CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Wireless Networks

A wireless local-area network (LAN) uses radio waves to connect devices such as laptops
to the Internet and to your business network and its applications. When you connect a laptop to a
WiFi hotspot at a cafe, hotel, airport lounge, or other public place, you're connecting to that
business's wireless network.

A wireless network is any type of computer network that uses wireless data connections
for connecting network nodes. Wireless networking is a method by which homes,
telecommunications networks and enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of
introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations.
Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using radio
communication. This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model
network structure. Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, Wireless local
networks, wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and terrestrial microwave
networks.

A wireless network enables people to communicate and access applications and

information without wires. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend
applications to different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless
networks allow people to interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location that they
prefer.

Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a distinguishing attribute of a

wireless network is that communication takes place between computer devices. These devices
include personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops, personal computers (PCs), servers, and
printers. Computer devices have processors, memory, and a means of interfacing with a

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particular type of network. Traditional cell phones don't fall within the definition of a computer
device; however, newer phones and even audio headsets are beginning to incorporate computing
power and network adapters. Eventually, most electronics will offer wireless network
connections.

As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks convey information
between computer devices. The information can take the form of e-mail messages, web pages,
database records, streaming video or voice. In most cases, wireless networks transfer data, such
as e-mail messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless networks is
enabling support for video and voice communications as well.

1.1.1 Wireless Network Vs. A Wired Network

A wired network connects devices to the Internet or other network using cables. The most
common wired networks use cables connected to Ethernet ports on the network router on one
end and to a computer or other device on the cable's opposite end.

1.1.2 The Utility Of Wireless Networks

The development of wireless networks is still in progress as the usage is rapidly growing.
Personal communications are made easy with the advent of cell phones where radio satellites are
used for networking between continents. Whether small or big, businesses uses wireless
networks for fast data sharing with economical means. Sometimes compatibility issues with new
devices might arise in these extremely vulnerable networks but the technology has made the
uploading and the downloading of huge data a piece of cake with least maintenance cost.

1.2 BENEFITS OF WIRELESS NETWORK

Small businesses can experience many benefits from a wireless network, including:

 Convenience. Access your network resources from any location within your wireless
network's coverage area or from any WiFi hotspot.

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  Mobility. You're no longer tied to your desk, as you were with a wired connection. You
and your employees can go online in conference room meetings, for example.
 Productivity. Wireless access to the Internet and to your company's key applications and
resources helps your staff get the job done and encourages collaboration.
 Easy setup. You don't have to string cables, so installation can be quick and cost-
effective.
 Expandable. You can easily expand wireless networks with existing equipment, while a
wired network might require additional wiring.
 Security. Advances in wireless networks provide robust security protections.
 Cost. Because wireless networks eliminate or reduce wiring costs, they can cost less to
operate than wired networks.

1.3 WIRELESS LINKS

 Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based

transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the
low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are
spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.

 Communications satellites – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which

are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically
in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting
systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies. The systems
divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

 Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless local area networks use a high-
frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio
technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication

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 between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of
open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi.

 Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for communications. In

most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of
communicating devices.

1.4 TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

1.4.1 Wireless Lan

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance
using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for
internet access.

Fig 1.1 Wireless Local Area Network

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 The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around
within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network. Products using the IEEE
802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name.

Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or

networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light
beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more
buildings without installing a wired link.

1.4.2 Wireless Pan

Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small
area that is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible
infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports
WPAN applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers
start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and
Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and
configure.

1.4.3 Wireless Mesh Network

A wireless mesh network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a

mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh networks can
"self-heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.

1.4.4 Wireless Wan

Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such
as between neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to
connect branch offices of business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless
connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using paraboli
dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A
typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other

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configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined
with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be
stand alone systems.

1.4.5 Wireless Man

Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several
wireless LANs.

 WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.

Fig 1.2 Wireless MAN

1.4.6 Global Area Network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile
communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In
IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

The Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) is a global satellite internet network with
telephony using portable terminals. The terminals are normally used to connect a laptop
computer to broadband Internet in remote locations, although as long as line-of-sight to the
satellite exists, the terminal can be used anywhere. The value of BGAN terminals is that unlike

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other satellite Internet services which require bulky and heavy satellite dishes to connect, a
BGAN terminal is about the size of a laptop and thus can be carried easily. The network is
provided by Inmarsat and uses three geostationary satellites called I-4 to provide almost global
coverage.

Fig 1.3 Global Area Network

1.4.7 Different Uses

Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless
networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example: Intercontinental network
systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the
police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses
use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or
across the world.

1.5 PROPERTIES

1.5.1 General

In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and
home users. "Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each
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wireless technology is defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical
and the Data Link layers of the OSI model. These standards differ in their specified signaling
methods, geographic ranges, and frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can
make certain technologies better suited to home networks and others better suited to network
larger organizations."

1.5.2 Performance

Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than the
next depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network. The
performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video.

The use of this technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and,
most recently, 4G technology, which stands for the fourth generation of cell phone mobile
communications standards. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication
increases through configuration of network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send
and receive larger amounts of data, faster, is achieved.

1.5.3 Space

Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many

advantages when it comes to difficult-to-wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street
or river, a warehouse on the other side of the premises or buildings that are physically separated
but operate as one. Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the
network will be able to communicate with other devices through that network. Space is also
created in homes as a result of eliminating clutters of wiring. This technology allows for an
alternative to installing physical network mediums such as TPs, coaxes, or fiber-optics, which
can also be expensive.

1.5.4 Home

For homeowners, wireless technology is an effective option compared to Ethernet for

sharing printers, scanners, and high-speed Internet connections. WLANs help save the cost of

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installation of cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for
devices connected to the network. Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single
wireless access point connected directly to the Internet via a router.

1.6 WIRELESS NETWORK ELEMENTS

The telecommunications network at the physical layer also consists of many

interconnected wireline network elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand-alone systems or
products that are either supplied by a single manufacturer or are assembled by the service
provider (user) or system integrator with parts from several different manufacturers.

Wireless NEs are the products and devices used by a wireless carrier to provide support
for the backhaul network as well as a mobile switching center (MSC). Reliable wireless service
depends on the network elements at the physical layer to be protected against all operational
environments and applications.

What are especially important are the NEs that are located on the cell tower to the base
station (BS) cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna and associated
closures and cables are required to have adequate strength, robustness, corrosion resistance, and
resistance against wind, storms, icing, and other weather conditions. Requirements for individual
components, such as hardware, cables, connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration the
structure to which they are attached.

1.7 DIFFICULTIES

1.7.1 Interferences

Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic

interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate
radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference
can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail.

1.7.2 Absorption And Reflection

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 Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching
the receiver, in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection occurs.
This can cause dead zones where no reception is available. Aluminium foiled thermal isolation in
modern homes can easily reduce indoor mobile signals by 10 dB frequently leading to
complaints about the bad reception of long-distance rural cell signals.

1.7.3 Multipath Fading

In multipath fading two or more different routes taken by the signal, due to reflections,
can cause the signal to cancel out at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places (upfade).

1.7.4 Hidden Node Problem

The hidden node problem occurs in some types of network when a node is visible from a
wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This leads to
difficulties in media access control.

1.7.5 Shared Resource Problem

The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its
transmitters. Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users. Often
users are not aware that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE networks)
are not their capacity, but shared with all other users and thus the individual user rate is far
lower. With increasing demand, the capacity crunch is more and more likely to happen. User-in-
the-loop (UIL) may be an alternative solution to ever upgrading to newer technologies for over-
provisioning.

1.8 CAPACITY

1.8.1 Channel

Shannon's theorem can describe the maximum data rate of any single wireless link, which
relates to the bandwidth in hertz and to the noise on the channel. One can greatly increase
channel capacity by using MIMO techniques, where multiple aerials or multiple frequencies can

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exploit multiple paths to the receiver to achieve much higher throughput – by a factor of the
product of the frequency and aerial diversity at each end. Under Linux, the Central Regulatory
Domain Agent (CRDA) controls the setting of channels.

1.8.2 Network

The total network bandwidth depends on how dispersive the medium is (more dispersive
medium generally has better total bandwidth because it minimises interference), how many
frequencies are available, how noisy those frequencies are, how many aerials are used and
whether a directional antenna is in use, whether nodes employ power control and so on.

Cellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional
aerials, and their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be
made very small using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that
scales linearly with population density.

1.9 SAFETY

Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but the drop off in power over
distance is fast, following the inverse-square law. The position of the United Kingdom's Health
Protection Agency (HPA) is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be
lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should
not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the
effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had
appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says
published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.

1.10 WIRELESS SECURITY

Wireless security is the prevention of unauthorized access or damage to computers using

wireless networks. The most common types of wireless security are Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WEP is a notoriously weak security standard. The
password it uses can often be cracked in a few minutes with a basic laptop computer and widely
available software tools. WEP is an old IEEE 802.11 standard from 1999, which was outdated in

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2003 by WPA, or Wi-Fi Protected Access. WPA was a quick alternative to improve security
over WEP. The current standard is WPA2; some hardware cannot support WPA2 without
firmware upgrade or replacement. WPA2 uses an encryption device that encrypts the network
with a 256-bit key; the longer key length improves security over WEP. The risks to users of
wireless technology have increased as the service has become more popular. There were
relatively few dangers when wireless technology was first introduced. Hackers had not yet had
time to latch on to the new technology, and wireless networks were not commonly found in the
work place.

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF MULTI-USER

BEAMFORMING IN WIRELESS LANS
This paper presents the design and implementation of the first multiuser beamforming
system and experimental framework for wireless LANs. Using extensive measurements in an
indoor environment, it evaluates the impact of receiver separation distance, outdated channel
information due to mobility and environmental variation, and the potential for increasing spatial
reuse. For the measured indoor environment, the results reveal that two receivers achieve close to
maximum performance with a minimum separation distance of a quarter of a wavelength.
Multi-User MIMO promises to increase the spectral efficiency of next generation wireless
systems and is currently being incorporated in future industry standards. Although a significant
amount of research has focused on theoretical capacity analysis, little is known about the
performance of such systems in practice. In this paper, we present the design and implementation
of the first multiuser beamforming system and experimental framework for wireless LANs.
Using extensive measurements in an indoor environment, we evaluate the impact of receiver
separation distance, outdated channel information due to mobility and environmental variation,
and the potential for increasing spatial reuse. For the measured indoor environment, our results
reveal that two receivers achieve close to maximum performance with a minimum separation
distance of a quarter of a wavelength. We also show that the required channel information update
rate is dependent on environmental variation and user mobility as well as a per-link SNR
requirement. Assuming that a link can tolerate an SNR decrease of 3 dB, the required channel
update rate is equal to 100 and 10 ms for non-mobile receivers and mobile receivers with a
pedestrian speed of 3 mph respectively. Our results also show that spatial reuse can be increased
by efficiently eliminating interference at any desired location; however, this may come at the
expense of a significant drop in the quality of the served users.

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LIMITATIONS
 The CFO problem in a wireless system occurs due to differences between transmitter and
receiver oscillators.
 MU-MIMO schemes can benefit from the full number of antennas at the transmitter with
a high number of users.

2.2 CODE-SPREAD CDMA WITH INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION

The performance of an asynchronous code division multiple access (CDMA) system
(uplink) employing very low-rate maximum free distance codes for combined coding and
spreading is analyzed when successive or parallel interference cancellation is applied. An
analytical approach to the evaluation of the bit error rate is presented and shown to give results
close to simulations. Our results show that the code-spread system outperforms the
conventionally coded and spread system. Without interference cancellation the single-user bound
is never reached (except for one user). With two stages of parallel interference cancellation, a
code-spread system with a load only slightly less than 1 bit/chip can obtain a bit error rate very
close to that of a single-user system. The most important reason for this is the flexibility in
supporting different services with different data rates and quality. Other reasons for using DS-
CDMA are less system administration, mitigation of multipath propagation, and higher capacity.
LIMITATIONS
 Despite this impressive property, their performance in practical systems is limited.
 The code rate depends on the constraint length and the free distance of the code for a
given code rate and constraint length is much lower than the maximum obtainable.

2.3 MULTICAST COMMUNICATIONS IN MULTI-HOP COGNITIVE

RADIO NETWORKS
The unique characteristics and complexity associated with CR distinguish this problem
from existing multicast problems for ad hoc networks. This paper formulates this problem via a
cross-layer approach by taking consideration of scheduling and routing jointly. Although the
problem formulation is in the form of a mixed-integer linear program, the develop a polynomial-
time algorithm that offers highly competitive solutions. By comparing the solution values with a
lower bound, we show that the proposed algorithm can provide a solution that is close to the

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optimum. An important service that should be supported by ad hoc networks is multicast.
Although there is an abundance of research on multicast in ad hoc networks, these results cannot
be applied to a CR ad hoc network due to the complexity associated with a CR node (e.g.,
difference in available bands from neighboring nodes). In addition, a single layer approach that is
solely focused on multicast connectivity is overly simplistic as it does not optimize network
resource. In this context, a cross-layer approach is usually necessary, which should include joint
consideration of lower layers, in addition to the network layer.
LIMITATIONS
 There is a set of available frequency bands for communication at each node, depending
on its location.

2.4 SCHEDULING IN SUCCESSIVE INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION

BASED WIRELESS AD HOC NETWORKS
Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) allows multiple transmissions in the same
neighborhood by enabling both concurrent reception and interference rejection via decoding and
subtracting the signals successively from the composite received signal. In this letter, study the
scheduling problem for minimizing the schedule length required to satisfy the traffic demands of
the links in SIC based wireless ad hoc networks. Upon proving the NP-hardness of the problem,
a novel efficient heuristic scheduling algorithm based on the greedy assignment of the links to
each time slot by using a novel metric called Interference Effect (IE). The IE of a feasible link is
defined as the total Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio (SINR) drop of the links in the
scheduled set with the addition of that link. The scheduling algorithms proposed for SIC based
wireless networks either use column generation method (CGM) or extends the protocol
interference model previously used for interference avoidance based communication. CGM
based heuristic algorithms however still has exponential worst case complexity due to the
possibility of an exponential number ofiterations.
LIMITATIONS
 When the neighboring transmissions overlap in time, collision occurs and reception is not
successful.
 A node cannot receive and transmit simultaneously, and cannot transmit to more than one
node simultaneously.

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2.5 EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SECTORIZED
ANTENNAS IN DENSE 802.11 WIRELESS MESH NETWORKS
The primary goals of this paper are to characterize the performance of sectorized
antennas in real-world dense 802.11 wireless mesh networks and to derive practical design guide
lines for directional MAC protocols and topology control mechanisms that operate in this
environment. Sectorized antennas can increase wireless network capacity through greater spatial
reuse. Despite their increasing popularity, their real-world performance characteristics in dense
wireless mesh networks are not well understood. This paper conducts a systematic experimental
study on a mesh network testbed using commodity 802.11 hardware and multi sector antennas.
Our study results in the following main observations. (i) Sector selection should be based on
explicit measurement in all sectors, though the measurement overhead can be significantly
reduced by exploiting spatio-temporal characteristics of the best sector. (ii) Multi-sector
activation typically reduces the signal strength of a link compared to single sector activations due
to antenna design constraints. (iii) Spatial reuse is constrained by characteristics of antenna
radiation pattern in different sectors (iv) Physical layer capture reduces the effect of directional
hidden terminal problem. Finally, we discuss the implications of these observations on the design
of practical directional MAC and topology control protocols.
LIMITATION
 Interference becomes a major problem for 802.11 wireless networks operating in this
environment.
 Sector selection is challenging in environments characterized by non-line-of-sight,
multipath reflections and high angular spread.
 Sectorization can limit the performance of the 802.11 CSMA MAC protocol due to
directional hidden terminals.

2.6 SPECTRUM SHARING FOR MULTI-HOP NETWORKING WITH

COGNITIVE RADIOS
Cognitive radio (CR) capitalizes advances in signal processing and radio technology and
is capable of reconfiguring RF and switching to desired frequency bands. It is a frequency-agile

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data communication device that is vastly more powerful than recently proposed multi-channel
multi-radio (MC-MR) technology. In this paper, investigate the important problem of multi-hop
networking with CR nodes. For such a network, each node has a pool of frequency bands
(typically of unequal size) that can be used for communication. The potential difference in the
bandwidth among the available frequency bands prompts the need to further divide these bands
into sub-bands for optimal spectrum sharing. the behavior and constraints for such a multi-hop
CR network from multiple layers, including modeling of spectrum sharing and sub-band
division, scheduling and interference constraints, and flow routing. Develop a mathematical
formulation with the objective of minimizing the required network-wide radio spectrum resource
for a set of user sessions. Since the formulated model is a mixed-integer non-linear program
(MINLP), which is NP-hard in general, a lower bound for the objective by relaxing the integer
variables and using a linearization technique. Subsequently, a near-optimal algorithm to solve
this MINLP problem. This algorithm is based on a novel sequential fixing procedure, where the
integer variables are determined iteratively via a sequence of linear programs. Simulation results
show that solutions obtained by this algorithm are very close to the lower bounds obtained via
the proposed relaxation, thus suggesting that the solution produced by the algorithm is near-
optimal.
LIMITATIONS
 Due to the unequal size of spectrum bands, it is necessary to further divide each band into
sub-bands (likely of unequal size) to schedule transmission and reception.
 There are many fundamental problems that can be posed for such a wireless network in
the context of rates and capacity.

2.7 TOPOLOGY CONTROL FOR EFFECTIVE INTERFERENCE

CANCELLATION IN MULTI-USER MIMO NETWORKS
In Multi-User MIMO networks, receivers decode multiple concurrent signals using
Successive Interference Cancel lation (SIC). With SIC a weak target signal can be deciphered in
the presence of stronger interfering signals. However, this is only feasible if each strong
interfering signal satisfies a signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio (SINR) requirement. This
necessitates the appropriate selection of a subset of links that can be concurrently active in each
receiver’s neighborhood; in other words, a sub-topology consisting of links that can be

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simultaneously active in the network is to be formed. If the selected sub-topologies are of small
size, the delay between the transmission opportunities on a link increases. Thus, care should be
taken to form a limited number of sub-topologies. the problem of constructing the minimum
number of sub-topologies such that SIC decoding is successful with a desired probability
threshold, is NP-hard. Given this, It propose MUSIC, a framework that greedily forms and
activates sub-topologies, in a way that favors successful SIC decoding with a high probability.
MUSIC also ensures that the number of selected sub-topologies is kept small. It provide both a
centralized and a distributed version of our framework. We prove that our centralized version
approximates the optimal solution for the considered problem. It perform extensive simulations
to demonstrate that (i) MUSIC forms a small number of sub topologies that enable efficient SIC
operations; the number of sub-topologies formed is at most 17% larger than the optimum number
of topologies, discovered through exhaustive search (in small networks). (ii) MUSIC
outperforms approaches that simply consider the number of antennas as a measure for
determining the links that can be simultaneously active. Specifically, MUSIC provides
throughput improvements of up to 4 times, as compared to such an approach in various
topological settings. The improvements can be directly attributable to a significantly higher
probability of correct SIC based decoding with MUSIC.
LIMITATIONS
 With SIC a weak target signal can be deciphered in the presence of stronger interfering
signals.
 If the selected sub-topologies are of small size, the delay between the transmission
opportunities on a link increases.

2.8 JOINT FLOW ROUTING AND RELAY NODE ASSIGNMENT IN

COOPERATIVE MULTI-HOP NETWORKS
Cooperative communications (CC) is a novel physical layer mechanism where each node
is equipped with only a single antenna and spatial diversity is achieved by exploiting the
antennas on other nodes in the network. Although there has been active research on CC at the
physical layer or for single-hop communications, results on CC in multi-hop wireless networks
remain very limited. It has been shown that cooperative communications (CC) has the potential
to significantly increase the capacity of wireless networks. To explore the behavior of CC in

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multi-hop wireless networks, we study a joint optimization problem of relay node assignment
and flow routing for a group of sessions. It develops a mathematical model and proposes a
solution procedure based on the branch-and-bound framework augmented with cutting planes
(BB-CP). It designs several novel components to speed-up the computational time of BB-CP.
Via numerical results. In this paper, CC in multi-hop wireless networks by investigating a joint
problem of relay node assignment and multi-hop flow routing. The objective of this problem is to
maximize the minimum rate among a group of sessions, where each session may need to traverse
multiple hops from its source to destination. The key problem will address includes (1) the
assignment of relay nodes (either for the purpose of CC or as a multihop relay) to each user
session, and (2) the coupling problem of multi-hop flow routing and relay node assignment.
LIMITATIONS
 Most of the results are limited to single-hop wireless networks.
 The coupling problem of multi-hop flow routing and relay node assignment.

2.9 MULTISTAGE DETECTION IN ASYNCHRONOUS CODE-DIVISION

MULTIPLE-ACCESS COMMUNICATIONS
A multiuser detection strategy for coherent demodulation in an asynchronous code-
division multiple-access system is proposed and analyzed. The resulting detectors process the
sufficient statistics via a multistage algorithm. This algorithm is based on a successive multiple
access interference annihilation scheme. An efficient real-time implementation of the multistage
algorithm with a fixed decoding delay is obtained and it is shown to require a computational
complexity symbol which is linear in the number of users K. Hence, the multistage detector
contrasts the optimum demodulator, which is based on a dynamic programming algorithm; has a
variable decoding delay; and a software complexity per symbol that is exponential in K. Further,
an exact expression for the probability of error is obtained for the two-stage detector. The
probability of error computations show that the two-stage receiver is particularly well suited for
“near-far’’ situations. In fact, performance approaches that of single-user communications as the
interfering signals become stronger. The near-far problem is therefore alleviated. Further,
significant performance gains over the conventional receiver are obtained even for relatively
high bandwidth efficiency situations. In a code-division multiple-access (CDMA) system,
several users simultaneously transmit information over a common channel using pre-assigned

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code waveforms. The receiver is equipped with knowledge of the codes of some or all of the
users. It is then required to demodulate the information symbol sequences of these users, upon
reception of the sum of the transmitted signals of all the users in the presence of additive noise.
LIMITATION
 The problem of estimating signal energies during a training period has been dealt with in.
It remains to be seen what performance gains can be achieved with the multistage
receiver over the conventional demodulator.
 The near-far problem is therefore alleviated. The conventional receiver on the other hand,
degrades due to a strong interfering signal.

2.10 LOW RATE CONVOLUTIONAL CODES FOR MAXIMUM

THEORETICAL PERFORMANCE OF SPREAD-SPECTRUM MULTIPLE-
ACCESS CHANNELS
This paper treats a spread-spectrum multiple-access communication system for which
both spreading and error control is provided by binary PSK modulation with orthogonal
convolutional codes. Performance of spread spectrum multiple accesses by a large number of
users employing this type of coded modulation is determined in the presence of background
Gaussian noise. With this approach and coordinated processing at a common receiver, it is
shown that the aggregate data rate of all simultaneous users can approach the Shannon capacity
of the Gaussian noise channel. the author proposed a class of orthogonal convolutional codes for
which a bound on error performance was easily derivable without ensemble average arguments
and which served as a further expository vehicle for the decoding algorithm which was later
shown to produce maximum likelihood sequence decisions. This class of codes provides an
improvement over orthogonal block codes in terms of complexity required to achieve a given
error probability. Most significantly, this class of very low rate codes is an attractive choice for
spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) also referred to as code-division multiple access
(CDMA).
LIMITATION
The entire spreading is dedicated to error control and yet not only is the "processing gain"
exploited fully, but with the addition of coordinated processing, the ultimate capacity of the

20
multiple-access channel in additive white Gaussian noise is also shown to be achievable in the
limit of arbitrarily long codes.

2.11 A DoF-Based Link Layer Model for Multi-Hop MIMO Networks

The rapid advances of MIMO to date have mainly stayed at the physical layer. Such fruits
have not fully benefited MIMO research at the network layer mainly due to the computational
complexity associated with the matrix-based model that MIMO involves. Recently, there have
been some efforts to simplify link layer model for MIMO so as to facilitate research at the upper
layers. These models only require simple numeric computations on MIMO’s degrees-of-freedom
(DoFs) to characterize spatial multiplexing (SM) and interference cancellation (IC). Thus, these
models are much simpler than the original matrix-based model from the communications world.
However, achievable DoF regions of these DoF-based models are not analyzed. In this paper, re-
visit this important problem of MIMO modeling. Based on accounting of how DoFs are
consumed for SM and IC, we develop a tractable link layer model for multi-hop MIMO
networks. That under common assumptions of DoF-based models and additional assumption of
no dependency cycle, this model includes all the feasible solutions by the matrix based model
under SM and IC for any network topology. This work offers an important building block for
theoretical research on multi-hop MIMO networks. The major technical barrier in this stagnation
is the lack of a tractable and accurate MIMO model that is amenable for cross-layer optimization.
Existing models for MIMO based on physical layer channel gain matrices, although accurate, are
cumbersome to handle, due to the computational complexity associated with matrix
manipulations. As a result, networking research based on these models has resulted in very
limited success.
LIMITATIONS
 Recognizing that the maximum rate region by considering all possible MIMO schemes is
still an open problem, our investigation will be limited in the scope of SM and IC.

2.12 Uplink Interference Cancellation in HSPA: Principles and Practice

This paper provides the principles and practice of how interference cancellation (IC) can
be implemented for the uplink in a 3GPP HSPA NodeB (Base Station) receiver. Uplink

21
interference cancellation is a capacity enhancing technique that can be added to a NodeB
receiver without the need to modify user equipment (UE), 3GPP specifications or network
coverage. The uplink of WCDMA was significantly enhanced in 3GPP Release 6 with the
introduction of the enhanced uplink feature also referred to as HSUPA (High Speed Uplink
Packet Access). In particular, the feature introduced the capability to schedule packet data
transmissions on the uplink in a spectrally efficient manner. The key attribute of the enhanced
uplink feature was the Hybrid automatic repeat request (H-ARQ) method that introduces time
diversity in fading channel environments which in turn improves spectral efficiency as well as
facilitates delay critical applications by targeting early packet terminations. The WCDMA uplink
is a multiple access channel. A conventional single user matched filter receiver is strictly
suboptimal in terms of capacity. Receivers with advanced IC algorithms can significantly
improve the system performance. With uplink IC, cellular networks can operate at higher
interference level since the effective interference is reduced after IC.
LIMITATIONS
 Such interference among users fundamentally limits the maximal data throughput of an
uplink cellular system, as well as the maximal number of co-existing users.
 Cancellation is not ideal and there will be residual interference remaining. Exactly how
much interference could be removed depends on many factors, such as channel
estimation quality, data decision quality.

22
 CHAPTER 3
CHOICE OF TITLE
I have selected the paper titled as “Adaptive modulation and coding based frame work to
optimized interference cancellation on multi-hop wireless networks” with my full interest in
“Wireless Networks”.
Interference is widely regarded as the fundamental impediment to throughput
performance in wireless networks. In the wireless networking community, the classical and main
stream approach to handle interference is to employ certain interference avoidance scheme,
which can be done either through deterministic scheduling (e.g., TDMA, FDMA, or CDMA) or
random access based schemes (e.g., CSMA, CSMA/CA). The essence of an interference
avoidance scheme is to avoid any potential overlap among the transmitting signals. Although
natural and easy to implement, an interference avoidance scheme, in general, cannot offer a
performance close to network information theoretical limit. Recently, there is a growing interest
in exploiting interference (rather than avoiding it) to increase network throughput. In essence,
such an interference exploitation approach allows overlap among transmitting signals and relies
on some advanced physical (PHY) layer schemes to remove or cancel interference.
Under SIC, a receiver attempts to decode concurrent signals from multiple transmitters
iteratively, starting from the strongest signal. If the strongest signal can be decoded, it will be
subtracted from the aggregate signal so that the signal to interference and noise ratio (SINR) for
the remaining signals can be improved. Then the SIC receiver continues to decode the second
strongest signal and so forth, until all signals are decoded, or terminates if the remaining signals
are no longer decodable. The beauty of SIC resides in its simplicity. It is a purely received-based
interference management scheme and does not require sophisticated coordination with
transmitters of other nodes. Although SIC has been extensively studied as a PHY layer
technology, its performance and behavior in the context of multi-hop wireless networks remain
unknown.
In this project, Try to answer the following questions: (i) What are the fundamental
limitations of SIC in a multi-hop wireless network (ii) How to maximize the potential of SIC in a
multi-hop wireless network. The limitations of SIC come from its stringent constraints when
decoding multiple signals. Specifically, in order to decode aggregate signals successively, an SIC
receiver must meet a series of SINR constraints for its received signal powers. Further, due to

23
these constraints, there exists a decoding limit for SIC in its abilities for concurrent receptions or
interference rejection.
Due to this limit, SIC alone is inadequate to handle all concurrent interference in a multi-
hop wireless network. Judicious design of link layer scheduling remains critical to enable SIC to
work smoothly in a multi-hop wireless network. Due to the tight coupling of SIC with link layer
scheduling and network layer routing, it is important to consider these layers holistically so as to
optimize upper layer throughput performance. Such a cross-layer design approach is also
necessary to maximize the full potential of SIC in a multi-hop wireless network.
Interference Cancellation techniques are any technique or combination of techniques that
allow an existing receiver to operate with higher levels of co-channel interference. The
motivation of improving a receiver’s performance in co-channel interference is to increase the
spectrum efficiency of a system usually by allowing a greater geographical re-use of frequencies
(although in the case of CDMA systems improved spectrum efficiency usually comes by
allowing greater use of the orthogonal code space).
It is a general principle that a communication system should be designed to avoid
interference in the first place, either through network planning or with effective radio resource
management and medium access control. However, increasing use of license exempt spectrum
means that interference is unavoidable and so the radio system must not only avoid interference
but also mitigate against its presence.
A key point is that the strategies employed to mitigate interference are very dependent on
the source of the interference and its relationship to the wanted signal. The use of interference
cancellation techniques can also make systems more reliable, either by design or by
incorporating additional signal processing into existing systems, where a retro fitment is
practical. Interference cancellation techniques have long been applied to radio systems in
conjunction with adaptive arrays, primarily in military applications, but also in some civil
applications. Adaptive arrays exploit the spatial separation of the wanted and interfering signals
to spatially filter or cancel the interfering signals. In some applications the use of an antenna
array is prohibitive, for example in a mobile radio handset, and modifications to detection
techniques have been devised that permit interference cancellation using a single antenna.
Recently so called Single Antenna Interference Cancellation (SAIC) techniques have
been introduced into the GSM standard where modified handsets can operate at lower signal to

24
interference ratios than unmodified handsets, permitting greater frequency re-use and hence
greater capacity for a fixed amount of spectrum.
Carrier sense, the deferral of transmission while a device senses another in progress, is
the dominant mechanism used in wireless LANs (802.11) to share the spectrum between bursty
traffic sources. Its use derives from the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) model of
communications theory, which states that wireless data can be successfully received when the
signal power (S) sufficiently exceeds the combined power of all interfering transmissions (I) and
noise (N). By eliminating interfering transmissions, data will be received over as large a range as
possible, with higher SINR permitting the reception of higher rate transmissions. Thus sources
can send on demand and as rapidly as feasible. But carrier sense is inherently wasteful because it
discourages spatial reuse. Receivers typically have a large dynamic range, upwards of 60dB in
most production systems, and so a single transmission can be detected over a large area. This
causes a widespread communication blackout whenever anyone is sending, the equivalent of
allowing only a single person to speak at a time in a crowded room.

25
 CHAPTER 4
EXECUTION OF PHASE II
4.1 SIGNAL TO-INTERFERENCE-PLUS-NOISE RATIO (SINR) MODEL

At the physical layer, under the classical SINR model, a receiving node treats all the
other concurrent (unintended) interfering transmissions as noise when deciding whether or not
the underlying intended transmission is successful. This is not a trivial problem as the set of
interfering transmissions is usually coupled with upper layer scheduling and routing algorithms.
In the context of SIC, not only one needs to deal with such coupling with upper layer algorithms,
one also has to deal with multiple transmissions, in the sense that one has to decode those
stronger signals before decoding its own signal (in a sequential order). This sequential decoding
imposes significant difficulty in developing a tractable model for mathematical programming.

4.2 THROUGHPUT-OPTIMAL SCHEDULING

At the link layer, a scheduling algorithm (i.e., interference avoidance scheme) is

needed to address the limitations of SIC at the physical layer. Note that such scheduling
algorithm is also coupled with routing in a multi-hop network environment. How to design an
optimal scheduling algorithm to fulfill certain network performance objective in this context is a
new and non-trivial problem.

In general terms, throughput is the maximum rate of production or the maximum rate
at which something can be processed. When used in the context of communication networks,
such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network throughput is the rate of successful
message delivery over a communication channel. The data these messages belong to may be
delivered over a physical or logical link, or it can pass through a certain network node.
Throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data packets
per second (p/s or pps) or data packets per time slot.

The throughput of a communication system may be affected by various factors,

including the limitations of underlying analog physical medium, available processing power of
the system components, and end-user behavior.

26
4.3 DISTRIBUTED RESOURCE ALLOCATION

It develop a distributed resource allocation scheme with the two-stage queuing

structure and a novel three-way handshake, and show that the proposed distributed link
scheduling scheme still achieves the optimal throughput.

27
 CHAPTER 5
RESULT
5.1 SCREEN SHOTS

28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
5.2 CODING
#------------------------Environmental Settings-----------------

set val(nn) 51 ;# number of mobilenodes

#--------------------- Simulator Object Creation----------------

set ns_ [new Simulator]

#------------------ Trace File to record all the Events---------

set f [open Trace.tr w]

$ns_ trace-all $f

$ns_ use-newtrace

#------------------------ NAM Window creation-------------------

set namtrace [open Nam.nam w]

$ns_ namtrace-all-wireless $namtrace 1250 1200

#------------------------- Topology Creation--------------------

set topo [new Topography]

$topo load_flatgrid 1250 1200

#------------------- General Operational Director---------------

create-god $val(nn)

#----------------------- Node Configuration---------------------

39
$ns_ node-config -adhocRouting AODV \

-llType LL \

-macType Mac/802_11 \

-ifqType Queue/DropTail/PriQueue \

-ifqLen 500 \

-antType Antenna/OmniAntenna \

-propType Propagation/TwoRayGround \

-phyType Phy/WirelessPhy \

-channelType Channel/WirelessChannel \

-topoInstance $topo \

-agentTrace ON \

-routerTrace ON \

-macTrace ON \

-movementTrace ON \

-idlePower 1.2 \

-rxPower 1.0 \

-txPower 1.5 \

-sleepPower 0.000015

#-------------------- Node Creation-----------------------------

set god_ [create-god $val(nn)]

for {set i 0} {$i < $val(nn) } {incr i} {

set node_($i) [$ns_ node]

40
 $node_($i) set X_ 565.0

$node_($i) set Y_ 565.0

$node_($i) set Z_ 0.0

$god_ new_node $node_($i)

$node_($i) color black

$ns_ initial_node_pos $node_($i) 60

#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Node
Deploy~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(0) setdest 565.632 565.686 857.087846001208"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(1) setdest 020.889 1055.421 853.536858138551"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(2) setdest 230.526 1055.723 781.916013625108"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(3) setdest 450.681 1055.145 784.006901824250"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(4) setdest 680.131 1055.195 865.177118325802"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(5) setdest 920.770 1055.176 823.805777461175"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(6) setdest 1170.252 1055.490 845.823522711008"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(7) setdest 020.112 915.439 883.699226800687"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(8) setdest 230.387 915.714 899.418309791714"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(9) setdest 450.864 915.312 797.790163438850"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(10) setdest 680.249 915.778 853.892083351862"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(11) setdest 920.595 915.345 805.616848955002"

41
$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(12) setdest 1170.030 915.895 923.259384636290"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(13) setdest 020.024 775.853 827.732936564938"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(14) setdest 230.162 775.741 860.638413301853"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(15) setdest 450.493 775.160 812.376658263231"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(16) setdest 680.486 775.724 891.391357409163"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(17) setdest 920.068 775.543 799.258497833686"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(18) setdest 1170.509 775.092 905.993927886416"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(19) setdest 020.137 635.425 963.415284382733"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(20) setdest 230.025 635.032 840.969312009778"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(21) setdest 450.372 635.229 768.457420994328"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(22) setdest 680.236 635.806 799.407665263115"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(23) setdest 920.173 635.223 864.881161552687"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(24) setdest 1170.394 635.157 794.871615207125"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(25) setdest 020.729 495.913 740.482887164792"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(26) setdest 230.299 495.954 838.978061524089"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(27) setdest 450.457 495.250 843.464551689249"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(28) setdest 680.978 495.736 883.978247518529"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(29) setdest 920.954 495.334 982.953469141927"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(30) setdest 1170.254 495.374 857.600761712752"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(31) setdest 020.106 355.062 841.228727874247"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(32) setdest 230.068 355.333 904.334546998512"

42
$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(33) setdest 450.951 355.829 935.010925490007"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(34) setdest 680.363 355.535 848.095716443823"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(35) setdest 920.363 355.643 839.723544046864"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(36) setdest 1170.508 355.758 886.721341413921"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(37) setdest 020.749 215.714 780.864266334047"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(38) setdest 230.270 215.805 786.013557480373"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(39) setdest 450.215 215.426 820.974570201410"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(40) setdest 680.061 215.428 882.945528196327"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(41) setdest 920.290 215.416 672.441072172425"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(42) setdest 1170.135 215.104 817.767261270338"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(43) setdest 020.267 075.847 936.069713510224"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(44) setdest 230.230 075.316 905.864588478542"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(45) setdest 450.417 075.810 810.208082949575"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(46) setdest 680.312 075.640 862.973308842268"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(47) setdest 920.589 075.339 796.961861003206"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(48) setdest 1170.699 075.018 804.852890202170"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(49) setdest 584.965 992.805 805.852890202170"

$ns_ at 0.05 "$node_(50) setdest 1047.64 141.098 810.961861003206"

#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Node Random Mobility

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

43
proc mobility { tm } {

global node_ ns_

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(1) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.889 ] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.421] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(2) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.526 ] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.723] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(3) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.681 ] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.145] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(4) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.131 ] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.195] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(5) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.770 ] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.176] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(6) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.252] [expr (rand()*50)+1055.490] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(7) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.112 ] [expr (rand()*50)+915.439 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(8) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.387 ] [expr (rand()*50)+915.714 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(9) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.864 ] [expr (rand()*50)+915.312 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(10) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.249 ] [expr (rand()*50)+915.778 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(11) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.595 ] [expr (rand()*50)+915.345 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(12) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.030] [expr (rand()*50)+915.895 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(13) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.024 ] [expr (rand()*50)+775.853 ] [expr

44
rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(14) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.162 ] [expr (rand()*50)+775.741 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(15) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.493 ] [expr (rand()*50)+775.160 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(16) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.486 ] [expr (rand()*50)+775.724 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(17) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.068 ] [expr (rand()*50)+775.543 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(18) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.509] [expr (rand()*50)+775.092 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(19) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.137 ] [expr (rand()*50)+635.425 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(20) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.025 ] [expr (rand()*50)+635.032 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(21) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.372 ] [expr (rand()*50)+635.229 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(22) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.236 ] [expr (rand()*50)+635.806 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(23) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.173 ] [expr (rand()*50)+635.223 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(24) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.394] [expr (rand()*50)+635.157 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(25) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.729 ] [expr (rand()*50)+495.913 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(26) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.299 ] [expr (rand()*50)+495.954 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(27) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.457 ] [expr (rand()*50)+495.250 ] [expr

45
rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(28) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.978 ] [expr (rand()*50)+495.736 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(29) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.954 ] [expr (rand()*50)+495.334 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(30) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.254] [expr (rand()*50)+495.374 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(31) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.106 ] [expr (rand()*50)+355.062 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(32) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.068 ] [expr (rand()*50)+355.333 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(33) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.951 ] [expr (rand()*50)+355.829 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(34) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.363 ] [expr (rand()*50)+355.535 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(35) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.363 ] [expr (rand()*50)+355.643 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(36) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.508] [expr (rand()*50)+355.758 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(37) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.749 ] [expr (rand()*50)+215.714 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(38) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.270 ] [expr (rand()*50)+215.805 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(39) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.215 ] [expr (rand()*50)+215.426 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(40) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.061 ] [expr (rand()*50)+215.428 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(41) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.290 ] [expr (rand()*50)+215.416 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(42) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.135] [expr (rand()*50)+215.104 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

46
$ns_ at $tm "$node_(43) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+020.267 ] [expr (rand()*50)+075.847 ] [expr
rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(44) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+230.230 ] [expr (rand()*50)+075.316 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(45) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+450.417 ] [expr (rand()*50)+075.810 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(46) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+680.312 ] [expr (rand()*50)+075.640 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(47) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+920.589 ] [expr (rand()*50)+075.339 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(48) setdest [expr (rand()*50)+1170.699] [expr (rand()*50)+075.018 ] [expr

rand()*10]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(49) setdest [expr rand()*950] [expr rand()*950] [expr rand()*50]"

$ns_ at $tm "$node_(50) setdest [expr rand()*950] [expr rand()*950] [expr rand()*50]"

#---------------- Calling Mobility Function -------------------------

for {set zz 0 } { $zz<50 } { incr zz } {

$ns_ at $zz "mobility [expr $zz +5]"

#------------------ Create sink for All Nodes ----------------------------

47
for {set i 0} {$i<$val(nn)} {incr i} {

set sink($i) [new Agent/LossMonitor]

$ns_ attach-agent $node_($i) $sink($i)

#------------------ CBR Traffic Function ----------------------------

proc attach-CBR-traffic { node sink pk int} {

#Get an instance of the simulator

global node_ ns_

set udp [new Agent/UDP]

$ns_ attach-agent $node $udp

#Create a CBR agent and attach it to the node

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]

$cbr attach-agent $udp

$cbr set packetSize_ $pk ;#set packet size

$cbr set interval_ $int ;#set Intervel

#Attach CBR source to sink;

$ns_ connect $udp $sink

return $cbr

#---------------------- Neighbors Calculation --------------------------

proc nnode { } {

48
 global node_ ns_

set r [open "NNode.tr" w]

puts $r "----------------------------------------------------------"

puts $r "Node\t\tNeighbors\tx-cor\ty-cor \tDistance"

puts $r "----------------------------------------------------------"

for { set i 0 } { $i <51 } { incr i } {

set x1 [$node_($i) set X_]

set y1 [$node_($i) set Y_]

for { set j 0 } { $j <51 } { incr j } {

set x2 [$node_($j) set X_]

set y2 [$node_($j) set Y_]

set dis [expr sqrt(pow([expr $x2 -

$x1],2)+pow([expr $y2 - $y1],2))]

if { $dis <251 && $i!= $j } {

set x2 [expr int($x1)] ; set

y2 [expr int($y1)]

puts $r "$i\t\t
$j\t\t$x2\t$y2\t$dis" } }

close $r

CHAPTER 6
REFERENCES

49
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