Material 7 PDF

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Chapter 7
CHEMICAL BONDS
LEWIS SYMBOLS
LEWIS FORMULAS
MULTIPLE LEWIS STRUCTURES: FORMAL CHARGES
IONIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDS
IONIC VS COVALENT COMPOUNDS: GENERAL PROPERTIES
ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND POLARITY OF BONDS
VSEPR AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
LEWIS SYMBOLS
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to write Lewis symbols of atoms. (See
Workbook for the Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
Lewis symbols and formulas help in illustrating and understanding chemical bonding as
well as in determining molecular geometry. Lewis structure was named after G.N. Lewis,
who first conceived the use of the structure in 1902.
SY 2019-2020 3rd Pilot Release Edition (Copy right protected, Sec. 172.1a of RA 8293, created in 2016
first pilot release in SY 2017-2018). Author: Camilo Apita Tabinas, Ph.D., R.Ch.
146
Lewis structure (symbol and formula) or Electron-dot structure represents how the
valence electrons among atoms are arranged in the molecule. Thus, it plays a role in
determining molecular geometry. Lewis’s structure also shows how the noble gas electron
configuration is achieved in forming stable compounds. Therefore, it helps in illustrating
and understanding chemical bonds.
Lewis symbol of an atom is written as follows:
1. Determine the valence electron of the atom

2. Write the symbol of the atom
3. Enclose the symbol with imaginary square
4. Write the valence electrons as dots around each side of the imaginary square. (one way
of doing this is to write one dot at a time per side of the square before pairing). You may
start on any side.
5. Both dots in a pair should approximately be of the same distance from the atom’s
written symbol.
Example. Lewis symbols of Germanium and Krypton Solution:

1. Determine the valence electrons of the atom
From the Periodic table Germanium, belongs to Group IV A. Thus, it has a valence
electron of 4. Krypton belongs to Group VIIIA. Thus, it has a valence electron of 8.
2. Write the symbols of the atom
Germanium has the symbol Ge, while krypton ha the symbol Kr.
3. Enclose the symbol with an imaginary square.

Ge Kr
4. Write the valence electrons as dots to the sides of the imaginary square.
Ge
Kr
147
The Lewis symbol of germanium is
Ge
The Lewis symbol of krypton is
Kr
LEWIS FORMULAS
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to write the Lewis formulas of ions and
molecules correctly. (See Workbook for the Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
In Writing Lewis formulas, it is important to note that atoms should attain the noble
gas electron configuration to form a stable compound. It should also be noted that most
of the noble gases have eight (8) valence electrons. So, generally, for an atom to be stable,
it should attain eight (8) valence electrons the same as the noble gases (except that of He
that has two (2) valence electrons). This rule is known as the Octet Rule (take note that
this rule has exceptions).
The following are methods on how to determine the Lewis formula.
Method 1.
1. Determine the covalency number of each atom involved.
Ex. SO2
Covalency number of S is 2
Covalency number of O is also 2
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2. Write the Lewis symbol of each atom

Oxygen (O) belongs to Group 6 so, it has valence electrons of 6. The Lewis symbol is
O
Sulfur (S) belongs to Group 6. So, it has valence electrons of 6. The Lewis symbol is
3. Decide the central atom
The central atom is S
4. Write single bonds to join the atoms
O-S- O
5. Inspect if the octet rule is followed by counting the valence electrons of each atom
All atoms violate the Octet Rule: Each O atom has only seven valence electrons,
although S followed the Octet rule.
6. Write multiple bonds, if necessary, to satisfy the Octet Rule.

O = S - O and O - S = O are the possible structures where all the atoms follow the
Octet Rule
O= S -O O–S=O
Method 2
1. Count the total number of valence electrons of SO 2 S = 6 O = 6 Total Ve- = 1 (6) + 2
(6) = 6 + 12 = 18
2. Draw the skeletal structure of the molecule using single bonds

O - S–O
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3. Count the no. of bonded electron

There are two (2) bonds. Thus, there are four (4) bonded electrons.
4. Place the remaining electrons as lone pairs for the atoms to follow the Octet Rule.
Remaining e = (Total Ve) – (bonded electrons) = 18 - 4 = 14
5. Write multiple bonds. Place in the structure all the 14 remaining electrons, either as
multiple-bonds or lone pairs, to satisfy, as much as possible, the Octet Rule.
O = S - O and O - S = O are the possible structures where all the atoms follow the
Octet Rule
Method 3
Step 1 Find the total number of valence electrons TNve
TNve = 2(v.e of N) + 1 (v.e of O) = 2(5) + 1 (6)= 16
Step 2. Determine the number of electrons required for all the atoms (Ner)
Ner = 2 x ( No. of H atoms) + 8 (No. of other atoms)

= 2 x(0) + 8 (3) = 24
Step 3. Determine the number of bonding electrons (Nbe)
Nbe = Ner - TNve = 24 – 16 = 8
Step 4. Determine the number of bonds (Nb). Then write the structure
Nb = Nbe/2 = 8/2 = 4
The structure is N=N=O with four bonds
150
Step 5. Determine the number of the nonbonding electron (Nnbe). Then write the Lewis
structure
Nnbe = Tnve - Nbe = 16-8 = 8
The Lewis structure is
N=N=O with eight nonbonding electrons
Step 6. Determine the formal charge of each atom

Formal charge = + (Nve) – ½ (Nbe) – (Nnbe)
FC for N = +5 -1/2 (4) -4 = +5-2-4 = 1-

FC for the 2nd N = +5 -1/2 (8) -0 = +5-4-0 =1+
FC for O = +6-1/2 (4) –(4) = +6-2-4 = 0
For students: Write the Lewis structure of SO42- and NH41+ using Method 3
FORMAL CHARGES
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to write the most stable Lewis
formulas of molecules and ions based on formal charges. (See Workbook for the
Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
In Writing the Lewis Structures, there are cases when multiple Lewis
structures are possible. To resolve this, the most plausible is preferred. Plausibility,
in this case, can be assessed by determining the formal charges of the atoms in the
structure as follows:
(1) The molecule that carries the least number of formal charges of atoms is the
most stable.
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(2) Negative formal charge should be in the more electronegative atoms or else not
stable.
Note: Formal charges are not real charges of atoms. They are just aids in deciding the
most preferred Lewis structure.
Guide in assessing plausibility of the Lewis formula based on formal charges
1. For molecule, the sum of the formal charges = 0

For cation, the sum of the fomal charges is positive
For anion, the sum of the formal charges is negative
2. An atom whose Lewis structure is exactly the structure on its

covalency number has no formal charge ( or zero)
3. Adjacent charge rule: the same charge atoms adjacent to each

other the bonds tend to break. Thus, two atoms bonded together should not
have the same charge sign.
4. violation of #1,#2, and #3 above are usually not an accurate

representation of the molecule or ion..
The formula in determining the formal charges is:
Example: Decide which of the following Lewis structures of N 2O is the least plausible, thus
not the correct Lewis formula.
(a) N – N = O (b) N = N – O (c) N= N= O
For structure (a)

(a) N – N = O Group # in # valence e- or By inspecting the written Formal
the periodic Nve structures charge
table # shared e- or # unshared e or (FC)
Nbe Nnbe
N 5 5 2 6 2-
N 5 5 6 2 0
O 6 6 4 4 0
Decision: Lewis structure is not Plausible (This is a molecule the sum of the charges should be zero, not 2-)
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For structure (b)

(b) N = N – O Group # in # valence e- or By inspecting the written Formal
the periodic Nve structures charge(FC)
table # shared e- or # unshared e or
Nbe Nnbe
N V 5 4 4 1-
N V 5 6 2 0
O VI 6 2 6 1-
Decision: Lewis structure is not Plausible (This is a molecule the sum of the charges should be zero, not 2-)
For structure (c)

(c) N= N= O Group # in the # valence e- or By inspecting the written Formal
periodic table Nve structures charge (FC)
# shared e- of # unshared e or
Nbe Nnbe
N V 5 4 4 1-
N V 5 8 0 1+
O VI 6 4 4 0
Decision: Lewis structure is plausible (This is a molecule the sum of the charges should be zero)
IONIC BOND
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to illustrate the formation of cations, anions,
and ionic bonds. (See Workbook for the Activity)
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
The ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Positively charged ions are called cations. Negatively charged ions are called anions.
SY 2019of th-e molecule or ion..2020 3rd Pilot Release E dition (Copy right protected, Sec. 172.1a of RA
8293, created in 2016 first pilot release in SY 2017-2018). Author: Camilo Apita Tabinas, Ph.D., R.Ch.
153
Cations are formed when neutral metallic atoms lose valence electrons. Anions are
formed when neutral non-metal atoms gain electrons. Opposite charges attract. So, cation
and anion attract each other. The attraction between oppositely charged particles (ions)
is called an ionic bond. The compounds formed through ionic bonding are generally called
ionic compounds.
Atoms with low ionization energy like metals are those that quickly form cations.
Those with high ionization energy, such as the non-metals, form anions. It follows that an
ionic compound is composed of a metal and a non-metal or a metal and a group of non-
metals. So, looking at the formula of a compound, one can tell an ionic compound. Say,
Sodium chloride, NaCl. Sodium (Na) is a metal, and chlorine (Cl) is a non-metal. Thus, NaCl
is an ionic compound.
Illustration 1. Cation formation. Metals quickly lose valence electrons to form cations
Reactant side Product side
1+
Na . Na + 1e -
1 s2 2 s 2 2p 6 3 s 1 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3 s0
Sodium Sodium ion
Illustration 2 Anion formation. Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form anions.
Reactant side Product side
Cl + 1e- Cl1-
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Chlorine chloride
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Illustration 3 Ionic bond formation of NaCl
Na + Cl [Na] + [ Cl ]1- [Na] 1+ 1- [ Cl ] or NaCl

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s0 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
(electrostatic attraction between opposite charges,
ionic bond)
COVALENT BONDS
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to illustrate covalent bonds’ formation using
the Lewis symbols. (See Workbook for the Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
For non-metals, becoming a cation or anion is not the way to attain the noble gas
electron configuration and become stable. Non-metals, like other atoms, endeavor to
exist in a stable form. They do this by sharing each other valence electrons (v.e-) to attain
the noble gas electron configuration. They either share their valence electrons with other
kinds of atoms or of the same kind. Illustration 01 – sharing valence electrons with an
atom of the same kind (covalent elements)
Cl . + Cl . Cl : Cl or Cl 2
[Ne ]3s 2 3p5 [Ne ]3s2 3p5 each Cl has [Ne]3s2 3p6
7 v.e - 7v.e - each Cl has 8v.e -
Argon (Ar), a no ble gas, has electron configuration: [ Ne]3 s2 3p6
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Notice the following:
1. The atoms involved are non-metals.

2. Each chlorine atom (at the reactant side) has seven v.e-. To attain stability, each attained a
v.e- of 8 (following the Octet rule).
3. The two chlorine atoms approached each other and shared their v.e- (see the Lewis formula
at the product side). Each of the chlorine atoms now has the electron configuration of a
noble gas, Argon (Ar).
4. The two chlorine atoms attained the noble gas electron configuration by sharing each other
valence electrons.
So, where is the covalent bond?
The bonding in covalent bond happened when the attraction between each atom’s nuclei
to the shared eight valence electrons. The nucleus is positively charged, and the valence
electrons are negatively charged (Fig. 2).
The covalent bond is the shared attraction of the two nuclei to the atoms’ shared valence
electrons.
+ ++
+
Shared valence electrons
Fig. 7.2 Covalent bond – the attraction of the two nuclei to the shared valence electron
Behind the covalent bond

Not seen in the figure (Fig.2), is the electron cloud density between the two nuclei resulting
in an attractive force of the two atoms.
156
COVALENT VS IONIC COMPOUNDS: GENERAL PROPERTIES

OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to contrast and compare the general properties
between ionic compounds and covalent compounds. (See Workbook for the
Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
Some general properties of covalent compounds
Covalent compounds
1. They have covalent bonds as the dominant chemical bonds.

2. They are composed of non-metals bonded together.
3. When dissolved in water, they dissociate into molecules, NOT ions.
4. They are poor conductors of electricity.
5. They are poor conductors of heat.
6. Their single unit is called a molecule. Each molecule is composed of covalently bonded
elements (like atoms) such as Cl2, O2, etc., or covalently bonded compounds (unlike atoms)
such as H2O, HCl, etc. Atoms are covalently bonded together.
Some covalent compounds at home

1. Water (H2O)
2. Spirit of ammonia (ammonia, NH3)
3. Agua oxigenada (hydrogen peroxide, H2O2) - an antiseptic/disinfectant
CH3
4. Rubbing alcohol (Ethyl alcohol, CH3CH2OH; isopropyl alcohol, CH3CH CH2OH an

antiseptic/disinfectant
4. Muriatic acid (Hydrochloric acid, HCl) –used in cleaning tiles and toilet bowl
5. Table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) - a sweetener
6. Vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH) – a condiment to make food sour.
157
Table 7.1 Some General Properties of Ionic Compounds

Property Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds
Ionic compounds are
Composition composed of a metal and a Covalent compounds are composed of non-metals.
non-metal or a metal and a
group of non-metals.
Ionic bonds bind

Type of bond these elements. Covalent bonds bind these elements.
Its unit particle is called the

formula unit. Soluble ionic Its unit particle is called a molecule. Soluble covalent
Name of a single compounds dissociate into compounds dissociate into molecules in an aqueous
unit particle ions in an aqueous solution. solution.
Its aqueous solution (and

The electrical pure liquid phase) is a good Its aqueous solution (and in pure liquid phase) is a poor
conductivity of conductor of electricity due conductor of electricity due to the absence of ions in
its aqueous to ions in the solution. In the solution.
solution and solid form, it does not
liquid form conduct electricity.
They have a high melting

point. When in liquid form,
Melting point When in solid form, they have lower melting points
they have a high boiling
and Boiling point than ionic compounds. When in liquid form, they have
point.
a lower boiling point.
The attractive
Intermolecular intermolecular forces that The intermolecular forces (IMF) that hold the unit
Forces (IMF) hold the unit particles of particles of covalent compounds are: A. within the
ionic compounds are called molecule (intra-molecular)
ionic bonding. The attractive (1) For polar molecules are either hydrogen
intermolecular forces that bonding or dipole-dipole
hold ions and the water (2) For nonpolar molecules is London dispersion.
molecules in its aqueous B. solute to solvent molecules ( intermolecular)
solution are called iondipole. (1) For aqueous solutions, the IMF’s that hold
polar molecules and the water molecules in its
aqueous solution are hydrogen bonding while
(2) For non-aqueous solution, the IMF’s that hold
nonpolar molecules and the nonpolar solvent in its
nonpolar solution is London dispersion.
158
A. FLOWCHART OF NAMING SIMPLE INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (ionic and

covalent compounds)
(See Workbook for the Activities)
See Flowchart B for naming

Arrhenius inorganic acids.
Does the compound

no start with a metal ion? yes (ionic compound)
yes
no it start with
Does yes no Does the metal ion have
hydrogen atom, H? a fixed charge?
Greek Prefix System for No Roman numeral is Roman Numeral System

covalent compounds: written: (with the Roman numeral):
Name the first element with Simply write the name of Write the name of the metal as
the appropriate prefix (di, tri, named in the Periodic Table
tetra, etc.), mono is not the cation without the with the Roman numeral in
included. Then, write the parentheses to indicate the
Roman numeral, and then number of charge. Then, write
name of the second element
using the appropriate prefix the name of the anion.
the anion. Note that this is
including mono and with ide Ex. CuO Copper(I) oxide
suffix. the same as in the
(copper has variable charge,
159
Note: If the acid is 100% pure (not dissolved in water), name it using the Greek Prefix system
160
FLOWCHART OF NAMING HYDRATES
See Flowchart B for

yes naming Arrhenius
Does the formula start with inorganic acids.
hydrogen, H?
no
See Flowchart A for
Is it a hydrate (salt with water
naming simple
chemically combined with it,
no inorganic compounds.
such as CuSO4.5H2O)?
yes
The word “ hydrate” is used without the number. For
Does the hydrate have only example, Ba(B rO3)2.H2O, this is named barium bromate
one unit of water such as yes hydrate, neither barium bromate monohydrate nor
Ba(CH3COO)2.H2O? barium bromate 1-water.
no
(1) Name the salt using appropriately the Roman Numeral or Stock system. B. FLOWCHART OF
NAMING ARRHENIUS INORGANIC ACID( 2) Name the number coefficient of water in Greek Prefix
and use the word “hydrate” (Ex. 5H2O is named “penta” for 5 and “hydrate” for water, therefore, 5H2O
is named pentahydrate), or name the number coefficient in Arabic numeral then the word “water” (Ex.
5H2O is named 5-water). Ex. CaSO4.2H20
CaSO4 is named calcium sulfate (No Roman numeral is used because calcium ion has fifa fixed a charge).
2H2O is named dihydrate (di means 2) or 2-water.
So, the name of the hydrate is either calcium sulfate dihydrate or calcium sulfate 2-water. For
CuSO4. 5H2O it is named as Copper(II) pentahydrate or Copper(II) 5-water.
161
ELECTRONEGATIVITY: Polarity of Covalent Bonds
OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to classify bonds as polar covalent
bonds, nonpolar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds. (See Workbook for the Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
Following the concept of Linus Pauling, electronegativity is the attraction of the
bonded atom towards the electrons being shared in a covalent bond. The stronger the
nucleus’s attraction (pulling strength) to the shared electrons, the greater the
electronegativity value.
A difference in the pulling strength of the atoms towards their shared electrons
(electrostatic attraction) results in an imbalance of charge (charge separation) in the
molecule). This imbalance of charge leads to a dipole. One part becomes weakly positive
(partial positive), while the other part becomes weakly negative (partial negative). A
partial charge is very much weaker compared to a full charge (such as the charge of anions
and cations)
Ex. H – Cl
2.1 3.5
Chlorine, Cl (electronegative value of 3.5) is more electronegative than H

(electronegative value of 2.1). The shared electrons are drawn towards chlorine, making
chlorine partially negative (ς-). At the same time, H has a partial positive charge (ς+),
resulting in a polar covalent bond. Note the arrow points to the more electronegative atom
indicating a greater pull of electrons.
ς+ ς-
+ -
H Cl ς ς
162
Polar Covalent Bonds and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond between atoms where the sharing of
electrons is not equal. This is exhibited by a difference in electronegativity values of the
bonded atom.
A nonpolar covalent bond is a covalent bond between atoms where electrons’ sharing is
equal or almost equal.
As thumb rule: a difference in electronegativity values (Table 2) that ranges
from 0 to 0.4 the bond is a nonpolar covalent bond,
greater than 0.4 to 1.9 the bond is a polar covalent bond, and
greater than 1.9 the bond is an ionic bond
Table 7.2. “Thumb Rule” on Electronegativity Difference and Type of Bonds
Type of Bond IONIC BOND

COVALENT BOND
Difference in 0 1.9
0.4
electronegativity
(Polarity) Polar covalent
Nonpolar covalent
Bonded electrons Bonded electrons Bonded electrons Electrons

are equally shared are not shared transfer from
equally one atom to
another
163
Table 7.3 Electronegativity values of the representative elements
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

H
2.1 .5
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Cl
Na Mg Al Si P S 3.0
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
At
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po 2.2
0.8 0.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
VSEPR: Molecular Geometry

OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, YOU are expected to predict, following VSEPR theory, the
shape/geometry of a molecule and sketch the different shapes of molecules. (See
Workbook for the Activity).
LECTURE/DISCUSSION
The size and shape of molecules can influence their physical and chemical properties.
So, we have to learn the concept of molecular geometry.
Lewis structure can show the number and types of bonds between bonded atoms in
a molecule. However, it does not show the three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
VSEPR does.
Valence Shell Electron- Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory can be used to predict the
shape or geometry of a molecule. This is based on the theory that electron pairs in bonded
atoms arrange themselves to minimize their repulsion.
164
Lewis structure plays an important role in predicting the molecular geometry, for
it tells the number of bonding and nonbonding pairs of electrons. This follows the
general notation
AXaEb
Where A is the central atom, X is the number of bonded atoms to the central atom or number of bonded
electron pairs (multiple bonds are counted as one bond, that is, the double bond and triple bond are counted
as one bond, same as a single bond) atom, and E is the number of nonbonding pairs of electrons (lone pairs)
Table 7.4 Molecular shape/geometry and electron-group/pair geometry

Molecular Notation Electron group Examples
Shape/Geometry Geometry
LINEAR AX2 Linear BeCl2
AX2E3 Trigonal bipyramidal XeF2
BENT/ANGULAR AX2E Trigonal planar SO2
AX2E2 tetrahedral H2O
TRIGONAL PLANAR AX3 Trigonal planar BF3
TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL AX3E tetrahedral NH3
TRIGONAL AX5 Trigonal bipyramidal PCL5

BIPYRAMIDAL
TETRAHEDRAL AX4 tetrahedral CH4
SQUARE PLANAR AX4E2 octahedral XeF4
SQUARE PYRAMIDAL AX5E octahedral BrF5
SEESAW AX4E Trigonal bipyramidal SF4
T-SHAPED AX3E2 Trigonal bipyramidal ClF3
OCTAHEDRAL AX6 Octahedral SF6
Note: The arrangement of electron pairs around the central atom is called electron group geometry, while the
shape of the atoms in the molecule is called molecular geometry
Source: Petrucci, et al. (2004) General Chemistry, 8 th ed. NY: Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 413-414

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145

MULTIPLE LEWIS STRUCTURES: FORMAL CHARGES

IONIC VS COVALENT COMPOUNDS: GENERAL PROPERTIES

ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND POLARITY OF BONDS

VSEPR AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

Lewis symbol of an atom is written as follows:

1. Determine the valence electron of the atom

Example. Lewis symbols of Germanium and Krypton Solution:

2. Write the symbols of the atom

3. Enclose the symbol with an imaginary square.

The Lewis symbol of germanium is

Covalency number of O is also 2

2. Write the Lewis symbol of each atom

3. Decide the central atom

The central atom is S

4. Write single bonds to join the atoms

6. Write multiple bonds, if necessary, to satisfy the Octet Rule.

2. Draw the skeletal structure of the molecule using single bonds

3. Count the no. of bonded electron

TNve = 2(v.e of N) + 1 (v.e of O) = 2(5) + 1 (6)= 16

Ner = 2 x ( No. of H atoms) + 8 (No. of other atoms)

Step 3. Determine the number of bonding electrons (Nbe)

Nbe = Ner - TNve = 24 – 16 = 8

The structure is N=N=O with four bonds

Nnbe = Tnve - Nbe = 16-8 = 8

The Lewis structure is

N=N=O with eight nonbonding electrons

Step 6. Determine the formal charge of each atom

FC for N = +5 -1/2 (4) -4 = +5-2-4 = 1-

1. For molecule, the sum of the formal charges = 0

2. An atom whose Lewis structure is exactly the structure on its

3. Adjacent charge rule: the same charge atoms adjacent to each

4. violation of #1,#2, and #3 above are usually not an accurate

The formula in determining the formal charges is:

For structure (a)

For structure (b)

For structure (c)

Reactant side Product side

Illustration 2 Anion formation. Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form anions.

Reactant side Product side

Illustration 3 Ionic bond formation of NaCl

Na + Cl [Na] + [ Cl ]1- [Na] 1+ 1- [ Cl ] or NaCl

atom of the same kind (covalent elements)

7 v.e - 7v.e - each Cl has 8v.e -

Argon (Ar), a no ble gas, has electron configuration: [ Ne]3 s2 3p6

Notice the following:

1. The atoms involved are non-metals.

So, where is the covalent bond?

Behind the covalent bond

COVALENT VS IONIC COMPOUNDS: GENERAL PROPERTIES

Some general properties of covalent compounds

1. They have covalent bonds as the dominant chemical bonds.

Some covalent compounds at home

4. Rubbing alcohol (Ethyl alcohol, CH3CH2OH; isopropyl alcohol, CH3CH CH2OH an

Table 7.1 Some General Properties of Ionic Compounds

Ionic bonds bind

Its unit particle is called the

Its aqueous solution (and

They have a high melting