aSAM BASA GINJAL
aSAM BASA GINJAL
aSAM BASA GINJAL
CHAPTER
AcidBase Regulation
John E. Hall PhD
Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, Chapter 31, 409426
chServlet?publisherName=ELS&orderBeanReset=true&orderSource=ClinicalKey&contentID=B9781455770052000317)
Regulation of hydrogen ion (H + ) balance is similar in some ways to regulation of other ions in the
body. For instance, there must be a balance between the intake or production of H + and net
removal of H + from the body to achieve homeostasis. And, as is true for other ions, the kidneys
play a key role in regulating H + removal from the body. However, precise control of extracellular
fluid H + concentration involves much more than simple elimination of H + by the kidneys.
Multiple acidbase buffering mechanisms involving the blood, cells, and lungs also are essential in
maintaining normal H + concentrations in both the extracellular and intracellular fluid.
In this chapter, we consider the various mechanisms that contribute to the regulation of H +
concentration, with special emphasis on control of renal H + secretion and renal reabsorption,
production, and excretion of bicarbonate ions (HCO 3 − ), one of the key components of acidbase
control systems in the body fluids.
H + Concentration is Precisely Regulated
Precise H + regulation is essential because the activities of almost all enzyme systems in the body
are influenced by H + concentration. Therefore, changes in H + concentration alter virtually all cell
and body functions.
Compared with other ions, the H + concentration of the body fluids normally is kept at a low level.
For example, the concentration of sodium in extracellular fluid (142 mEq/L) is about 3.5 million
times as great as the normal concentration of H + , which averages only 0.00004 mEq/L. Equally
important, the normal variation in H + concentration in extracellular fluid is only about one
millionth as great as the normal variation in sodium ion (Na + ) concentration. Thus, the precision
with which H + is regulated emphasizes its importance to the various cell functions.
Acids and Bases—Their Definitions and Meanings
A hydrogen ion is a single free proton released from a hydrogen atom. Molecules containing
hydrogen atoms that can release hydrogen ions in solutions are referred to as acids. An example is
hydrochloric acid (HCl), which ionizes in water to form hydrogen ions (H + ) and chloride ions (Cl
− ). Likewise, carbonic acid (H CO ) ionizes in water to form H + and bicarbonate ions (HCO −
2 3 3
).
A base is an ion or a molecule that can accept an H + . For example, HCO 3 − is a base because it
can combine with H + to form H 2 CO 3 . Likewise, HPO 4 = is a base because it can accept an H +
to form H 2 PO 4 − . The proteins in the body also function as bases because some of the amino
acids that make up proteins have net negative charges that readily accept H + . The protein
hemoglobin in the red blood cells and proteins in the other cells of the body are among the most
important of the body's bases.
The terms base and alkali are often used synonymously. An alkali is a molecule formed by the
combination of one or more of the alkaline metals—sodium, potassium, lithium, and so forth—
with a highly basic ion such as a hydroxyl ion (OH − ). The base portion of these molecules reacts
quickly with H + to remove it from solution; they are, therefore, typical bases. For similar reasons,
the term alkalosis refers to excess removal of H + from the body fluids, in contrast to the excess
addition of H + , which is referred to as acidosis.
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases.
A strong acid is one that rapidly dissociates and releases especially large amounts of H + in
solution. An example is HCl. Weak acids are less likely to dissociate their ions and, therefore,
release H + with less vigor. An example is H 2 CO 3 . A strong base is one that reacts rapidly and
strongly with H + and, therefore, quickly removes H + from a solution. A typical example is OH − ,
which reacts with H + to form water (H 2 O). A typical weak base is HCO 3 − because it binds with
H + much more weakly than does OH − . Most acids and bases in the extracellular fluid that are
involved in normal acidbase regulation are weak acids and bases. The most important ones that
we discuss in detail are carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ) and HCO 3 − base.
Normal H + Concentration and pH of Body Fluids and Changes That Occur in Acidosis
and Alkalosis.
Blood H + concentration is normally maintained within tight limits around a normal value of
about 0.00004 mEq/L (40 nEq/L). Normal variations are only about 3 to 5 nEq/L, but under
extreme conditions, the H + concentration can vary from as low as 10 nEq/L to as high as 160
nEq/L without causing death.
Because H + concentration normally is low, and because these small numbers are cumbersome, it
is customary to express H + concentration on a logarithm scale, using pH units. pH is related to
the actual H + concentration by the following formula (H + concentration [H + ] is expressed in
equivalents per liter):
1 +
pH = log +
= − log[H ]
[H ]
For example, normal [H + ] is 40 nEq/L (0.00000004 Eq/L). Therefore, the normal pH is
pH = − log[0.00000004]
pH = 7.4
From this formula, one can see that pH is inversely related to the H + concentration; therefore, a
low pH corresponds to a high H + concentration and a high pH corresponds to a low H +
concentration.
The normal pH of arterial blood is 7.4, whereas the pH of venous blood and interstitial fluids is
about 7.35 because of the extra amounts of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) released from the tissues to
form H 2 CO 3 in these fluids ( Table 311 (t0010) ). Because the normal pH of arterial blood is 7.4, a
person is considered to have acidosis when the pH falls below this value and alkalosis when the
pH rises above 7.4. The lower limit of pH at which a person can live more than a few hours is
about 6.8, and the upper limit is about 8.0.
Table 311
pH and H + Concentration of Body Fluids
H + Concentration (mEq/L) pH
Extracellular fluid
Intracellular pH usually is slightly lower than plasma pH because the metabolism of the cells
produces acid, especially H 2 CO 3 . Depending on the type of cells, the pH of intracellular fluid has
been estimated to range between 6.0 and 7.4. Hypoxia of the tissues and poor blood flow to the
tissues can cause acid accumulation and decreased intracellular pH.
The pH of urine can range from 4.5 to 8.0, depending on the acidbase status of the extracellular
fluid. As discussed later, the kidneys play a major role in correcting abnormalities of extracellular
fluid H + concentration by excreting acids or bases at variable rates.
An extreme example of an acidic body fluid is the HCl secreted into the stomach by the oxyntic
(parietal) cells of the stomach mucosa, as discussed in Chapter 65 . The H + concentration in these
cells is about 4 million times greater than the hydrogen concentration in blood, with a pH of 0.8.
In the remainder of this chapter, we discuss the regulation of extracellular fluid H + concentration.
Defending Against Changes in H + Concentration: Buffers, Lungs, and
Kidneys
Three primary systems regulate the H + concentration in the body fluids to prevent acidosis or
alkalosis: (1) the chemical acidbase buffer systems of the body fluids, which immediately
combine with an acid or a base to prevent excessive changes in H + concentration; (2) the
respiratory center, which regulates the removal of CO 2 (and, therefore, H 2 CO 3 ) from the
extracellular fluid; and (3) the kidneys, which can excrete either acid or alkaline urine, thereby
readjusting the extracellular fluid H + concentration toward normal during acidosis or alkalosis.
When there is a change in H + concentration, the buffer systems of the body fluids react within
seconds to minimize these changes. Buffer systems do not eliminate H + from or add H + to the
body but only keep them tied up until balance can be reestablished.
The second line of defense, the respiratory system, acts within a few minutes to eliminate CO 2
and, therefore, H 2 CO 3 from the body.
These first two lines of defense keep the H + concentration from changing too much until the more
slowly responding third line of defense, the kidneys, can eliminate the excess acid or base from the
body. Although the kidneys are relatively slow to respond compared with the other defenses, over
a period of hours to several days, they are by far the most powerful of the acidbase regulatory
systems.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.