniques could processing and marketing could be
increase honey yield by over 50 percent. appropriately packaged and delivered to
The highest proportion of modern farmers in the region. Balancing natural
honeybee production in the region is in the resources available to bees and the
Western Gojam Zone, and according to human capability to develop and expand
some farmers in the region, annual apiculture in the region needs careful
income from sale of traditional beehive consideration.
honey is estimated at 1500 Birr.
Strengthening apiculture activities in the 5.9.3 Extension capability. The
region would contribute to substantial extension system requires strengthening
increases in rural household income, in modern honeybee production and
although efforts to improve apiculture in processing, and a farmer’s training center
the region would also need to examine the on apiculture, providing short-term training

20
in various aspects of apiculture, would be processing, such as methods to substitute
invaluable. Also needed is advice on how sorghum flour for wheat flour in baked
crop production systems could improve goods. For example, in 1997/98, EARO
the quality of honey, and conversely how food scientists evaluated the food-making
the honeybees would contribute to better qualities of thirteen sorghum varieties with
crop production. Loss of biodiversity, different characteristics for Ethiopian food
expansion of weeds such as “congress types (injera, kitta, nifro, genfo, tella and
weed” and unregulated use of agro- kollo). EARO scientists also evaluated ten
chemicals, which endanger honeybee finger millet varieties for food making
production, are important considerations qualities, and popularized and promoted,
to address. through lectures and training, a haricot
bean variety, Roba, for five different food
5.10 Food Science types. In addition, EARO scientists
transferred the following food tech-
5.10.1 Current technology. At the nologies: 1) bean food preparation meth-
household level in the highlands of the ods to twelve women farmers at Melkassa
Amhara region, grain is processed into during five days; 2) bean food preparation
flour by dehulling and grinding, using methods and bean food tasting to about
simple means such as mortar and pestle 100 field day participants at Melkassa
and manual grinding stones. Processing Research Center; and 3) theoretical
of agricultural products by smallholders training regarding bean food preparation
offers an opportunity to add value to methods to thirty-five subject matter
harvested crops and slaughtered animals. specialists. The Melkassa food science
Value-added technologies which are not research group has also conducted
capital-intensive and which are within the organoleptic testing of a wide range of
financial means of smallholders could foods to determine consumer prefer-
offer opportunities both to increase food ences. Establishing linkages between
security and raise rural incomes. Food Amhara Regional Agricultural Research
processing (e.g., simple mills) serving Centers and the EARO food science
groups of households at the kebele level laboratories at Melkassa and Holetta
could also decrease the time consumed at could potentially improve food security
the household level in processing grains and nutrition of many in Amhara region.
for food preparation. Large mills are
located in larger cities such as Debre Zeit Food science research with livestock and
to serve the needs of large baking development of technologies for milk and
enterprises. This technology, however, is meat processing has been conducted for
inappropriate to serve the needs of many years at ILRI and its predecessor,
geographically dispersed small holders in ILCA. ILRI conducts research and
food-insecure areas of the Amhara region. develops technologies for processing of
milk both at the smallholder level and for
Technologies are available in Ethiopia for larger-scale processing. Focusing on
improved processing and preparation of smallholder processing of milk into butter
food, including techniques for plant and and cottage-type cheese, ILCA has
animal products. EARO has laboratories developed and modified a wooden internal
at Nazret and Holetta which have been agitator that can be fitted to the usual clay
developing improved methods of food pot used by the smallholder. This agitator

21
reduces churning time from an average of Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research
139 minutes to an average of 57 minutes. Institute, gain access to presently
ILRI’s Dairy Technology Unit is based in available technologies. Building on these
Debre Zeit, and one of its objectives is to linkages and with training, personnel of
introduce more processing options and the Research Centers could develop the
more efficient processing methods. Pear- capacity to do participatory adaptive
shaped, woven containers (gorfa) are research and, in the long term, generate
used for milk storage and souring as well technologies with a participatory process.
as churning on the semi-arid Borana
Plateau of Ethiopia. ILRI research has 5.10.3 Extension capability. At Adet
quantified the importance of milk products Research Center, the team viewed a
to rural households to assure con- demonstration potato “seed” storage
sumption of essential vitamins and amino facility, and at two of the woredas, the
acids which are absent in grain, team observed grain storage facilities
confirming that a balance of milk and grain which are used for demonstrations. These
is desirable in the diets of rural indications of extension capability in post-
households. Drought, by decreasing avail- harvest technologies are encouraging,
able forage, decreases milk production although the team did not find evidence of
and thus decreases the availability of extension ability to transfer technology for
vitamins and amino acids on which rural food preparation or processing. Emily
household members depend, resulting in, Frank’s report of interviews at the
or exacerbating vitamin and amino acid household level indicates that there had
deficiencies in rural areas affected by been a national-level home extension
variable and low amounts of rainfall. As program, separate from the farm
resources become available, linkage of extension program, carried out by general
ANRS research centers with food development agents in Amhara region.
processing laboratories of EARO and ILRI This program included home gardening
could contribute to food security of the techniques, family nutrition, family
region in food processing and preparation. planning, and food preparation. According
Nutritional issues in food-insecure areas to the report, those programs have been
of Amhara region are complex and involve discontinued in favor of a “family-centered
the production, processing and con- approach.” The Frank report indicates that
sumption of crops, forage, and livestock. respondents viewed the present program
as not providing adequate information
5.10.2 Capability to generate regarding nutrition, family planning, and
technology. There is apparently no food preparation..
current capability at the three Amhara
region research centers to do research on 5.11 Socio-Economic Factors. The
processing and preparation of food. To ultimate goal of agricultural research is to
better serve the needs of the food- generate improved technologies that are
insecure woredas of the region, and the adopted by rural households. Socio-
region as a whole, the Amhara Regional economic support in the research stations
Agricultural Research Centers could should ensure the generation of
initially develop food science research technologies that are appropriate for the
capabilities, and, by linking with such conditions of rural households. A number
organizations as EARO, ILRI, and the of factors may contribute to the non-

22
adoption of a technology showing promis- hold production conditions. Experiment
ing results in research trials. These factors stations typically have access to machin-
include household resource constraints, ery and/or paid labor to overcome
risk, compatibility with household prior- production bottlenecks facing rural
ities, and technical viability under households. Furthermore, the simple fact
household production conditions. of having a fence around an experiment
station may allow, for example, the control
Resource constraints of a rural household of livestock that otherwise might damage
can impede the adoption of a new late-maturing crops or tree seedlings.
technology. An improved seed-fertilizer
package that requires additional and 5.11.1 Socio-Economic Analysis and
timely field preparation only feasible with Adaptive Research. It is difficult for
two draught animals may not be adopted socio-economic analysis to foresee all the
by a farm without access to this resource. obstacles to the adoption of agricultural
Similarly, agroforestry tree planting that technologies by rural households based
requires substantial labor early in the rainy on research station trials. When farmers
season when household labor is occupied fail to achieve expected results, refuse to
with planting subsistence crops may not implement a technology, or adapt the
be adopted by households. recommended guidelines of a technology
developed on the research station during
Members of households living in extreme a participatory trial, it becomes easier for
poverty often prefer lower but stable socio-economic research to identify the
production over higher but variable above-mentioned farm-level constraints to
production. The basic livelihood of farmers adoption (resource constraints, risk,
barely producing enough to survive can differing priorities, technical viability). This
be threatened by increased variability. enables the process of adaptive research.
Agriculture in the Amhara region faces
many risks such as drought, frost, pests, The experience of rural households
price fluctuations, and input availability. implementing a technology gives insights
New technologies may not be adopted by into how to make a technology more
farmers if they increase risk. appropriate for farmer conditions. If, for
example, a socio-economic researcher
A technology may be effective, for notes that farmers in a drought prone area
example, in decreasing soil erosion. or those without two draught oxen have
However, if soil erosion is a long-term low rates of adoption of an improved
concern of farmers in a given context, seed-fertilizer package, then research can
households may put greater priority on begin to focus on adapting the technology
technologies that increase production in so it is more resistant to drought and can
the short term. Also, agricultural be used without access to draught
production concerns may be secondary to equipment. Rural household members are
issues such as access to potable water or not only the best sources of information
improved family nutrition. about obstacles to adoption, they also are
frequently the best source of suggestions
A technology that performs well under about adaptations to make a technology
experiment station conditions may viable.
encounter problems under farm house-

23
5.11.2 Integrative Aspects of Socio- research trials is key to the process of
Economic Research. Most recent generating technologies that will be
research has focused on increasing adopted by farmers. The Integrated Food
yields. However, if yield increases require Security Unit of the Amhara region has
additional technology, labor and/or capital, conducted research eliciting rural
the gains in output can be offset by households’ research and extension
additional costs. Socio-economic analysis priorities. Household members them-
therefore should focus on the impact of a selves identified criteria for determining
new technology on net farmer income. wealth categories of households in their
This analysis accounts both for the woredas. Priorities were identified based
additional costs of raising yields as well as on wealth and gender and short, medium,
the potential diversion of resources from and long-term research and extension
other economic activities. activities were identified as potential
solutions. This approach serves as an
Intra-household analysis is also helpful to example of how to involve households in
enable researchers to obtain a better the setting the research and extension
understanding of the impact of a new agenda in order to ensure a greater socio-
technology within the household (e.g., economic representation of households.
women’s labor, child nutrition) and to
match technologies with available The three research centers in the Amhara
resources within households. Socio- region all include a socio-economic
economic research could also include an research division. Currently, however,
examination of the informal networks these divisions are understaffed and lack
within a community or kebele. Under- individuals with sufficient training to carry
standing how these networks operate can out the needed research to make adaptive,
help in the process of organizing participatory research successful.
participatory research as well as in
disseminating new technologies on a 5.12 Capability and Structure of the
farmer to farmer basis. Research System

Team building that brings together rural 5.12.1 Current Research System and
household members, extension agents Future Plans. The capability to develop
and researchers as well as individuals new technology is located mainly at the
from diverse disciplinary backgrounds is three regional agricultural research centers
also critical for the success of participatory (Adet, Sirinka, and Sheno). Each of these
research. Socio-economic research centers has researchers with expertise and
should analyze the most appropriate responsibilities across a range of
mechanisms and institutional arrange- disciplines, such as agricultural economics
ments for facilitating team building with and farming systems, animal production,
individuals of diverse backgrounds and health, feeds and nutrition, agronomy
make recommendations on how to best and/or crop physiology, crop protection,
facilitate this process. field crops improvement (breeding and
genetics), horticulture, soil science and
5.11.3 Socio-Economic Research water management, agro-forestry
Capability. Socio-economic analysis in (resource management) and research-
the context of adaptive, participatory extension. The Adet Agricultural

24
Research Center is located in the M2.5 investments should be addressed first and
agroecological zone (moist, tepid to cool, then upgrades and expansion should be
mountainous and plateaus) that serves 15 addressed. To increase efficiency, there is
drought-prone woredas, as well as other a need for short-term and long-term
woredas which are normally food-secure. training, improved access to commu-
The center is located at 2200 m.a.s.l. and nication technologies, and development of
includes 131 ha plus eight testing sites. Of a performance based reward system that
the 26 researchers at the center, one has will improve morale and retention of
a PhD, 10 have MS degrees, and 15 have scientific and technical staff.
BS degrees, with a total staff of 163. The
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center Across all centers, the research staff is
was established as a research center in young and enthusiastic, and all expressed
1987 but was closed during the civil war the need for more senior, experienced
and re-opened in 1995. It is located in the scientists who would provide leadership
SM2.5 agro-ecological zone and serves and guidance to the junior scientists and to
North and South Wollo, Oromia, and Wag- the overall program. The team’s visits
Himra Zones. The center is located 1850 within the region identified the need to
m.a.s.l., in a 900 mm precipitation zone provide academic training to raise the
and manages a 30-ha sub-center at Kobo training level from predominately the BS
at 1470 m.a.s.l. with 667 mm precipitation, level to more PhD and MS level scientists.
and several additional test sites. It has This additional, long-term training is
156 technical and support staff, of whom necessary to achieve the regional objec-
none have a PhD degree, three have MS tive of improved capability to develop better
degrees, and 23 have BS degrees. Five technologies to support agricultural sus-
are presently on study leave. The Sheno tainability and food security goals. The
Agricultural Research Center is also assessments also identified the need to
located in the SM2.5 agro-ecological increase the numbers of researchers in the
zone, located at 2800 m.a.s.l., with 903 areas of economics, agro-forestry, and
mm of average annual precipitation. The food science, as well as to develop new
center consists of 142 ha plus six research centers in critical agro-ecological
additional testing sites distributed across a zones.
range of altitudes from 2500-3100 m.a.s.l.
The current mandate has been restricted The capabilities to do research at all
to the high altitude areas of N. Showa, but ARC’s would be enhanced by such factors
is expanded to include additional areas. as more trained scientists (particularly
The research staff consists of one PhD, senior scientists who are needed to direct
five MS, 13 BS, two DVM, with two research), reduced employee turnover,
researchers in training at the PhD level, better access to current scientific literature
and one at the MS level. and improved communication infrastruc-
ture (at present, no telephone or fax at
The research capability needs to be Adet and lack of e-mail and Internet
strengthened in several ways, including access at all sites), improved equipment,
increasing the research efficiency of the instruments and supplies to conduct
current system, along with strategic research, more vehicles and spare parts
expansion and upgrade of the centers. In for vehicles which have broken down. Low
general, the efficiency of current research salaries and lack of incentives were

25
identified as a problem in attracting and 5.12.2 Research linkages. Research
retaining qualified research and technical centers should improve linkages across
staff, as were isolation of the living disciplines within a center, linkage across
conditions for researchers and inadequate the region between centers and support
personal access to transportation, institutions, and linkage with other
communication, recreation, schooling and Ethiopian, African, and other international
medical services for families. Access to scientists. The linkage should occur on
current journals and lack of commu- two levels: 1) informal scientist-to-scientist
nications with scientists outside the center communications with a minimum of
were also cited as impeding progress in restrictions, and 2) formal organization-to-
doing research that contributes to food organization linkages which may require
security. Expensive equipment items at better articulation of channels of
each center were underutilized, or not communication and protocols for estab-
used at all, because of lack of trained lishing agreements.
technicians, inadequate supplies, lack of
spare parts and inacces-sible repair From the team’s discussions with ANRS
services. This indicates that strategic research staff, it appears that the centers’
planning and budgeting to maintain an research is organized along disciplinary
appropriate balance between capital lines, rather than being oriented around
expenditures for major equipment multi-disciplinary problem areas. Most of
purchase and annual expenditures of the problems facing the people of the
operating expenses could increase the Amhara region in producing food and
efficiency of the research system. meeting household food needs transcend
disciplinary boundaries and will require an
The extension system to disseminate integrated systems research and
available technologies is well-developed extension approach to identify new
and structured. Currently, the extension technologies that can contribute to
system is organized and relatively well- solutions of these problems. There is a
staffed at the kebele, woreda, zonal and strong potential for interdisciplinary
regional levels. Subject matter specialists research, because of the mix of
assigned to the various levels are the disciplinary strengths that are located at
main sources of technical information and each research center. However, the
guidance for DAs, who are the basic current strengths in some key areas such
operational units of the extension system. as animal production, natural resource
The subject matter specialists assigned to management, and socio-economics
the different levels of the extension appear to be weak compared to capability
system need more experience and in agronomic sciences. Additional training
training to handle the urgent and difficult in systems research design and
problems facing rural households. methodology is needed in order that
Although the extension system in the research conducted will feed into planned
Amhara region is well-organized and watershed research and management
adequately staffed in quantity, the activities within the region.
technologies available to extension
agents for dissemination need a Informal interaction to exchange
substantial improvement. information pertaining to planning,
methodology, and preliminary results

26
across the research centers exists but contributions and ensure that the USAID
appears to be minimal. This is due to lack support is complementary to them and
of communication facilities such as does not duplicate and overlap what they
telephone, fax, email, and Internet are supporting.
connection; geographic distance between
research centers and limited travel and 5.12.3 Research-extension linkages. A
communication budgets. Annual research major restructuring of Ethiopia’s research
reviews conducted with the regional system took place in the mid 1990s, giving
researchers and national commodity regional states responsibility in research
research leaders with EARO provides a management. Decentralization of
formal structure for interaction among research management from a federal
scientists from the research centers, as system to regional research centers has
well as with national researchers, encountered several challenges, one of
extension, and end users of the research. which is the absence of backstopping in
technical leadership which resulted in
Universities and agencies undertaking inadequacy in generating technological
agricultural and related research include innovations (Amhara National Regional
the Alemaya University of Agriculture, State Bureau of Agriculture: Agricultural
Addis Ababa University, Awassa College of Research Master Plan 1999). In this
Agriculture, Mekele College of Agriculture, transitional phase, the regional
the Institute of Biodiversity, EARO, government and the research centers
Regional institutions (e.g., plant and animal have developed official mechanisms for
health clinics, multiplication centers for program management and coordination,
animals and plants) Ethiopian Institute of although much remains to be done to
Health and Nutrition Research, Coffee and efficiently respond to the region’s food
Tea Development Authority, and research security program. Strategies to establish
systems in other Regional States. There is linkage among the centers and with the
little evidence that the ANRS research national/international research organiza-
centers have undertaken collaborative tions and to upgrade research capability,
activities with the above institutions. infrastructure, and support services at the
Likewise, minimal formal collaboration regional level need to be defined and
exists between the regional research implemented.
centers and the international agricultural
centers (IARCs). National professional The regional and zonal Research and
organizations provide the opportunity for Extension Liaison Committees (RELCs)
informal scientist-to-scientist interactions have served as the mechanism to
and networking, and establishment of coordinate research and extension
regional chapters of such organizations programs. Linkages between research
might increase networking opportunities. and extension need to be strengthened.
Strategies are being developed to address
The team is aware that several donor this need with the proposed creation of the
organizations such as SIDA, the World Research Extension Advisory Councils.
Bank, the Governments of Japan and the Another strategy that may be considered
Netherlands contribute to various aspects is to build the capability of the DAs, since
of strengthening agricultural research in they play an important role in articulating
Ethiopia. It is important to consider these research and extension needs by working

27
with household members at the environments and, hence, may not be
household/watershed level. The current adopted. Technological innovations have
focus on blanket recommendations with to “fit” household livelihood and survival
little flexibility to modify package strategies by reducing vulnerability to crop
recommendations based on 1) household failure or livestock loss, improving
conditions or 2) year-to-year variability in resilience particularly from environmental
rainfall patterns has limited the shocks and increasing rural incomes.
effectiveness of extension of technologies
in drought-prone areas. The primary Second, participation paves the way for
challenge concerning the development enlisting household members’ commit-
and adoption of technologies to improve ment to the goals of the research/
food security in the ANRS will be to extension project. When they have a
undertake a transformational change sense of ownership of the project, they
from a supply-driven system of extension could serve as valuable agents of change,
to a demand-driven system that allows for disseminating information as well as
smallholders to exercise choice in community mobilization. Tapping into
selecting technological options to meet informal local social networks could be
household objectives within their useful in planning extension strategies.
resource limitations. Because of the
complexity of issues surrounding food Third, household members are the
security in the Amhara region, a primary users of technology, information,
concerted effort among government and other resources. By interactively
agencies such as health, education, involving household members in research
water, environment, and agriculture will and extension, they can gain the
be needed when problems are addressed capability to evaluate current practices,
at the watershed level. Inter-agency options and visualize the outcomes of
cooperation to support information implementing a practice or a technology.
exchange, resource sharing and joint
action are among the many mechanisms 6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Partici-
to facilitate this synergy. pation. Participatory research and
extension is not a novel idea in Ethiopia’s
research and extension system. While
6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY there is awareness and effort to use a
RESEARCH PROCESS participatory approach in on-farm exper-
iments/demonstrations, improve-ments
6.1 Why Participatory Research? There could be introduced to maximize intended
are three practical reasons for involving benefits to stakeholders and households.
stakeholders, including rural households,
in research and extension. First, Household participation is critical in the
technologies are not reaching a wide range following stages of research and
of households. A uniform set of techno- extension: 1) on-farm diagnosis, 2)
logical packages may not be appropriate to identification of possible solutions, 3)
rural households’ specific objectives or design and implementation of interventions
may be inappropriate to their unique social, and solutions, 4) verification, and 5)
economic, cultural (including indigenous monitoring and evaluation. Realistic
knowledge systems) and biophysical mechanisms are needed to:

28
• Include a wide range of stakeholders: delivery of research impacts and builds
individuals, groups or organizations confidence on using a participatory
who have influence or can have an approach to research
impact, either positive or negative, in
ensuring food security in the region. Facilitating rural household participation in
• Fully involve stakeholders and rural research and extension involves a high
households through their organizations. degree of transaction costs and flexibility.
• Strengthen the research and extension It demands continuous interaction with
system so that they are bottom-up, households, genuineness to learn with
demand-driven, and based on in-depth them, and sensitivity to their conditions.
diagnosis of the agroecosystem. Participatory research provides an
• Facilitate regular researcher-extension enabling mechanism for households to
agent-household interaction in on-farm exercise choice. It requires clearly
trials. articulated institutional arrangements,
• Consult household members individ- defining the roles and responsibilities of
ually in on-farm trials, but also provide stakeholders and implementors as well as
a forum for them to meet as a group flow of information, to strengthen the
with researchers and extension agents linkage between research, extension and
to facilitate feedback and information households. Using a participatory
exchange. approach to research and extension
• Strengthen mechanisms to promote a promises to introduce innovations in
timely, two-way feedback across research methodology and develop mod-
hierarchical levels. els that could be applied in other woredas,
• Involve the private sector and non- zones, and regions of the country.
farm groups in the delivery of inputs
and other services that are currently
under the responsibility of government 7.0 ACTION PLAN
line agencies. This will hopefully
stimulate and diversify the rural The action plan consists of five parts. The
economy as well as provide off-farm first action plan concentrates on adopting
income generating opportunities. an adaptive participatory approach to
• Build capability among development increase research efficiency and benefits
agents to appreciate and support to households. This approach is designed
participatory approaches to research for immediate implementation and early
and extension results. Guiding principles for designing
• Establish periodic participatory and implementing participatory adaptive
monitoring and evaluation systems to research are offered as well as examples
monitor outputs and measurable of results produced by adoption of this
indicators of impacts, defined and approach.
agreed upon by the stakeholders.
• Employ social scientists in research The second action plan is designed to
and extension who have an apprecia- increase research efficiency and output of
tion for participatory research and researchers. Short-term training and long-
gender issues in development. term higher education are the primary
• Establish a performance-based reward means to raise staff performance. Since
system that offers incentives for the absence of researchers for training

29
and education will create critical personnel Agriculture, Amhara region Integrated
shortages, the immediate implementation Food Security Unit, Research Centers,
of participatory adaptive research to NGO’s and other relevant institutions,
sustain and even increase technology by should be involved in the prioritization,
farmers is needed. planning and implementation process.

The third action plan focuses on Further key principles of participatory

modernizing computerized information research are listed as follows.
retrieval and communication capacity of
the research centers. This plan is given a • Immediate attention should be given to
higher priority than to increase the number adapting existing technologies to local
of library holdings, owing to the swift conditions while longer term research
obsolescence of information. capabilities are being enhanced.
• Research trials should be concen-
The purpose of the fourth action plan is to trated on households’ fields and be
modernize the research laboratories with managed by household members
adequate equipment and supplies to under farmer conditions.
support the design, implementation and • Trial sites should be representative of
monitoring of applied research. agroecological conditions and stake-
holder-identified problems.
The fifth action plan calls for the • Research trials should include a
systematic, georeferenced biophysical representative cross section of rural
and socioeconomic characterization of the households, based on factors as
Amhara region, since the principal aim of availability of resources, education and
agricultural research is to match the gender.
biological requirements of crops and • Households, through their organiza-
livestock products and practices to the tions, and other stakeholders, should
resource characteristics of households be systematically included in setting
and the physical attributes of their land. A research priorities, as well as in the
georeferenced database on socioeco- monitoring and evaluation of the
nomic condition and physical land research trials.
attributes will facilitate technology transfer • Rural households should be able to
to all locations in the region and is choose from a series of technology
essential to scale up technology adoption options. Each technology option
from a few participating farmers to the should allow for flexibility in implemen-
kebele, woreda, zone and regional level. tation. For socio-economic analysis,
although yields are an important
A more detailed description of the five component of profitability, the focus of
action plans follows. technology evaluation should be on
profitability and the impact on net
7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing household income.
Adaptive, Participatory Research. The • Finally, while participatory research
guiding principle of participatory adaptive requires that household members be
research in ANRS is that all concerned involved in setting research priorities,
stakeholders, including rural household there are a number of priorities that are
organization representatives, Bureau of so frequently repeated by so many

30
 individuals that researchers and soil. It is worth noting that the fertilizer
households can immediately begin to recommendation for most, if not all of
design and implement trials in areas Ethiopia, does not include potassium.
where the problem stands as a major While the potassium levels may have
bottleneck to achieving food security. been adequate several decades ago, that
may no longer be the case, and now low
An example of a rural household-identified potassium levels could be contributing to
priority is the desire to reduce yield loss frost damage and low yields.
from frost damage. Wheat crop in the
highlands of the Amhara region that Another example of participatory adaptive
appear healthy and vigorous have often trials involves finding technologies that
been rendered sterile by frost. Rural reduce the dependence on manure as
households express concern that frost fuel, thereby allowing this source of
damage is occurring more frequently now organic fertilizer to be reincorporated into
than in the past. They believe that the fields. Simple improved stoves fitted to
region is undergoing temperature traditional cooking pots have been shown
changes and they would like frost- to reduce fuel consumption needs by 30-
resistant varieties to be developed. While 50 percent as well as substantially speed
frost-resistance in wheat and barley may up the cooking process. Solar cookers
be developed by breeding, it would be have also shown potential as an
many years before such varieties can be alternative source of energy for food
released. preparation. Fast growing trees such as
leuceana that have the properties of
The purpose of adaptive participatory regrowth after cutting can by planted in
trials is to find solutions to problems such strategic areas to reduce erosion as well
as frost damage, that can be implemented as supplying a renewable source of
in the next cropping season. For example, fuelwood. By reducing the fuel needs as
it is known from work conducted well as providing alternative sources of
elsewhere in the world that frost damage energy, the dependence on manure for
can be substantially reduced by providing fuel can be minimized. In addition, simple
adequate amounts of potassium to grain improved corrals that serve as collection
crops. A simple trial can be installed which points for manure can further increase the
compares yield and profit from trials availability of this source of organic matter
employing conventional farmer practice to be reincorporated into crop fields.
with and without the addition of
potassium. If the results are negative, the The example of alternative fuel sources
household’s losses will be minimal if little and improved stoves also illustrates
additional labor was required to install the important gender issues that can be
trial and the fertilizer cost was borne by addressed by adaptive, participatory
the research unit. research. A substantial amount of many
rural women’s time is taken up by fetching
But if the result is positive, as it might very firewood and cooking. By reducing fuel
well be, it will show that the increased needs, providing readily accessible
incidence of “frost damage” is not related alternative energy sources and
to a gradual lowering of air temperature decreasing cooking time, women’s labor
but to declining levels of potassium in the can be spent in other activities, such as

31
quality time with household members, them so that the advisors are made aware
recreation, off-farm income generation, or of problems and conditions in the region.
horticultural production to improve family Student advisors can also serve as
nutrition and to sell as a cash crop. mentors to prospective students, as well
as a source of answers for questions
The examples cited above illustrate the raised by local researchers. Since the
need to be creative in designing adaptive quality and relevance of a student’s
trials with rural household members. The research depends on his or her advisor’s
trials must be inexpensive and easy to appreciation and understanding of
install, monitor, and evaluate, and produce conditions to which the student will return,
good results quickly. the simultaneous education of students
and their advisor should add to the
7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring relevance of higher education.
and Higher Education. Short-term
training to acquire specific skills such as While trainees are away from their
applying analytical methods, operating research centers for training for extended
new instruments and computers or period, or where mentoring is needed in
conducting on-farm adaptive trials must selected areas of research for young
run parallel with long-term efforts to scientists, the employment of technical
increase the number of researchers with assistance could be very useful. Senior
advanced degrees. Short-term training, scientists serving as mentors or experts in
whenever possible, should be conducted selected areas could come either from
under conditions normally encountered by local or international sources. Locally,
the researcher. The aim is to reduce retired Ethiopian scientists, who have
dependence on sophisticated laboratory decades of experience and may be
equipment and to rely on adapting existing available, could be a very valuable
equipment to achieve the desired results. resource of expertise for this purpose. If
senior scientists from abroad are desired,
Mentoring of young and inexperienced the CRSPs collectively could be a
researchers by locally-stationed experts valuable source of expertise and provide
from the national and international local scientists opportunities for
agricultural research centers can make up collaborative research. In any case the
for the lack of senior researchers with need for mentoring or technical assistance
leadership capabilities. The purpose of and its implementation should be
mentoring is to give direction and purpose determined in a participatory manner by
to young researchers and the work they all stakeholders.
produce.
7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing
Long-term higher education serves as the Computer and Communication
foundation for achieving excellence in Technology. The gap in computer and
research. It is expected that young communication technology between
researchers enrolled in advanced research centers in the Amhara region
research institutions will return to their and advanced research institutions is
centers to conduct their research. huge. Researchers at advanced research
Provisions should also be made for the institutions have access to the global
students’ research advisors to accompany knowledge base and achieve high

32
research efficiency by their ability to ineffective way to correct yield-reducing,
communicate nearly instantly with nutrient deficiencies. The law of the
researchers around the world. limiting warns us that applying nitrogen or
Researchers in the Amhara region must phosphorus to a soil lacking in potassium
exploit this technology to enable them to or any one of the 16 essential nutrient
perform useful applied research based on elements will do little to increase yield and
sound understanding of biophysical and render investments in fertilizer
socioeconomic processes. unprofitable. A modern research labora-
tory is essential to diagnose the cause
A modern communication system will also and magnitude of problems farm
enable research centers in the Amhara households face. Development agents
region to coordinate their work, reduce need diagnostic services to help them
duplication of effort, develop annual work design, install and monitor on-farm,
plans and communicate results of on-farm adaptive trials. Without a proper
adaptive trials to others. diagnosis, on-farm, adaptive trials are
reduced to slow, expensive and
Installation of a modern computer and unreliable, trial-and-error research.
communication system does not
necessarily guarantee effective use of the A modern research center should be able
system. Short-term training will be to analyze large volumes of samples
necessary for on-station staff, but submitted by development agents,
returning students from advanced interpret the analytical results and
institutions can further encourage communicate them to development
researchers to rely not only on local agents anywhere in the region in a timely
knowledge, but also on the global manner. It is also true that no research
knowledge base now accessible to users center can generate new technologies for
of the Internet. adoption by farm households without
access to diagnostic services.
7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing
Research Facilities and Supply 7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a
Delivery System. Helping households to Georeferenced Spatial Data Base. A
deal with problems requires that each new technology successful in one location
prescription to cure a problem is preceded is likely to succeed in other locations with
by a proper diagnosis. Recommending a analogous socioeconomic and biophysical
prescription without a thorough diagnosis characteristics. This method of technology
can be likened to a doctor who prescribes transfer by analogy requires that all sites
aspirin for all headaches. Top-down within the Amhara region with similar
transfer of technology from research characteristics be identified. If the site
centers to farm households prescribes characterization data are georeferenced
one cure for all households. A good and displayed using a geographic
example of this situation is the fertilizer information system, that would instantly
component of technology packages show the real extent over which the
distributed by the ANRS Bureau of technology could apply. A technology, no
Agriculture. For each crop, there is one matter how outstanding, is of little value if
rate of phosphorous and nitrogen for all no analogous sites to receive the
households. This is a wasteful and technology exist.

33
While participatory adaptive research • Frost—Farmers seem to believe that
increases adoption among participating the frequency of frost damage in cereal
households, it is not designed to transfer grains has been increasing over the
technology to other analogous locations last few years. This belief, however,
in the region. A large-scale, does not seem to be supported by
georeferenced data base will enable temperature data from the region. One
extension agents to abandon slow, explanation for frost damage is
expensive and unreliable trial-and-error potassium deficiency in the cereal
technology transfer in favor of technology crop. There is evidence that potassium
transfer by analogy. Improvements in is involved in cold hardiness. Because
research facilities, staff education and potassium is a very soluble ion, high
adoption of participatory research will do potassium levels increase solute
little to alleviate poverty or raise rural concentration and lower the freezing
incomes unless the capacity to point of water in plant tissue.
disseminate proven technology to other,
similar locations in the region is in place. It is recommended that with and
For example, the transfer of technology without potassium trials be conducted
by Sasakawa Global 2000 to other in areas where farmers have
locations in the region or country can be experienced severe yield loss from
dramatically improved by limiting transfer frost damage.
to analogous sites. Technology transfer
from its site of origin to other locations If potassium is deficient in the soil,
with dissimilar socioeconomic and adding it will not only reduce frost
biophysical characteristics remains an damage but may also increase the
expensive obstacle to agricultural devel- crops resistance to insects and
opment. diseases.

As in all on-farm trials, success will not

8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMMEDIATE only depend on yield increases, but
ON-FARM TRIALS primarily on the farmers’ decision to
adopt the technology.
Participatory research requires that
researchers, development agents and • Drought—Rainfed agriculture is risky
household members all have equal say in because drought can wipe out
defining the purpose of on-farm trials. The investments in fertilizer, seed and
technologies for immediate on-farm trials labor. For this reason, many
listed below were not selected by a households choose not to invest in
participatory procedure, but were chosen yield increasing inputs. There are two
because farm households have repeat- ways of reducing the risk of yield loss
edly asked for help in these areas, without from drought. The first way is to select
success. Problem areas identified by farm drought tolerant and/or drought-
households include yield loss from frost, escaping cultivars. Drought-escaping
drought, soil erosion, pests, soil fertility, cultivars do so by producing few tillers
and water logging. Technologies to in dry seasons, thereby enabling a
combat or avoid the six problem areas are smaller biomass to compete for the
given below. lower amount of available water. In

34
 drought years, drought-escaping crops tillage are tested on farmers’ fields they
will produce low but dependable yields. should be evaluated for their water-
In good, wet years, drought-escaping conserving and soil-conserving func-
cultivars produce many tillers to exploit tions.
the larger volume of plant available
water. On-farm trials with drought- A third way of reducing soil erosion is
tolerant and drought-escaping cultivars to plant vertiver grass along contours.
will demonstrate whether the negative This grass is well known to researchers
effects of drought can be diminished. in the region, but for some reason
farmers have chosen not to use it or
A second way to deal with drought is to are unaware of vertiver grasses
decrease the fraction of rainfall that effectiveness in reducing soil loss.
runs off the soil by increasing water
intake rates. This can be accomplished • Weeds—Early weeding is an important
by tied-ridges and/or contoured-ridge cultural practice which must be
tillage. The Ethiopian Agricultural followed by all farmers. Weeding 20-25
Research Organization has tested tied- days after emergence, supplemented
ridging and found it to be an effective by a second weeding at about 40-45
means to control soil erosion and to days after emergence, is recom-
conserve water in drought years. The mended. With proper and timely
French in West Africa have shown weeding, increase in yield of maize and
contour-ridge tillage increases the sorghum by about 1 ton/ha has been
volume of water stored in soils and recorded.
reduces surface runoff and soil
erosion. Contour ridge tillage also • Congress weed—A new weed called
enables a farmer to divert excess water congress weed is invading the region.
into ponds for irrigating high value It has been suggested that the seeds
crops and providing water for livestock. of this weed arrived in the emergency
food supply shipped from Australia.
Using improved drought tolerant/ Because it is well-adapted to
escaping cultivars of cereals and conditions in the region and is
legumes can contribute significantly to unpalatable to livestock, a possibility
improved and stable yields. A list of exists that this huge annual biomass
such crops and cultivars are available production can be put to good use. The
from EARO. Collaboration between technology for adding value to a pest
EARO breeders and agronomists has (congress weed) hinges on harvesting
led to the development of these the weed before it seeds and to use the
cultivars. harvested weed as a mulch. In arid
regions, EARO has shown that yields
• Soil erosion—A common way of can be doubled by mulching the
reducing water erosion of soil is by surface with basaltic cinders. This
shortening slope length. Contour-ridge practice has not spread because the
tillage is based on this principle, so is cost of transporting cinder makes it too
tied-ridge tillage which reduces slope expensive for use by farmers.
length to the dimensions of the tied Congress weed, on the other hand, is
ridges. If tied-ridge and contour-ridge already there on the farm and can be

35
 used as a mulch during the growing From on-farm trials, farmers will be
season and as an organic soil able to compare yields and profits
amendment in the next plowing cycle. between current practices of applying
The aim is to transform a pest into a no fertilizer or, depending on the
valuable resource. government’s fertilizer recommenda-
tion, with yields and profits from the
• Striga—The parasitic weed, Striga, has plots receiving fertilizer based on
been identified as one of the main diagnostic tests.
constraints in sorghum production in
the Amhara region. An integrated Another way to increase fertilizer use
Striga management (ISM) technology efficiency is to place the fertilizer in a
has been found effective elsewhere in narrow band near the seed. The current
Africa. Using an ISM composed of practice is to broadcast seed and
tolerant cultivar, intercropping with a fertilizer evenly over a field. This makes
legume, planting in rows, hand weeding difficult and dilutes the
weeding prior to flowering to deplete fertilizer. ILRI is currently experi-
the Striga seed bank in the soil, use of menting with a combination seeder and
modest levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and fertilizer applicator. It is animal drawn
use of improved moisture conservation and should be affordable and beneficial
practice such as tied ridges result in to most farmers in the region.
significant yield improvements of
sorghum. The combination seeder and fertilizer
makes weeding easier between rows
• Soil fertility—Although application of and increases fertilizer use efficiency
chemical fertilizers is known to by concentrating fertilizers near the
consistently increase yield when seed. The beneficial effect of banding
rainfall is adequate, few farmers use fertilizers is especially high at low rates
fertilizers because fertilizer costs and of application. The reduction in time
the risk of crop failure from drought spent on weeding and the increase in
remain high. One reason for the high fertilizer use efficiency may be
cost of fertilizer is that the same sufficient to create household demand
fertilizer recommendation is applied to for this technology.
all farms in the region. It is almost
certain that non-optimum rates of • Water logging—This condition is a
fertilizers are being applied in the consequence of water runoff from
majority of cases. Near-optimum higher ground into local depressions.
fertilizer rates can be applied if The area affected by water logging
diagnostic tests are conducted to should decrease with adoption of
identify which of the major nutrients are contour-ridge tillage, tied-ridges and
deficient in a field. Without a proper planting of vertiver grass.
diagnosis, it is not possible to prescribe
a cure for nutrient deficiency. The soil Even with the above practices, runoff
analyses may need to be performed by will occur during heavy downpours,
EARO initially, but the local units must and some means to capture the excess
be upgraded to take on this task. water in village or household ponds
should be considered. The stored

36
 water can be used to irrigate high- young and inexperienced researchers
value crops and provide drinking water might implement the program described in
for livestock. this report. The food security situation
requires immediate attention, but it will be
• Intercropping—Use of traditional crop several years before the region will benefit
production practices result in very low from the planned long-term training and
yield levels. Agronomists at EARO education efforts. One way to ensure that
have shown that properly planned and the program functions properly from the
executed agronomic practices, such as beginning is to enable regional
intercropping cereals with legumes, researchers to work in concert with
can give 50 percent yield increase over experienced counterparts from local,
the sole crop, accompanied by the national, and international research
added advantage of reduced weed and institutions. Many such institutions are
pest incidence. already operating in the region, but the
USAID/Ethiopia program fills a much
• Improved crop production practices— needed void in the area of strengthening
Use of ERO-developed improved crop local capacity for participatory research in
production packages, such as technology development, evaluation and
improved variety, fertilizer, early dissemination. There are two areas where
weeding, tied ridges, combined with the regional research units can benefit
IPM-based crop protection can con- from collaboration with experienced
tribute to significant yield increas-es. specialists. The first is in identifying
Such packages should be adjusted suitable technologies, including new
and tailored for the specific ecological livestock, crops, varieties, products and
condition of each area. A blanket practices for local testing. Experienced
recommendation of a uniform package researchers bring to the region an
can not work under all conditions of the understanding and appreciation, which
Amhara region. young researchers often lack, of genotype
by environment interactions, and the art
• Alley cropping—Dry season feed and science of matching the biological
shortage is a chronic problem in the requirements of crops and livestock to the
Amhara region. Alley cropping maize physical characteristics of land.
or sorghum with leguminous species,
such as Sesbania sesban, Cajanus The second area where help is needed is
cajan, Leucaena, can give up to three in matching the socioeconomic
tons of biomass from the perennial requirements of a technology to the
legumes, which can then be used as resource and cultural characteristics of the
animal feed. intended customer. In the Amhara region,
as elsewhere in the world, the biophysical
has received greater attention than the
9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR socioeconomic aspect of agriculture.
TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION,
ASSESSMENT, AND DISSEMINATION There is also need for assistance in
integrating the biophysical with the
There still remains the question of how the socioeconomic components through
regional research units staffed with mostly interdisciplinary, participatory research.

37
Given the current situation, several 10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND
subject matter areas require technical INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
backstopping in most regional research
units. These areas include livestock The purpose of the action plan is to
management, pest management, crop strengthen the capacity of the Amhara
management, soil fertility, soil and water regional food and agricultural research
conservation, agricultural economics and unit to design and conduct adaptive
participatory research. farmer-identified, on-farm research. The
means to strengthen research capacity
To be effective, one to two individuals includes:
should be stationed in the region to
support local staff, but primarily to work • Institutionalizing participatory adaptive
with regional researchers to identify research to transform a top-down,
problem areas needing the attention of supply-driven technology transfer to
outside experts. Dependence on outside one that is bottom-up and demand-
technical services can be effective if there driven.
is a large pool of specialists, experienced • Training research staff to apply modern
with developing country problems and information and communication tech-
conditions, who can be called upon for nology to promote effective interaction
assistance on a timely basis. Fortunately and communication with other
for the Amhara region, EARO, the IARCs researchers, development agents and
and the large pool of U.S. scientists households in the region and to enable
involved with USAID’s Collaborative researchers to access the global
Research Support Program can be called knowledge base needed to increase
upon. research productivity and efficiency.
• Enhancing research productivity and
The one advantage the CRSPs have over efficiency by upgrading research
other research organization is that the facilities, modernizing outdated lab-
CRSPs are research, education and oratory equipment and analytical
extension institutions. For this reason, methods and ensuring a reliable supply
when U.S. scientists are invited to assist of laboratory chemical supplies.
in short-term technical assistance
assignments, they should also be viewed The results stemming from implementing
as potential advisors to prospective the action plan will be verified by four
students from the region. The technical indicators of food security. These
assistance effort should not be an end in indicators are quantitatively linked to four
itself, but should be used as a basis for properties of sustainable agroeco-
initiating long-term relationships between systems. The first indicator is increased
U.S. universities and the people of the production and productivity. This indicator
Amhara region. While it is for the regional is measured in terms of yield increases
authorities to determine whether such (production) and increased profitability
relationships develop, the CRSPs are (productivity).
geared to operate in this way.
The second indicator measures reduction
in yield fluctuations (feast or famine)
under the new research paradigm. The

38
coefficient of variation (CV) obtained from tion and productivity, increased stability,
analysis of several years of regional increased resiliency, and increased
production data will indicate improve- equitability, would measure the health and
ments in production stability. A high CV sustainability of the region’s agroeco-
indicates high instability and a low CV system. To attain food security, all four
indicates progress towards elimination of indicators of sustainable agroecosystems
famine. must show continued improvement to
keep pace with population expansion. The
The third indicator measures the capacity aim of the Amhara National Regional
of the region’s agroecosystems to State Food Security Program is to ensure
withstand and/or recover from stresses and that households have sufficient access to
perturbations. Results of stresses on nutritious food either through agricultural
Amharan crops include declining soil production or earning enough income to
fertility, increasing human malnutrition and purchase it.
increasing land degradation. Pertur-bations
are catastrophic episodes such as hail,
earthquakes and extremely high rainfall 11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET
events that occur once in 25, 50 or 100 CATEGORIES
years. One does not need to wait 100 years
to experience a 100-year rainfall event. It Proposed budget line items for imple-
may occur next year and the Amhara menting the action plan.
region must begin to prepare for such
events immediately. This indicator 11.1. Institutionalizing Adaptive,
measures the resiliency of the agro- Participatory Research
ecosystem. Resiliency can be measured in
terms of increased biodiversity, reduced 11.1.1. Researcher/development
soil loss, hectares of reforested area per agent/farmer training workshops
annum and reduced dependence on food
aid. Increasing biodiversity is critical to 11.1.1.2. Travel
improving household diets. Fruit and
vegetable products need to be integrated 11.1.1.3. Perdiem
into a farming systems dominated by cereal
crops. 11.1.1.4. Training materials and supplies

The fourth indicator measures equitability, 11.1.1.5. Rentals

which is the degree to which the benefits
derived from the agroecosystems are 11.1.2. Consultants
equally shared. This property can be
measured by monitoring the mean 11.1.2.1. Travel
household income and its variance. The
aim is to increase household income and 11.1.2.2. Perdiem
reduce the gap (variance) between rich
and poor farmers. 11.1.2.3. Fees

The four indicators of an efficient research

organization, namely, increased produc-

39
11.2. Training, Mentoring and Higher 11.4. Modernizing Research Facilities
Education and Supply Delivery System

11.2.1. Training in laboratory 11.4.1. Research facilities

techniques, such as use of
instruments 11.4.1.1. Repairs

11.2.1.1. Travel 11.4.1.2. New construction

11.2.1.2. Perdiem 11.4.2. Laboratory

11.2.1.3. Training supplies 11.4.2.1. Repairs

11.2.2. Mentoring of young scientists 11.4.2.2. New construction

11.2.2.1. Travel 11.4.3. Equipment

11.2.2.2. Perdiem 11.4.3.1. Repairs

11.2.2.3. Fees 11.4.3.2. New equipment

11.2.3. Higher education in advanced 11.4.4. Assured maintenance services

research institutions and supply of chemicals

11.2.3.1. Graduate student stipend, 11.4.4.1. Maintenance fees

travel, expenses
11.4.4.2. Chemicals and supplies
11.2.3.2. Support for in-country research
needed for degree requirement 11.5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial
Data Base
11.2.3.3. Travel and perdiem for advisor
11.5.1. GIS training
11.3. Modernizing Computer and
Communication Technology 11.5.2. GIS hardware/software

11.3.1. Local area networks 11.5.3. High resolution satellite imagery

11.3.2. Hardware/software 11.5.4. Data storage and retrieval

11.3.3. Telephones 11.5.5. Data interpretation

11.3.4. Consultants 11.5.6. Retrieving, collating, and geo-

referencing existing data
11.3.5. Access to internet
11.5.7. Consultant services

40
12.0 ANNEXES in the Southeast Asia Research
Management at the University of
12.1 Research Assessment Team Wisconsin-Madison and conducts research
with the SANREM Global Program/
Goro Uehara University of Georgia on assessing
TEAM LEADER decision maker priorities in natural
Professor of Soil Science resources management in Southeast Asia.
Dept. of Agronomy and Soil Science
1910 East West Road, Sherm 101 D. Keith Cassel
University of Hawaii at Manoa Professor
Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A. Department of Soil Science
E-mail: [email protected] North Carolina State University
Tel. (808) 956-6593, Fax.( 808) 956-6539 3410 Williams Hall
Box 7619
Dr. Uehara is director of the Soil Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A.
Management Collaborative Support E-mail: [email protected]
Program (CRSP), scientific liaison officer
to the International Institute for Tropical Dr. Cassel conducts research in applied
Agriculture and member of the Board for and soil physics, soil conservation on
International Food and Agricultural steeplands, tillage, irrigation, and
Development. He is a member and fellow landscape processes. He is a member of
of the American Association for the the Soil Management CRSP. He has
Advancement of Science, American experience in land clearing, land
Society of Agronomy, Crop Science reclamation, tillage, and soil management
Society of America, and Soil Science research in Honduras, Indonesia, Peru,
Society of America. Philippines, and Nicaragua. As a member
of the graduate faculty he has supervised
Gladys Buenavista numerous domestic and foreign graduate
Visiting Scientist students. Dr. Cassel is a past president of
Dept. Of Agriculture and Applied the Soil Science Society of America.
Economics
University of Wisconsin-Madison Frederick R. Cox
Taylor Hall, 427 Lorch St. Emeritus Professor
Madison, WI 53706-1503, U.S.A. Department of Soil Science
E-mail: [email protected] North Carolina State University
3410 Williams Hall
Dr. Buenavista=s areas of work include Box 7619
Rural Sociology, Participatory Research Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A.
for Development, Natural Resource
Management and Planning, and Dr. Cox’s specialty is soil fertility, espe-
Monitoring and Evaluation. She is cially in the areas of soil test evaluation
affiliated with the Sustainable Agriculture and nutrient sorption. He has worked
and Natural Resources Management extensively with a number of micro-
(SANREM) CRSP. She coordinated the nutrients and macronutrients. His work
implementation of SANREM in Southeast with phosphorus is the basis for that
Asia from 1994-99. She currently serves section of the Nutrient Management

41
Support System. Dr. Cox is internationally Blacksburg, VA 24061-0334, U.S.A.
recognized for his contributions to the field Tel. (540) 231-3516; Fax (540) 231-3519
of soil fertility and plant nutrition. He is E-mail: [email protected]
currently involved in an internationally
collaborative effort to develop a Dr. Brhane Gebrekidan is the Program
computerized nutritional management Director of the Integrated Pest
decision support system. Management Collaborative Research
Suppport Program (IPM CRSP) managed
Thomas W. Crawford, Jr. by Virginia Tech. He is a plant breeder by
INTSORMIL-International Sorghum/Millet profession. Dr. Brhane has worked for
Research Program both CIMMYT and ICRISAT for five years
University of Nebraska-Lincoln each serving as a breeder and regional
113 Biochemistry Hall team leader for Eastern and Southern
Lincoln, NE 68583-0748, U.S.A. Africa for each center. He has also served
E-mail: [email protected] the former Alemaya College of Agriculture
Tel: (402) 472-6032, Fax: (402) 472-7978 for about fifteen years as maize and
INTSORMIL web site: sorghum breeder, leader of the Ethiopian
http://www.ianr.unl/intsormil Sorghum Improvement Program (ESIP),
and instructor of several undergraduate
Dr. Crawford is Associate Program and graduate courses.
Director of the International Sorghum and
Millet Collaborative Research Support Jean L. Steiner
Program, or INTSORMIL. He has con- US Department of Agriculture,
tributed to development in Africa and the Agricultural Research Service
Caribbean since 1984 as a soil scientist, J. Phil Campbell, Sr., Natural Resource
co-director of a national agricultural Conservation Center
research system, official managing 1420 Experiment Station Road
economic and technical development Watkinsville, Georgia 30677, U.S.A.
assistance, and manager of research. Dr. E-mail: [email protected]
Crawford has done research in soil Tel: (706)769-5631, Fax: (706)769-8962
management, soil genesis and mor-
phology, plant nutrition, agronomy, and Dr. Steiner has been a researcher with
horticulture. He has managed projects USDA-ARS since 1983, directing her
employing remote sensing and efforts towards soil and water conser-
geographic information systems and has vation and water-use-efficiency for
resided and worked in a number of African dryland cropping systems at Bushland, TX
countries. He speaks French, Italian, from 1983-1993 and towards sustainable
Portuguese, and Spanish. agriculture and watershed management
in her current position since 1994. She
Brhane Gebrekidan has served on the Technical Committee of
Program Director, IMP CRSP the Sustainable Agriculture and Natural
Office of International Research and Resource Management (SANREM) CRSP
Development and is a Principal Investigator on a
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and SANREM CRSP project to assess priority
University concerns and information needs of natural
1060 Litton Reaves Hall resource decision makers across a wide

42
range of hierarchical levels, from farm to Management CRSP
local, state, and national levels. She is E-mail: [email protected]
Director of the Research Center that hosts
the SANREM-CRSP Management Entity Dr. David Yanggen is an agricultural and
and guides and coordinates the research of natural resource economist. His research
9 USDA-ARS senior scientists and has focused on fertilizer use, soil and
manages the human, physical, and fiscal water conservation, deforestation, and
resources that support the overall program. agroforestry technologies. He was an
agricultural extension agent with the
Hector R. Valenzuela Peace Corps in Mali, an assistant
Associate Vegetable Crops Extension researcher on the USAID Food Security
Specialist Project for African countries, and a visiting
Department of Tropical Plant and Soil researcher at the International Center for
Science Research on Agroforestry conducting
University of Hawaii at Manoa research on the Alternatives to Slash and
3190 Maile Way, St. John 102 Burn Agriculture initiative in Peru. He
Honolulu, HI 96822-2279, U.S.A. currently works in Quito, Ecuador with the
Tel. (808) 956-7903; Fax (808) 956-3894 International Potato Center and Montana
E-mail: [email protected] State University on the Trade-offs Policy
Decision Support Model as part of the
Dr. Valenzuela conducts applied research USAID Soils Collaborative Research
and statewide educational programs for Project. He speaks fluent French,
the production of commercial vegetable Spanish, and Bambara.
crops in Hawaii. His areas of research
involve the use of alternative production
practices to improve nutrient and pest 12.2 ITINERARY
management in the farm, including
germplasm evaluation, the use of organic January 17, 2000 (Monday)
nutrient amendments, habitat manage-
ment techniques, no-till, and organic Team met at ILRI with USAID’s Dennis
farming techniques. Dr. Valenzuela has Panther, 9:30-10:15 AM
been involved in short-term international
assignments in Nicaragua (seed produc- Team met with ILRI scientists, 11:00-1:00
tion technology, and promotion of export- International Livestock Research
oriented horticultural industries), Japan Institute, http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/
(organic and sustainable farming), Dr. Garth Holloway, economic
Western Samoa (pest control educational consultant; milk market consultant
materials), and Vanuatu (seed production Abeba Misgina, ILRI research
technologies). Dr. Valenzuela speaks technologist
Spanish and Portuguese. Ms. Zelekawork Paulos, ag economist
Dr. Azage Tegegne, animal scientist,
David Yanggen economist; coordinator of ILRI’s input
Agricultural and Natural Resource Dr. Samuel Benin, post doc, UCD, land
Economist mgt study in Amhara
Montana State University and the
International Potato Center, Soil

43
 Dr. Mohammed A.M. Ahmed, post doc; Meeting with EARO Research Directors,
agriculural economist, Livestock 3:30-4:30 PM
Policy Analysis Project, Oromia Ethiopian Agricultural Research
region (IFPRI) Organization
Dr. Simeon Ehui, ag economist; Dr. Demel Teketay, Director of Forestry
coodinator, Livestock Policy Analysis Research.
Project Tesfaye Zegeye, Director of
Hugo Li Pun, resident director, ILRI Socioeconomics Department.
Teklu Tesfaye, Director of
Ethiopia Agriculture Research Research/Extension Link Dept.
Organization, EARO
Team met with Dr. Kidane Giorgis, Meet with Dr. Mike Roth, Director of the
Director of Dryland Agriculture Research, BASIS CRSP-Social Sciences, 7:30-8:30
2:00–4:00 PM PM

Team met with Dr. Seifu Ketema, Director Field Trip Itinerary
General and Dr. Abera Debelo, Deputy Jan. 20, 2000 (Thursday)
Director General, EARO, 4:30-5:30
Traveled by air to Bahir Dar, Capital of
Jan. 18, 2000 (Tuesday) the Amahara Region

Meeting with USAID’s Dennis Panther Jan. 21, 2000 (Friday)

and Dr. Tadelle Gebreselassie, 10:30-
12:00 AM Bahir Dar, Amhara Region
Amhara Regional Food Security Office,
Meeting with CIMMYT representatives, 9:30-11:30 AM
2:30-4:30 PM Meeting with Mr. Yohanes Mekonen,
International Maize and Wheat Head of the Food Security Unit in the
Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Amhara Region, and Research and
Dr. Thomas S. Payne, Regional Wheat Extension Directors and staff from
Breeder/Pathologist, Eastern Africa and Amhara Region:
Mr. Doug Tanner, Agronomist, Eastern Tadesse Amsalu, Research Coordinator
Africa in Amhara
Adamu Mola, Director of Sheno ARC
Jan 19, 2000 (Wednesday) Zelalem Bayou, Food Security Office
Amlaku Asres, D/Director, BOA
Meeting at Swedish Embassy, Kindu Makonen, Director Sirinka ARC
9:30-11:30 AM
Team met, with Johan Holmberg, Visit Adet Research Center, West Gojam,
Ambassador and Vice President of the 2:00-4:00 PM
Board of CIMMYT, and with Lars Met Agricultural Research Coordinator
Leander, First Secretary. Leander briefed and Researchers from several
the team about SIDA’s activities in the Departments. Visited labs for Soil
Amhara Region. Chemistry, Entomology, Plant Pathology,
and Animal Nutrition. Persons met
included:

44
 Henok Gebre Selassie, Soil Chemistry 1:30-3:00 PM
Mulugetta Alemayehu, Livestock Visit with two rock terrace cereal/pulse
Ayalew Kebede, Research/Extension (Lathyrus) farmers in Tach Gayint
Melkamu Ayalew, Plant Pathology woreda, So. Gondar- one of the more
Aklilu Agdie, Socio-Economics drought stressed areas in the region,
Mr. Yigzaw, Horticulture 2,600 m elevation. One farmer was an
adopter, Mr. Gelaw Wale, and the second
Jan. 22, 2000 (Saturday) one was a non-adopter of the Extension
technology packages. Also met with a
Visit to the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, local Development Agent (DA), Ms.
Bahir Dar, 12:00-4:00 PM Maereg Abegaz.
Met with program staff from several
departments including: Agricultural 3:45-5:00 PM
Economics, Extension Communication, Meeting at Extension Bureau Office, So.
Agronomy, Livestock, and Extension. Gondar, meet with Extension Specialists.
Persons met included: Amsanu Demissie, Discuss the following programs:
Aynalem Gezahegn, Getachew Afework, Agronomy, Forestry, Credit, Extension
Mebratie Ayalew, Seyoum Mezgebou, Communication, Horticulture, Irrigation,
Tadesse Amsalu, Beamlaku Asres. Agroforestry, Natural Resource
Management, and Watershed
Jan. 23, 2000 (Sunday) management and Livestock production.
Staff met included: Kokeb Bogale,
Team travels by car from Bahir Dar to S. Mulugeta Geletew, Adlew Teshale, and
Gondar Area Belay Tsega.

Jan. 24, 2000 (Monday) Jan. 25, 2000 (Tuesday)

9:30-11:30 AM 10:50 AM
Visit farms in Village of Saly, So. Gondar, Visit Research Field site for Sirinka
about 3,000 m elevation. wheat, teff, Research Center at Kone Village, Wadla
livestock, Met demonstration farmer, Mr. Wareda, Wello, 2,800 m elevation. Wheat
Anley Wassie, and neighboring sites with and barley screening and adaptive trials.
a Woreda Level Administrator (Extension Also pulse and potato trials.
Expert Mr. Desalegne Berhane) and with
a development agent, Mr. Abebe Lakew. 11:30 AM
Team divided into three groups for Visit Extension Office Site, Wadla
surveys of 1) natural resources/erosion; Woreda.
2) cropping systems; and 3) household Meet with Extension Experts to discuss
members. the following programs: Soil and water
conservation, forestry, vegetable/horticul-
12:30 PM ture crops, livestock, irrigation, agronomy,
Team stopped at Arb Gebeya, Tach watersheds, communication, and
Gayint Woreda Capital, to visit the Friday research/extension linkage. Persons met
Market. included: Ato Tadesse, Head of Wadla
Woreda Development Office. Taderse
Getahun, Agric. Development Officer,

45
Solomon B/Meskef, Bureau of Sirinka Agricultural Research Center
Agriculture, and Belihu Mekonnen, Soil (SARC). Evaluation of 15 tree species for
and Water Dept. high elevation adaptation. 3,000 m
elevation.
Jan. 26, 2000 (Wednesday)
10:00-10:20 AM
10:00 AM Estayish Field Test Center, 3,000 m
Woleh Irrigation Project. With Mr. Kindu elevation. Team visits field test site for
Makonen, SARC, discuss watershed barley, sheep & livestock (horse, cattle)
management in Woleh Area, about 15 production. Will test garlic and potato, but
Km south of Sekota, a 550 Ha elevation is too high for wheat
watershed. Crops discussed included production.
teff, barley, wheat, faba (horse) bean,
field pea, Lathyrus, livestock including 11:45-12:00 AM
goat skin disease problems, and Sanka. Visit of diversified crop farm site.
diversified crops (carrot, cabbage, Irrigated onions, castor beans, onions,
tomato, papaya, onions), grown around faba bean, coffee, gesho, and Olea
river banks . africana tree..

12:00-1:45 PM 3:00-4:30 PM
Meet with Extension Experts at Sekota Visit Sirinka Agricultural Research Center
Irrigation Project, 2050 m elevation. (SARC), Sirinka, Welo, 1850 m elevation.
Discuss the following programs: Meet with Kindu Makonnen (Officer in
Extension, Natural Resource charge) and Center Researchers.
Management, Irrigation, Planning,
Agronomy, Pest Control, Horticulture, 6:00-7:00 PM
Livestock, and Forestry. Staff met Visit Lenche Dima Watershed site near
included: Solomon Melaku, Zonal Hara town, Gubalaftu Woreda in No.
Coordinator; Asfaw Teferi, Extension; Welo Zone. Watershed is 1,500 Ha in
Worku Indale, Agronomy; and Berhanu size. Major crops are sorghum, livestock,
Teshager, Extension. teff, chickpea. Programs discussed
included livestock (diseases), pests and
Visit dam Irrigation Project in Sekota, and weeds, soil fertility/erosion, and other
visit with one of target farmers. Crops: natural resources.
barley, wheat, sesame, sorghum, tef,
safflower; and under irrigation: corn, Jan. 28, 2000 ( Friday)
potato and onion. Sorghum is dominant
in the whole zone, but wheat and barley 2:30-4:30 PM
predominate in this particular area. Visit the So. Welo Zonal Bureau of
Agriculture Headquarters in Dessie. Meet
Jan. 27, 2000 (Thursday) with Administrator and Extension
Specialists. Programs discussed included
9:15 AM Livestock; Beekeeping; Land
Visit Forestry Research Site at Boya Management; Food Science; Soil
Elementary School Grounds, with Mr. Development; Plant Nutrition; Agricultural
Kindu Makonnen, Officer in Charge of Economics, Watershed Management,

46
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), and Woreda Ag Council; Woreda Council
Extension Communication. Persons met Member, Woreda BOA Extension Head;
included: Yosef Tsegaye, Food Security Supervisor of the Bureau of Agriculture;
Office, Dessie; Asres Kebede, Extension and with Extension Experts to discuss
& Acting Head of Zonal Bureau of local food security programs. Discuss
Agriculture, Kiros Tarekegn- Crop the following programs: Crop Protection,
Protection; Hassan Mohammed, and Horticulture, Agronomy, Natural Resource
Tigneh Damtew. Conservation, forestry, livestock, and soil
fertility. Programs discussed with the
5:20- 6:30 PM Administrator of the Sheno Research
Visit the Combolcha Plant Health Clinic. Station included: Crop breeding, livestock
Serves 5 zones in East ANRS. Discuss breeding, crop protection, Horticulture,
the following programs: rodents, water and soil management, animal
entomology, storage pests, weeds, plant feeds, agric. economics, and research
diseases, pesticide application, training and extension links.
programs for staff from sister ANRS
institutions, Integrated Pest Management, Staff met included: Shimelis Tibebu-
and national/international linkages. Staff Head of Woreda Bureau of Agriculture;
met included: Ato Indale, Head of the Tafesse Kassa, Zonal Food Security
Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC), Officer; Yirdaw Alemu; Demissie Degifie;
and Ato Yitbarek, Entomologist. Adamu Mola, Officer in Charge of Sheno
Research Center; Alemayehu Bihonegn,
Jan. 29, 2000 (Saturday) BOA Supervisor; and Kassahun Abate,
Forestry.
9:00-10:00 AM
Visit Employment Generation Scheme- 11:10-11:45 AM
Soil Conservation Food Security program Visit on-farm sheep breeding research
site near Combolcha, Adida Kebele, So. site conducted by Sheno Research
Welo (South of Dessie). Meet with Zonal station livestock researchers, No. Shoa
Food Security officer, with participating Region.
farmers, and with chairman of the local
Peasant Association. 12:00-1:30 PM
Visit the Amed Guya Sheep Breeding
10:30-11:00 AM Center, No. Shoa. 2,900 m elevation.
Visit with part-time bee-keeper farmer (an Discuss the breeding program and the
off-farm income generating activity) on gene preservation of local indigenous
Road to Robit. germplasm.

Jan. 30, 2000 (Sunday) 5:45-7:00 PM

Visit the Sheno Research Station
9:00-10:30 AM facilities with the Center Administrator
Mehal Meda, No. Shoa Region, ca. 2,800 and Researchers. Visit the following labs:
m elevation. Visit the Woreda Bureau of Agronomy/Plant Physiology, Plant
Agriculture at Mehal Meda. Meet with Pathology, Soil Chemistry Lab, and
following personnel: Sheno Research Cereal Breeding.
Station Administrator; Head of the local

47
7-9:30 PM Head of ANRS IFSU, to MEDAC, and to
Team travels by car from Sheno Kurt Rochman, Dennis Panther, Karl
Research Station to ILRI headquarters, Schwartz, Tadelle Gebreselassie, Kindu
Addis Ababa. Mekonen, and other staff.

January 31 to February 9 February 10 & 11

Preparation of 1st draft of report Revisions to 1st draft of report upon

preliminary feedback and 1st draft
February 3 (Thursday) submission

2:00-4:00 PM
Team presentation of 1st draft of report
by Dr. Uehara to Yohanes Mekonen,

48
12.3 ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONS CONTACTED

Household Members
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Gelaw Wale Adopter Farmer, So. Gondar
Anley Wassie Demonstration Farmer, So. Gondar

ANRS Adet Research Center, North Gojam

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Henok Gebre Selassie Soil Chemistry Dept.
Mulugeta Alemayehu Livestock Dept.
Ayalew Kebede Research/Extension Dept.
Melkamu Ayalew Plant Pathology
Aklilu Agdie Socio-economics
Yigzaw Horticulture

ANRS Agriculture Research Ctr., Sheno

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Adamu Mola Officer in Charge, Sheno

ANRS Sirinka Agriculture Research Center

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Kindu Makonen Officer in Charge
Solomon Benor Sorghum Breeder, SARC
Wondimu Bayu Agronomist, Sorghum, SARC

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Bahir Dar, So. Gondar

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Amlaku Asres Deputy Director
Tadesse Amsalu Research Coordinator
Desalegn Berhane Woreda Level Administrator, Extension Expert
Abebe Lakew Development Agent
Maereg Abegaz Development Agent, Tach Gayint Woreda
Amsalu Demissie Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Aynalem Gezahegn Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Getachew Afework Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Mebratie Ayalew Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Seyoum Mezgebou Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Tadesse Amsalu Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Beamlaku Asres Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, No. Shoa

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Shimelis Tibebu Head of Woreda, Bureau of Agriculture
Yirdaw Alemu Staff
Demissie Degifie Staff

49
Alemayehu Bihonegn Supervisor, No. Shoa
Kassahun Abate Forestry

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Sekota, Woleh

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Solomon Melaku Zonal Coordinator
Asfaw Teferi Extension Expert
Worku Indale Agronomy Department
Berhanu Teshager Extension Expert

ANRS Zonal Bureau of Agriculture, So. Welo

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Asres Kebede Extension & Acting Head of Zonal BOA
Kiros Tarekegn Crop Protection Extension Expert
Hassan Mohammed Staff
Tigneh Damtew Staff

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Walo Area

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Tadesse Getahun Agric. Dev. Officer
Tadesse Head of Wadla Woreda Dev. Office
Solomon B. Meskef Staff, BOA
Belihu Mekonnen Soil and Water Department

ANRS Extension Bureau Office, So. Gondar

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Kokeb Bogale Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Mulugeta Geletew Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Adlew Teshale Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Belay Tsega Extension Expert, So. Gondar

CIMMYT (Centro Internacional para el Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo)

POB 5689, Addis Ababa
E-Mail: [email protected]
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Thomas S Payne Regional Wheat breeder/pathologist
Douglas Tanner Agronomist, Eastern Africa

Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC)

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Indale Head of the CPHC
Yitbarek W. Hawariat Entomologist, CPHC

50
Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization (EARO) Headquarters, Addis Ababa
E-mail: [email protected]
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Demel Teketay Director of Forestry Research
Teklu Tesfaye Research Extension Link Director
Tesfaye Zegeye Socio economics Dept. Director
Seifu Ketema Director General, EARO
Abera Debelo Deputy Dir. General, EARO
Kidane Georgis Dryland Crops Research Director

Embassy of Sweden/SIDA Project

POB 1142, Addis Ababa
E-mail: [email protected]
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Lars Leander First Secretary
John Holmberg Ambassador and VP of Board of CIMMYT

Food Security Office ANRS

First name Last Name Position/Comments
Yohanes Mekonen Head, Amhara Reg. IFSU
Zelalem Bayou Staff, Amhara Reg. IFSU
Yosef Tsegaye Food Security Office, Dessie
Tafesse Kassa Zonal Food Security Officer, No. Shoa

International Livestock and Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa

POB 5689, Addis Ababa
E-mail: [email protected]
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Hugo Li Pun Resident Director
Azage Tegegne Animal Scientist
Samuel Benin Livestock Agr. economist
Mohamed M.Ahmed Livestock Agr. economist
Abebe Misgina Research Technologist
Zelekawork Paulos Research Assistant
Simeon Ehui Coordinator, Livestock Policy Analysis Project
Garth Holloway Livestock Policy Analysis Project

51
12.4 LITERATURE REVIEWED proposal of the BASIS CRSP and
Institute for Development Research
Amare, Y., Y. Adal, D. Tolossa, P. Castro, (IDR), Addis Ababa University. 1999,
P. Little. Undated. Preliminary findings October. 10 pp.
from the community assessments in
South Wello and Oromiya Zones of _______. Undated. Highlights on the
Amhara Region, Ethiopia. 41 pp. study to launch pilot implementation of
the national agricultural information
Anonymous. Dryland agriculture research system. 28 pp.
strategic plan. 1999. Ethiopian Agr.
Research Organization. June 1999, 86 _______. FEWS Bulletin (various).
pp. FEWS Project, ARD, Inc. Various.

_______. Bilateral and multilateral _______. 1996. Lost crops of Africa vol.
donors’ profile. 1998. Amhara Nat. 1: Grains. National Academy Press.
Regional State Bureau of Planning and 1996. 383 pp. ISBN 0-309-04990-3.
Econ. Development, Social Dev. Planning
Dept, Bahir Dar. 1998 July. 133 pp. _______. 1996. Background information
on the natural resources and agriculture
_______. SIDA support to the Amhara of the Amhara National Regional State.
National Regional State, 1996. Program 12 pp.
Document (Final Revised). ANRS/Sida
Cooperation in Rural Development, Bahr _______. 1996. Pastoral and agro-
Dar. 1996 Nov. 30. 179 pp. pastoral research strategic plan.
Ethiopian Agricultural Research
_______. 1998. Institutionalization of Organization - Dryland Agricultural
farmers participatory research in the Research. 1999, November. 67 pp.
southern nations, nationalities and
peoples regional state: Project proposal _______. Undated. Joint post graduate
submitted to EC-Food Aid and Food program in tropical veterinary
Security Programme. FARM Africa, epidemiology (brochure). Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa. 1998 Sept. 37 pp. University (Ethiopia) Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine and Freie Universitat Berlin
_______. 1999. Characteristics of Sites (Germany) Faculty of Veterinary Science.
in Ethiopia & Eritrea (wheat 10 pp.
agroecological zones). CIMMYT GIS CD-
Rom program. 1999. 3 pp. _______. 1999. Ethiopian research -
extension - farmer linkages strategy,
_______. 1999 Annual Report: Volume I. The Federal Democratic
INTSORMIL, Sorghum/Millet CSRP. Republic of Ethiopia Agricultural
INTSORMIL Pub. 99-6. 1999. 194 pp. Research and Training Project. 1999,
February. 35 pp.
_______. 1999. Case studies on factor
market constraints in the context of _______. 1999. Amhara National
regional food security and income growth Regional State (Region 3) January 1999
in the Amhara Region (3), Ethiopia (a - July 2001. Integrated food security

52
program. Amhara National Regional Economic Development Bureau. Bahir
State Proposal to the European Dar. June 1999. 118 pp.
Commission. 36 pp.
Badiane O. And C.L. Delgado (eds.). A
_______. 1998. Special report - 2020 vision for food, agriculture, and the
FAO/WFP Crop and food supply environment in Sub-Saharan Africa.
assessment mission to Ethiopia. Global International Food Policy Research
Information and Early Warning System Institute, Discussion Paper 4 (Food Ag
on Food and Agriculture - World Food and the Environment). Jun-95. 56 pp.
Programme. 1998, December 21. 28 pp.
Belachew, M. and E. Frank. 1999. Trip
_______. 1997. Market analysis note #2, report - Discussions with women farmers
The response of Ethiopian cereal in four selected watersheds of Amhara
markets to liberalization. Grain Market Region, September 18 - 25, 1999. U.S.
Research Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Agency for International Development.
Coop. 1997, January. 6 pp. 1999, Sept. 13 pp.

_______. 1997. Market analysis note #3, Buresh, R.J., P.A. Sanchez, and F.
The deregulation of fertilizer prices: Calhoun. 1997. Replenishing soil fertility
Impacts and policy implications. Grain in Africa. Soil Science Soc. America.
Market Research Project, Min. of Econ. 1997. 251 pp. ISBN 0-89118-829-0.
Dev. and Coop. 1997, January. 7 pp.
CEDEP-Consultants. 1999. Agricultural
_______. 1997. Market analysis note #4, Research Master Plan, Vol. 1, Main
Meeting food aid and price support Report (Final). Amhara National Regional
objectives through local grain purchase: State. 1999 Sept. 146 pp.
A review of the 1996 experience in
Ethiopia. Grain Market Research Project, Delgado, C.L. 1995. Africa’s changing
Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1997, agricultural development strategies: Past
March. 6 pp. and present paradigms as a guide to the
future. International Food Policy
_______. 1998. Market analysis note #5, Research Institute, Discussion Paper 3
Revisiting grain movement control and (Food Ag and the Environment). Jun-95.
taxation in Ethiopia: A policy brief. Grain 25 pp.
Market Research Project, Min. of Econ.
Dev. and Coop. 1998, January. 7 pp. Donovan, G. and Casey, F. 1998. Soil
fertility management in Sub-Saharan
_______. 1998. Market analysis note #6, Africa, World Bank Technical Paper No
Food aid targeting in Ethiopia: A study of 408. 1998. 60 pp. ISBN 0-8213-4236-3.
household food insecurity and food aid
distributions. Grain Market Research Dvorsky, J. R., J. Verdin, and G. Artan.
Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1999. Flood risk monitoring in the
1998, March. 6 pp. Greater Horn of Africa using daily rainfall
estimates and a distributed parameter
_______. 1999. Atlas of the Amhara soil water balance model. Am. Geophy.
National Region. Ethiopia Planning and Union, 19th Annual Hydrology Days, 16-

53
20 Aug, 1999. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Inst. Agr. Research. 1998. 37 pp. ISBN
Collins, Co. 970-648-022-6.

EARO. 1999. Annual Report 1997/98. Howard, J., V. Kelly, M. Maredia, J.

Ethiopian Agricultural Research Stepanek, E.W. Crawford. 1999.
Organization. 96 pages. ISSN 1016- Progress and problems in promoting high
7897. external-input technologies in Sub-
Saharan Africa: The Sasakawa Global
Frank, E. 1999. Gender, agricultural 2000 Experience in Ethiopia and
development and food security in Mozambique. Dept. Ag Economics,
Amhara, Ethiopia: The contested identity Michigan State Univ. Staff Paper No. 99-
of women farmers in Ethiopia. U.S. 24. 1999 June. 14 pp.
Agency for International Development.
1999, Sept. 20 pp. Howard, J., M. Demeke, V. Kelly, M.
Maredia, and J. Sepanek. 1998. Can the
Franzel, S. And H. Van Houten. 1992. momentum be sustained? An economic
Research with farmers: Lessons from analysis of the Ministry of
Ethiopia. CAB International. 1992. 303 Agriculture/Sasakawa Global 2000’s
pp. ISBN 0-85198-814-8. experiment with improved cereals
technology in Ethiopia. Grain Marketing
Gemebo, T. D. 1999. Report on the Research Project/Michigan State
assessment of nutritional problems and University, Sasakawa Global 2000, Min.
identification of potential interventions in of Agric. Dept. of Ext. and Coops.,
Amhara National Regional State. U.S. Ethiopian Ag. Res. Org. 1998,
Agency for International Development. September. 43 pp.
1999, December 2. 113 pp.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997.
Gizaw, S., K. Mekonnen, and L. Desta Annual Report 1996/97. Institute of
(eds.) 1999. Lenche Dima integrated Agricultural Research. 1997. 73 pp. ISBN
watershed development project feasibility 1016-7897.
study report. Amhara National Regional
State. 1999, May 24. 88 pp. Institute of Agricultural Research. 1999.
Annual Report 1997/98. Institute of
Hailu Regassa, A.K.S. Huda, S.M. Agricultural Research. 1999. 96 pp. ISBN
Virmani. 1987. Agroclimatic data 1016-7897.
analysis of selected locations in deep
black clay soils (vertisols) regions of Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997.
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12.5 ACRONYMS

ANRS Amhara National Regional State

ARC Agricultural Research Center
AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center
BOA Amhara Region Bureau of Agriculture
BS Bachelor of Science 4-year undergraduate University Degree
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa
CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program
CV Coefficient of Variation
DA Development Agent (ANRS Bureau of Agriculture)
DVM Doctoral of Veterinary Medicine
EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
FEWS Famine Early Warning System
GIS Geographical Information System
IAR Institute of Agricultural Research
IARCs International Agricultural Research Centers
ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
ICRAF International Center for Research on Agroforestry
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
MS Master of Science
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PA Peasant Association
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
RELC Research and Extension Liaison Committee
SIDA Swedish International Development Agency
SMS Subject Matter Specialist(s)
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

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