Epoxy resins, particularly Epon(r) resins, played a role in improving the

performance of automotive finishes during the last half of the twentieth century.

Automotive finishes have undergone continuous improvement. The first auto

finishes were slow drying oleoresinous varnishes, a carry-over from the days of
horse-drawn carriages. Fine carriages were finished with up to 16 coats of
varnish, requiring six to seven weeks to complete. Fast drying nitrocellulose
lacquers, introduced in the early 1920s, significantly reduced time required to
"paint" an auto. Lacquers were improved over the years with better plasticizers
and addition of non-drying alkyd resins for better durability and gloss retention.
Inherently low in solids, lacquers required multiple coats to achieve sufficient film
thickness for acceptable performance. Despite this shortcoming, nitrocellulose
lacquers were a dominant component of auto finishes for over 30 years.

Another major development occurred in the late 1930s with the introduction of
drying oil phthalic alkyd resins, commonly referred to as "alkyds." Alkyd resins
enabled paint chemists to formulate coatings with nearly twice the film build of
nitrocellulose lacquers. Chrysler, Ford1 and others adopted alkyd resin based
finishes. General Motors continued to use nitrocellulose lacquer until the mid
1960s.

The 1950s brought several improvements. Alkyd topcoats underwent an

improvement in gloss and color retention with the introduction of nondrying-oil
alkyds crosslinked with butylated melamine resins. Epoxy ester primers and
primer surfacers became available, significantly improving corrosion resistance of
coating systems. Acrylic lacquer topcoats with improved gloss and color
retention, replaced nitrocellulose.

Thermosetting acrylic topcoats offered improved gloss and color retention,

particularly with the then new metallic colors, and replaced alkyd enamels in
topcoats during the early 1960s.

Until 1962, automotive finishes were three coat: solventborne systems consisting
of a primer, a primer-surfacer and a color topcoat. In 1962, Glidden and PPG
introduced waterborne epoxy anodic electrodeposition primers to replace
solventborne primers. Auto parts and complete bodies were dipped in tanks of
primer. These waterborne primers improved corrosion resistance, eliminated fire
hazard, and were adopted by most automakers. The term "e-coat" became the
common abbreviated description of electrodeposition primers. In 1977, PPG
Industries introduced an improved epoxy based aqueous cathodic
electrodeposition primer that significantly improved corrosion protection.
Cathodic "e-coat" soon became the primer of choice throughout the world, a
position still held at the end of the century.

During the 1980s, the automotive industry replaced the single topcoat with a
color coat and a clear acrylic topcoat, to accommodate new, more colorful
pigments and increased use of metallics. This change provided a more durable,
higher gloss appearance.

During the 1990s, several automotive manufacturers replaced spray applied

primer surfacers with electrostatically applied epoxy-polyester hybrid powder.
Today, automakers have generally settled on a four-coat system for automotive
finishes - cathodic electrodeposition primer, primer-surfacer, color coat, and clear
topcoat.

Solventborne Epoxy Ester Primers and Primer Surfacers Epon Resin Ester
Primers

When epoxy resins became available in the late 1940s, nitrocellulose lacquers
and alkyd resins were the vehicles of choice for automotive primers, primer-
surfacers, and topcoats. In their early evaluation of epoxy resins (1946/47),
Devoe & Raynolds Co.2 demonstrated that an alkyd topcoat applied over an
epoxy ester primer was far superior to an alkyd topcoat applied over an alkyd
primer. The epoxy ester primer improved adhesion to untreated or phosphate
treated steel, provided better flexibility, improved resistance to corrosion from salt
spray and detergents, and reduced blistering during immersion in hot water.

In 1950, shortly after Shell opened its Union technical service laboratory,
chemists Bud Wittenwyler and Bob Bayes undertook an evaluation of Epon resin
esters. They prepared Epon 1004 esters from every commercially available fatty
acid and evaluated a myriad of performance properties of both air-dry and baked
coatings. They found that esters made from Epon 1004 reacted with tall oil or
soybean fatty acids (the choice dependent on the price of the acid), when cured
with a small amount of urea formaldehyde resin, could be formulated into
outstanding automotive baking primers. These Epon resin ester primers provided
at reasonable cost, several key properties desired and needed by auto
manufacturers, particularly:

 outstanding adhesion to metal

 excellent corrosion resistance, including elimination of corrosion where
two dissimilar metals meet - for example, where a chrome door handle
meets the steel auto body
 good flexibility and impact resistance that contributed improved chip-
resistance to the coating system

An Epon Ester water dispersible primer

In 1958 Shell undertook a project to develop a water-reducible auto primer.
Chemist John Lopez and his group at UTSL discovered a way to emulsify a 50%-
solids solution of Epon 1007-soya fatty acid ester and dilute it with water to make
a satisfactory coating. Auto primers made from this system exhibited outstanding
salt spray resistance, flexibility and improved chip resistance. This system had
one drawback: it could not be applied satisfactorily by electrostatic spray, a
method rapidly being adopted by the automotive industry. Soon after Lopez's
water-reducible Epon resin formulation was introduced to the paint industry, the
auto industry began moving toward electrodeposition. This once promising
waterborne epoxy primer was never used commercially.

Electrodeposition: Anodic and Cathodic

In the early 1960s, a group at Ford Motor Co. under the leadership of Dr. George
E.F. Brewer introduced a revolutionary new concept of applying primer to auto
bodies. They called it electrocoating. The process, more precisely defined as
anodic electrodeposition (AED), was based on the principle of a negatively
charged waterborne primer being attracted to and plated out on a positively
charged auto body.

Clayton May, a researcher at Shell's Emeryville research laboratories, recalls Dr.

Brewer explaining the new process during a visit to Emeryville in 1964. The
entire auto body is immersed in a tank containing a low solids aqueous
dispersion of primer. The auto body serves as the positive pole in a direct current
system; the primer receives a negative charge from the tank or metal electrodes
in the tank. Negatively charged primer particles are drawn to the metal auto
body, forming a uniform, continuous film over its entire surface. After about two
minutes the deposited film insulates the body so no more primer is deposited. Dr.
Brewer noted the following advantages of the process.

 Complete coverage: All metal surfaces were covered, particularly

recessed areas previously missed or inadequately coated because of
geometrical constraints during spray application.
 Reduced fire hazard: Water was the major component of primer in the
tank.
 High primer utilization: No primer lost to overspray.
 Better handling on production line: Auto body could be washed and coated
with primer-surfacer immediately after being primed.

Shell reearch on Electroeposition

Spray-applied epoxy resin fatty-acid-ester primers had dominated the auto primer
market for over a decade beginning in1950 and represented a significant market
for Shell's Epon resins. Revelation of this new electrocoating process which
could threaten a major part of Shell's epoxy resin business, spurred research
activity at Shell laboratories in the U.S. and overseas. In the U.S., Shell
Development Co. Emeryville Research Center (ERC) concentrated on the
theoretical aspects of electrodeposition while the overseas product applications
laboratories at Egham, England and Delft, The Netherlands, worked on
formulations and performance testing. Results of the early work by Shell were
presented in the spring of 1966 at a European Paint Society (FATIPEC) meeting
in Holland. Shell Development, ERC contributed the theoretical portion and Delft
presented practical formulations.

Derek Shingleton, a chemist at Shell's Egham (England) Laboratory, recalls a

humorous incident that occurred later when he was on temporary assignment at
Union technical service laboratory in New Jersey. A Shell Chemical technical
sales representative took Derek to PPG Industries to discuss water dispersible
maleated epoxy resin esters that Derek had been working on at Egham. The
following week, Derek was amused to read in the Sales Rep.'s visit report that
"Shingleton presented Shells new marinated Epon resin ester."

Research on electrodeposition theory at Shell Development Co.'s ERC,

conducted primarily by Clayton May and his group, continued for about six years,
from 1965 thru1971 May's work covered almost every aspect of
electrodeposition. He conducted a wide range of studies on theoretical and
practical aspects of electrodeposition. For example he evaluated numerous
different types of vehicles, including maleinated Epon esters, butadiene
polymers, diallylphthlate and many more. He studied effects of anode and
cathode selection and voltage requirements; anionic valence state; metallic ion
concentration and weight of primer deposited as a function of deposition time;
and a host of other variables.8

May's studies resulted in several surprising discoveries. For example, May

determined that during anodic electrodeposition, significant quantities of iron and
zinc, from the galvanized steel auto body, were dissolved into the primer coat,
resulting in large concentrations of iron, zinc and other metal ions at the primer-
metal interface. These metal ions formed a convenient bridge for passage of
corrosive materials, such as moisture and salt, through the coating to the
interface and were the cause of premature failure of the coating system. He also
pictorially demonstrated that positive and negative poles were formed during
electrodegradation of anodic coatings by salt water. He showed that application
of primer by cathodic electrodeposition (wherein the auto body is negatively
charged and the primer bath positively charged) did not cause metallic ions to
migrate into the applied primer. The obvious conclusion was that for maximum
salt-spray resistance, primer should be applied by cathodic electrodeposition, not
anodic.

May presented the results of his work at the 46th Annual Meeting of the
Federation of Societies for Paint Technology in New York City on October 24,
1968. He won the prestigious Roon Awards Competition prize for his contribution
to the science of coatings technology. May won a second Roon Award in 1970
for a study on the effects of electrodeposition on galvanized metal surfaces. May
lectured on his research and conclusions at local Paint Club meetings across the
country and made several private presentations to major customers.
PPG Industries was the only company to "grab the ball and run with it." They
were major suppliers of AED primers and were already researching cathodic
electrodeposition when May presented the results of his research. Whether
encouraged by May's research or not, PPG did an outstanding job of developing
and patenting CED primers and application processes. PPG became the
principal supplier of CED auto primers worldwide, a position they still hold.

As the result of PPG's major research effort on Epon resin based CED systems
and the apparent lack of interest by other paint companies, Shell reduced its
research and development effort on CED, to technical service support and Epon
resin quality improvement.

The move from anodic to cathodic electrodeposition was a major technological

development that resulted in a landmark improvement in the performance of
automotive finishes. The switch by automakers from anodic to cathodic, was
accelerated to a great extent by results of tests conducted on complete autos at
a test track in Arizona.

Dr. Ivor Pratt, retired Director of Worldwide Research at ICI-Glidden, and Hilary
Holste, retired Director of Resin Process Engineering at PPG recall what turned
out to be a defining test of electrodeposition primers. In 1976, Ford conducted
extensive tests to determine the best AED auto primer. They finished 40
Mustangs(r) and tested them under the worst possible conditions at a test track
in Arizona. This was the largest scale test Ford had ever conducted. Primers
tested included Glidden's butadiene-styrene system, Herbert's maleinized
polybutdiene, PPG's styrene-butadiene maleinized epoxy ester and a few others.
At the last minute PPG submitted a "new product" for inclusion in the Mustang
fleet test. Ford allocated 4 mustangs to test PPG's new entry. The Mustang test
fleet was driven 24 hours a day for weeks on a test track that included gravel
sections and a "hot box" - a chamber in which the test vehicles were subjected to
rain water, salt spray and 100% relative humidity at 100? F. One cycle on the test
track and in the hot box was deemed equivalent to one year's driving under
"normal conditions." The test was designed to provide the worst possible
conditions a car could be expected to encounter. The tests were so severe that
over a period of 5 to 6 cycles, gas tanks were sometimes corroded out!
Ivor Pratt was an observer at the Ford Development Center when the Mustang
bodies and test panels were evaluated. Bodies were cut open to observe the
extent of corrosion protection on interior spaces. Unlike the year 2000
Presidential race, the results were immediately conclusive and convincing.
Glidden's butadiene-styrene system performed better than the maleinized oil
systems, but PPG's "new product" was far superior to all the rest. The winner
was PPG's first CED primer. Ford had modified their electrocoating tank to
accommodate the PPG CED primer to coat four Mustang bodies for the test.

Glidden decided not to pursue the automotive coating market and instead
concentrated on appliance and can coatings. Glidden made a major technical
breakthrough and as a result, achieved a dominant position in can coatings.

PPG Industries' Development of Cathodic Electrodeposition Primers

Dr. Roger Christenson, now retired from PPG, recalls that PPG had two groups
working on cathodic electrodeposition under Dr. Howard Gerhart. One group, led
by Dr. Marco Wismer, developed a CED primer system, based on a solid epoxy
resin as the backbone, with quaternary amine groups. The system was made
water soluble with organic acids. Cure was accomplished with melamine resins.
Although suitable for appliance applications, the baking time and temperature
were excessive for automotive applications. The colloidal stability of this system
was poor, causing operational problems. Although Wismer's was the first
commercial CED system, it was eventually discarded.

The second group, under the direction of Christenson with Robert Jerabek and
Robert Zwack as principal investigators, followed a different approach. They
developed a CED system based on an Epon resin with pendant amine groups,
cured with blocked isocyanates, e.g., toluene diisocyanate. The system cured
well at existing automotive production schedules. The epoxy backbone, which
contributed the inherently good adhesion and corrosion resistance, was a major
factor in the outstanding performance of this system.
Christenson had great confidence in his new CED primer and convinced Fred
Rhue, then PPG's Automotive Finishes marketing manager, to promote CED
against Kurt Herbert's apparently successful competitive maleinized
polybutadiene AED system. As a protective measure, Rhue had taken a license
for the Herberts AED system. Christenson's clincher in his discussion with Rhue
was, "The worst case is they'll fire us both. The best case is we'll have a winner."
The rest is history. Christenson's cathodic system was a resounding success as
first proven on the Arizona test track. PPG obtained most of the significant
patents on cathodic electrodeposition. Years later, on March 17, 1992, Dr. Roger
Christenson received the prestigious Brewer Award "in recognition of outstanding
contribution and service to the development and use of electrocoat."

The automotive industry was quick to accept CED after its commercial
introduction in 1977 because it provided corrosion resistance far superior to any
other primer system. PPG developed several types of "E-coat" to meet individual
customer's needs by modifying the basic vehicle with plasticizers, flow additives
and other proprietary compounds. Most CED primers now use oxime-blocked
toluene diisocyanate as the curing agent.

PPG had to solve many practical problems to develop a complete system

suitable for automotive production schedules. Design and materials for
construction of the anodes had to be established. Conductivity of the system
required close control. Completely new and different membranes had to be
designed for PPG's CED ultra-filtration system, a major contribution to the
commercial success of e-coat. [In the PPG process, the object being primed is
given a clear water rinse immediately after passing through the primer tank to
remove loosely held primer particles. This dilute solution is then subjected to ultra
filtration. Clear filtrate is returned to the rinse cycle and retained solids are
returned to the primer bath.]

There were scale-up problems in making the CED resin. Hilary Holste
remembers that at the outset PPG had no commercial equipment to make the
polymer. A 1,500-gal reactor at the Springdale, PA plant, normally used for
another resin, was pressed into service and supplied resin for CED primer to two
General Motor's plants over a two-year period. They moved up to a 5,000-gal
reactor at the new Oak Creek plant, just south of Milwaukee, and were able to
produce CED primer in 10,000-gal batches. Control of molecular weight was
critical to avoid rough films. This problem was solved during the early years by
adopting precise manufacturing specifications and controls and by monitoring
customers' CED tanks continuously9. PPG's dedication to customer technical
support was another key to early success. Teamwork and significant
contributions by many people resulted in PPG's successful CED process. This
development is reported to have required a team of 25 chemists, engineers, and
technicians working for about nine years!

In a private communication to this editor, Dr. Christenson summed up PPG's

CED development rather nicely: "There is a tendency for everyone who mentions
cationic or cathodic electrodeposition to believe they invented the idea. There
was agreement that such systems would be better (than anodic) due to less
attack on the substrate. The trick was to design a CED system that worked and
cured at reasonable temperatures. This is what PPG accomplished."

An epoxy resin with narrow, tightly controlled specifications, particularly low

saponafiable chloride content, was essential to the successful production of CED
primers. Shell and PPG worked for several months to agree on specifications for
a special quality Epon resin to meet PPG's U.S. requirements. Shortly thereafter,
PPG began standardizing its CED technology worldwide and requested Shell
supply epoxy resin meeting similar narrow specifications from its Epon(r)/
Epikote(r) resin plants worldwide. (Epikote is Shell's trademark for its bisphenol-
epichlorohydrin resins outside the U.S.) This was not an easy task because Shell
employed different processes to manufacture epoxy resins in some of its
overseas plants. After many months of testing and collecting statistical
manufacturing data from three Shell plants (Deer Park, TX; Stanlow, England
and Pernis, The Netherlands) and of evaluating CED production from various
PPG plants, agreement was reached on a mutually satisfactory set of worldwide
specifications. George Velten, who coordinated this effort for Shell, credits PPG's
Hilary Holste for facilitating agreement on worldwide specifications. Being from
the manufacturing side, Holste was understanding of Shell's problems in
developing one narrow specification for product manufactured by different
processes, at different plants, in different countries.
PPG's patented CED product and process soon became the industry standard
for priming automobile bodies. Within a few years, PPG had a major share of the
worldwide CED auto primer business. This enviable position was achieved both
by direct supply from PPG plants and by early licensing agreements with
companies such as Ford Motor (Paint Division), and Inmont in the U.S., Nippon
Paint in Japan, ICI and BASF in Europe, plus others in Australia and South
Africa. Dupont acquired a license with its purchase of Ford's paint business. PPG
later established their own CED primer manufacturing plants worldwide. PPG
continues to develop improved CED technology and remains the world leader in
CED products.

Readers interested in more technical aspects of electrocoating may wish to read

Brewer's "Electrodeposition of Paint", Chapter 34, in Applied Polymer Science,
by Roy W. Tess, Second Edition, American Chemical Society, Washington DC,
1985.

Recent Developments in Primer-Surfacers

Epoxy Polyester Powder Primer-Surfacers

Powder primer-surfacers based on epoxy-polyester hybrid resin systems, are a

recent innovation in automotive coatings. Small volumes of epoxy-polyester
powder primer-surfacers were used at two truck and auto plants in the mid
1980s. These first powders were applied directly over electrocoat primer primarily
to improve chip resistance on rocker panels. In 1983, GM applied full body
powder primer-surfacer (1-2 mils thick) to S-10 trucks at their Shreveport, LA
plant. The powder was an epoxy-polyester hybrid supplied by Glidden and
incorporated one of Shell's Epon 2000 series resins developed especially for
powder coatings.

By 1985, PPG had assembled a world class powder research team at Allison
Park and in 1986 opened a powder manufacturing plant in Strongsville, OH. In
the early 1990s, PPG initiated a serious research and development program to
expand use of powder primer-surfacers on entire auto bodies. Driving forces for
broader use of powder technology in the auto industry included:
·  Enactment of the 1990 Clean Air Act, effective in 1996, requiring lower
emission of VOCs. Powder coatings contribute essentially no VOCs, thus making
it easier to obtain permits for new or expanded facilities, as well as meet reduced
emission standards at existing plants, with minimum capital investment.
·  Need for improved chip resistance due to the new, more aerodynamic, low
slope hood designs.
·  Need for improved ultraviolet light protection for electrocoat primer.
·  Need to reduce/eliminate the cost of incinerating solvent vapors from spray
booths.

Richard S. Tansey, who in 2000 was market development and technical

manager, Automotive Powder Coatings at PPG's Strongsville, OH facility, has
been directly involved in powder primer development since 1992. He describes
the rapid growth of powder primer-surfacer, as "The Evolution Within the
Revolution."10 The following summary of this revolution in powder technology is
based largely on an interview with Tansey in October, 1999.

When PPG introduced their waterborne CED primer, "e-coat", to the auto
industry in 1977, corrosion resistance was the major requirement considered. E-
coat was applied at relatively thin films, 0.6 to 0.8 mils. Solventborne epoxy ester
or polyester primer-surfacer was applied directly over e-coat. About 1981, PPG
introduced "Uniprime(r)" a reformulated e-coat primer that could be applied in
thicker films, i.e., about 1.2 mils. Uniprime served as a single primer for corrosion
protection and chip resistance comparable to that provided by an e-coat and
solventborne primer-surfacer. Several auto body plants adopted Uniprime and
realized substantial savings by eliminating a primer-surfacer. As a result of
developments/ trends in (color) base coat and (top) clear coat, these finish coats
become more transparent to ultraviolet light. About the same time, after a few
years of outdoor exposure, delamination of auto coatings at the e-coat interface
was observed. The specific causes of delamination are complex and a function of
the entire coating system. However the increased transparency of the topcoats
and the potential of the epoxy based e-coat primer to degrade on exposure to UV
light was thought to be a factor.
While nearly zero VOC was a major plus for powder primer-surfacers, several
other attributes had to be addressed to develop a commercially viable product,
namely:

 Appearance (smooth surface)

 Superior chip resistance
 Ultraviolet light protection for the e-coat primer
 Efficient powder utilization.

To produce a commercially acceptable powder primer-surfacer, all of the above

had to be realized at an applied cost competitive with existing systems.

Appearance was found to be a function of base resin type, film thickness, powder
particle size, type of application (electrostatic spray or bell11), and baking
schedule (time and temperature to melt, level and cure the powder).

Chip resistance was found to be a function of base resin type, film thickness,
compatibility with topcoats, and body design. The new aerodynamic, low slope
nose design was more prone to chip. As development proceeded, attention went
from evaluation of chip resistance of the powder primer itself to consideration of
design of the entire coating system, (e-coat, powder primer, base color coat and
clear topcoat) as it affected chip resistance.

Ultraviolet light protection was found to be a function of base resin type and
formulating techniques to maximize UV opacity.

Product utilization was found to be dependent on application equipment, design

of the track that carries the auto body along the production line, air vent system,
sieve screen technology and vacuum retrieval system.

Evolution of a commercially viable full body powder primer-surfacer was a result

of successive incremental improvements in each of the above categories.

PPG evaluated four types of base resin systems for powder primer-surfacers:

·  Epoxy-polyester hybrid: epoxy resin plus a carboxylated polyester.

·  Polyester-urethane: polyester crosslinked with blocked
isocyanate.

·  Polyester- Primid(r)12
·  Acrylic crosslinked with DDDA (didecane dioic acid)

More detailed descriptions of evolutionary developments leading to commercially

acceptable primer surfacers may be found in Tansey's articles and papers.

In 1993, Chrysler Belvedere, IL, plant expanded their use of epoxy-polyester

based powder primer from rocker panels to front hood and fenders, to improve
chip resistance. Based partly on experience at the Belvedere plant, PPG made
important modifications to their epoxy-polyester product, learned how to
manufacture it better, and how to apply it better. By 1994 PPG was confident
their hybrid powder primer-surfacer was ready for full auto body application.

In May1994 Chrysler installed a full body, electrostatic epoxy-polyester primer-

surfacer system at its Sterling Heights, MI, plant. A similar system began
operation at Chrysler's St. Louis assembly plant in October of that year.

From this modest beginning, full body powder primer-surfacer has grown to
nearly 3 million auto body units in the United States and Canada. By 1998,
epoxy-polyester hybrid systems were in use at eight Chrysler plants; polyester or
polyester-urethane systems were in use at five General Motors plants Half a
million more units are expected to use powder primer in the year 2000 and
another half million in 2002. This substantial growth attracted the attention of all
suppliers and has resulted in increased technological improvements in all
aspects of powder primer-surfacer.

Several achievements account for the rapid escalation of epoxy-polyester

powder primer from a few units at two plants in 1994, to over 2,000,000 units at
eight Chrysler plants in 1998. One was PPG's ability to formulate a product that
gave desired smooth appearance, good chip resistance, and eliminated the de-
laminating problem, when applied in thin films (2.0 to 2.5 mils). Another was
improvement in total product utilization, which turned out to be more difficult than
simply vacuuming up unused powder in the application area. All plants are
running at 96 to 98% total powder usage, with the potential to reach 99%
utilization. Panel exposure tests in Florida and experience with automobiles on
the road, indicate any UV degradation of epoxy resin in the epoxy-polyester
system does not occur, as evidenced by elimination of delamination.

Powder primer-surfacer has established its place in the auto industry. The
predominant auto finishing system in 2000 consists of four coats:

·  Epoxy based aqueous cathodic electrocoat primer. Negligible VOC.

·  Powder primer-surfacer. Dominant technology is epoxy-polyester. Zero VOC.
·  Solvent or waterborne polyester base color coat.
·  Solventborne acrylic clear coat.

Future Outlook

It would appear that the inherent properties of epoxy resins - particularly

corrosion protection, adhesion, toughness, and flexibility - will ensure their role in
automotive primers for many more years. However in this dynamic industry we
can certainly look forward to unique and unanticipated developments to reduce
VOCs and to improve the durability, appearance and easy maintenance of auto
finishes. At the turn of the century, it seems powder and waterborne epoxy
systems will be the systems of choice for primer and primer surfacer.

Author's Note

For over 50 years, EPON(r) was Shell Chemical Co.'s registered trade name for
its brand of epoxy resins. On November 14, 2000, The Royal Dutch Shell Group
transferred its worldwide Resins and Versatics business to the New York based
private investment firm of Apollo Management LP. The business now operates
under the name Resolution Performance Products LLP, with headquarters in
Houston TX. Resolution Performance Products acquired the former applicable
Shell trademarks as well as R&D, production, distribution and sales of Epon(r)
epoxy resins; Epi-Cure(r) curing agents; Cardura(r) and Veova(r) monomers;
Bisphenol A; Allyl Chloride; and Epichlorohydrin. References to Shell with
respect to the above noted products and trade names, relate to activities that
occurred prior to sale of the business to Resolution Performance Products LLP.
Editor's Note

This article is an edited excerpt from a book entitled "Fifty years of Epon(r)
Resins, A History of the Epoxy Resin Business," in preparation by John G.
Dickerson. Copyright to the

book is held by J.G. Dickerson.

The author acknowledges the following contributors: Shell Chemical retirees

Clayton May, John Lopez, George Velten, and C.V. Wittenwylerl; PPG Industries
retirees Hilary Holste and Dr. Roger Christenson; Glidden retiree Ivor Pratt; and
Richard Tansey, Market Development and Technical Manager, Automotive
Powder Coatings, PPG Industries

Footnotes

1 Ford operated its own paint plant at Dearborn, MI, for many years. DuPont
acquired the Ford paint operations and plant in 1986.

2 Devoe and Raynolds Co. was primarily a trade sales paint supplier but
conducted research on resins and related materials. The Jones-Dabney Division
developed, manufactured and marketed industrial finishes. J-D was a major
supplier of automotive, appliance marine and container coatings.

3 Harry Howard headed application and technical service work on Epon resins at
Shell's Union Technical Service Laboratory.

4 Hilary Holste, at the time of his retirement in 1998 was Director of Resin
Process Engineering in PPG's coating business.

5 Epoxy- polyester powders and specially formulated e-coats are the newest
developments in primer surfacers.

6 Glidden was acquired by SCM Co. in 1967 and for many years was known as
SCM-Glidden. In 1984, the business was acquired by Hansel Trust and in 1985,
acquired by the present owner, ICI
7 RJ-100 was a styrene-allyl alcohol copolymer developed by Ed Shokal and
Paul Devlin at Shell Development Co., Emeryville California. Shell manufactured
and marketed RJ-100 for a while as X-450. Marketing rights were later sold to
Monsanto Chemical Co.

8 For more information on some of Clayton May's work, see "Dissolution of the
Anode During Electrodeposition of Surface Coatings", Clayton A. May and
George Smith, Journal of Paint Technologies Vol. 40, No. 526 November 1968,
Pages 494-502. Also Smith, G., and May, C. A. Papers, Am. Chem. Soc. Div. Of
Organic Coatings and Plastic Chem., 28, No 1, 480, San Francisco, April 1966.

9 A chemist who joined PPG in 1977 recalls that the first CED tank was filled that
year at an assembly plant in Framingham, MA. He was assigned the
responsibility of monitoring the CED tank and process He commuted weekly from
Cleveland to Framingham for 11/2 years, an indication of the level of service
required during the introductory period.

10 See "Automotive Powder Primer The Evolution Within The Revolution"

presented at SUCAR XVIII, 1997. Copyright by SUCAR est organisa par
SURFACES 25 rue Dagarno - 75012 PARIS. Also "Environmental Aspects of
Automotive Powder Primer", International Body Engineering Conference,
October 1996. Copyright International Body Engineering Conference, Warren, MI
48092.

11 Auto body is positively charged; powder is negatively charged. Bell is an

application process developed by SAMES around 1995. Powder is introduced
through a center tube, falls onto a rotating disc where it receives a charge and is
distributed onto the car body like a waterfall in the shape of a bell.