Titolo

Electronic power presentazione

conversion:
DC to AC sottotitolo
Morris Brenna Milano, XX mese 20XX
 DC to AC converter (inverter)

DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by switching the DC input

voltage (or current) in a pre-determined sequence so as to generate
AC voltage (or current) output.

General block diagram

IDC Iac

+ +

VDC Vac
−
−

• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Uninterruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial (induction motor)
drives, Traction, Distributed Generation, HVDC

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Simple square-wave inverter

Basic concept of AC waveform generation

SQUARE-WAVE
INVERTER
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
T1 T3
D1 D3 S1 S3
+ VO -
VDC
IO
T4 T2
D2 D4 S4 S2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 AC waveform generation

S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1 S3 VDC

VDC
t
+ vO − t1 t2
S4 S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1 S3

VDC t2 t3
+ vO − t

S4 S2
-VDC

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 AC waveforms

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT

4VDC
π

3RD HARMONIC
V1
3

5RD HARMONIC
V1
5

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 Harmonic filtering

DC SUPPLY INVERTER (LOW PASS) FILTER LOAD

L
+ +
C
vO 1 vO 2
−
−

BEFORE FILTERING AFTER FILTERING

vO 1 vO 2

• Output of the inverter is "chopped AC voltage with zero DC

component". It contain harmonics.
• An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at the inverter output to
reduce the high frequency harmonics.
• In some applications such as UPS, "high purity" sine wave output is
required. Good filtering is a must.
• In some applications such as AC motor drive, filtering is not required.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) capability

Vdc2 Higher input voltage

Higher frequency

Vdc1 Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1 T2 t

Output voltage frequency can be varied by "period" of the square-

wave pulse.
Output voltage amplitude can be varied by varying the "magnitude"
of the DC input voltage.
Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor drive

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Harmonic disturbances

Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.

Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very difficult to filter, due to the
filter size and high filter order. They can cause serious voltage
distortion.

Why need to consider harmonics?

– Sinusoidal waveform quality.
– "Power Quality" issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of equipment. Equipment
need to be "de-rated".

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the

"quality" of a given waveform.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Fourier series

Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave shapes.

Fourier Series is a tool to analyse wave shapes
Fourier Series
2π
1
ao =
π ∫ f ( v ) dθ
0
(" DC" term)

2π
1
an =
π ∫ f (v) cos(nθ )dθ
0
(" cos" term)

2π
1
bn =
π ∫ f (v) sin (nθ )dθ
0
(" sin" term)

Inverse Fourier
1 ∞
f (v) = ao + ∑ (an cos nθ + bn sin nθ )
2 n =1

where θ = ωt

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Harmonics of square-wave

1 π 2π 
ao =  ∫ Vdc dθ + ∫ − Vdc dθ  = 0
Vdc π  0 π 
Vdc π 2π 
θ=ωt an =  ∫ cos(nθ )dθ − ∫ cos(nθ )dθ  = 0
π 2π
π  0 π 
-Vdc
Vdc π 2π 
bn =  ∫ sin (nθ )dθ − ∫ sin (nθ )dθ 
π  0 π 

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Harmonics of square-wave

Solving,
V
nπ
[
bn = dc − cos(nθ ) 0 + cos(nθ ) π
π 2π
] When n is even, cos nπ = 1
bn = 0
V
= dc [(cos 0 − cos nπ ) + (cos 2nπ − cos nπ )] (i.e. even harmonics do not exist)
nπ
V
= dc [(1 − cos nπ ) + (1 − cos nπ )]
nπ When n is odd, cos nπ = −1
2V 4V
= dc [(1 − cos nπ )] bn = dc
nπ nπ

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Quasi-square wave (QSW)

Note that an = 0. (due to half - wave symmetry)

 1 π −α  2V
[
bn = 2  ∫ Vdc sin (nθ )dθ  = dc − cos nθ α ]
π −α

π α  nπ
2V
α α α
= dc [cos(nα ) − cos n(π − α )]
nπ
π
Expanding :
2π
cos n(π − α ) = cos(nπ − nα )
= cos nπ cos nα + sin nπ sin nα = cos nπ cos nα
2V
⇒ bn = dc [cos(nα ) − cos nπ cos nα ]
nπ
2V
= dc cos(nα )[1 − cos nπ ]
nπ

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Harmonics control

If n is even, ⇒ bn = 0, Note :
4Vdc The fundamental , b1 , is controlled by varying α
If n is odd, ⇒ bn = cos(nα )
nπ Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting α ,
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
4V Harmonics Elimination :
b1 = dc cos(α )
π For example if α = 30o , then b3 = 0, or the third
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
general, harmonic n will be eliminated if :
90o
α=
n

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Half-bridge inverter

S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF
+
S1 2
VC1
-
−V +
Vdc o
G 0
t
RL
+
VC2 S2
- Vdc
−
2 S1 OFF
S2 ON

Also known as the "inverter leg".

Basic building block for full bridge, three phase and higher order inverters.
G is the "centre point".
Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC link is equally "spilt" into two.
The top and bottom switch has to be "complementary", i.e. If the top switch is
closed (on), the bottom must be off, and vice-versa.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Single-phase full bridge

VRG
Vdc
2
Full bridge (single phase) π 2π ωt
+
is built from two half-bridge Vdc Vdc
leg. 2 S1 S3 VR 'G
Vdc
−
2
-
+ Vo - 2
Vdc
G π 2π ωt
The switching in the
second leg is "delayed by + −
Vdc
2
Vdc S4 S2
180 degrees" from the first 2
Vo
Vdc
leg.
π 2π ωt
Vo = V RG − VR 'G
G is " virtual ground"

− Vdc

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Triangulation method
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform (Natural sampling)
+1
M1 • Amplitudes of the
triangular wave (carrier)
and sine wave
0 (modulating) are
compared to obtain PWM
waveform. Simple
−1 analogue comparator can
be used.
Vdc • Basically an analogue
2 method. Its digital
version, known as
0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t5 REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.
Vdc
−
2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
Pulse Width+ 1 Modulation (PWM)
M1

−1

Vdc
2

0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t5

Vdc
−
2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PWM types

Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown on previous slide)

– Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift, sensitivity etc.
Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that results in simple digital
implementation
Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on certain performance criteria,
e.g. THD.
Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate some undesirable
harmonics from the output waveform spectra.
– Highly mathematical in nature
Space-vector modulation (SVM)
– A simple technique based on volt-second that is normally used with
three-phase inverter motor-drive

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Modulation index and ratio

Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform

+1
M1
Modulation Index (Modulation Depth) = M I :
0 Amplitude of the modulating waveform
MI =
Amplitude of the carrier waveform
−1

Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio) = M R (= p )

Vdc
2 Frequency of the carrier waveform
MR = p =
0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t5
Frequency of the modulating waveform
Vdc
−
2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Modulation index and ratio

Modulation Index deterrmines the output voltage fundamental component

If 0 < M I < 1,
V1 = M I Vin
where V1 , Vin are fundamental of the output voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Modulation ratio determines the incident (location) of harmonics in the spectra.

The harmonics are normally located at:

f = kM R ( f m )
where f m is the frequency of the modulating signal and k is an integer (1,2,3...)

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Regular sampling

t1 t2 Sinusoidal modulating Carrier, vc(t)

waveform, vm(t)

2π
t
π

Regular sampling waveform, vs (t )

t'1 t'2

v pwm t

Regular sampling PWM

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Asymmetric and symmetric regular sampling

T
+1 M1 sin ω mt

t
T 3T 5T π
4 4 4 4

−1

Vdc
2

t
t0 t1 t2 t3

V
− dc
2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Bipolar switching

Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform

+1
M1

−1

Vdc
2

0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t5

Vdc
−
2

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Unipolar switching

A Carrier waveform B

(a)

S1

(b)

S3

(c)

V pwm

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 Bipolar PWM switching: Pulse-width characterization

∆ modulating carrier
∆ δ=
4 waveform waveform

π 2π

kth
pulse

π 2π
δ 1k
δ 2k

αk

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 Variable Voltage Variable Frequency VVVF

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 Power regulation

E2 ⋅ U 2
P= ⋅ sin (ψ )
X

Power
Absorbed Injected

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Three-phase harmonics

For three-phase inverters, there is significant advantage if MR is chosen to be:

– Odd: All even harmonic will be eliminated from the pole-switching
waveform.
– triplens (multiple of three (e.g. 3,9,15,21, 27..):
All triplens harmonics will be eliminated from the line-to-line output
voltage.

By observing the waveform, it can be seen that with odd MR, the line-to-line
voltage shape looks more "sinusoidal".

As can be noted from the spectra, the phase voltage amplitude is 0.8
(normalised). This is because the modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage
amplitude is square root three of phase voltage due to the three-phase
relationship

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Effect of odd and "triplens"

π 2π
Vdc
2 VRG

Vdc
−
2
Vdc
2 VYG

Vdc
−
2
Vdc
VRY

− Vdc
p = 8, M = 0.6
Vdc
2 V RG

Vdc
−
2
Vdc
2 VYG

Vdc
−
2
Vdc
VRY

− Vdc
p = 9, M = 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Comments on PWM scheme

It is desirable to have MR as large as possible.

This will push the harmonic at higher frequencies on the spectrum. Thus
filtering requirement is reduced.

Although the voltage THD improvement is not significant, but the current
THD will improve greatly because the load normally has some current
filtering effect.

However, higher MR has side effects:

– Higher switching frequency: More losses.
– Pulse width may be too small to be constructed. "Pulse dropping" may be
required.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Three-Phase Inverters

Consider three single-phase inverters in parallel, driven 120° apart.

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 Three-Phase Inverter

Three single-phase full bridge inverters

12 transistors, 12 diodes, 3 transformers

Could it be simpler?
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 Alternative (Preferred) Configuration

6 transistors, 6 diodes
They are in conduction for 120° or 180°

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 180° Conduction

Three transistors are ON at the same time

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 Summary Table

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 Waveforms for 180° Conduction

3 6
U1 = ⋅ U eff = ⋅ U d
π π

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 Phase Voltages for 180° Conduction

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 Line and neutral point voltages

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 Three-Phase Inverter with RL Load

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 Three-level converters

 PEBB two-level module  PEBB three-level module

 4 x 6500V / 600A IGBT-F  4 x 3300V / 1200A IGBT-FW

+ +

~ o ~

- -

Source: ABB

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Three-level converters

Line voltage Motor current Transformer current

uGil2l iGi iGi Trafo Phase Current Thyristor
3000 800 2000

600 1500
2000

Δi
400 1000
Two-level

1000
Voltage [V] Current [A]

200 500

Current [A]

Current [A]
0 0 0

-200 -500
-1000

-400 -1000

-2000
-600 -1500

-3000 -800 -2000

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]

iGi Trafo Phase Current IGBT 3Pt

uGil2l iGi 2000
3000
800

600 1500
2000

Δi
400 1000
Three-level

1000
Voltage [V] Current [A]

200 500

Current [A]
Current [A]

0 0 0

-200 -500
-1000
-400 -1000

-2000
-600 -1500

-3000 -800
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 -2000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [s] Time [s]
Time [s]

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Transformer losses reduction

 2-Level  3-Level
uGil2l iGi uGil2l iGi
3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

Voltage [V] Current [A]

Voltage [V] Current [A]

0 0

-1000 -1000

-2000 -2000

-3000 -3000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [s] Time [s]

Converter typology Transformer harmonic losses

IGBT 2-Level 300 Hz PWM 12 kW

IGBT 3-Level 300 Hz PWM 3 kW
Source: ABB

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 HVDC transmission with VSC (Voltage Source
Converter)

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 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)

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 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)

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 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)

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 MMC – HVDC

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 Two – terminal HVDC applied to wind farms

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 Multiterminal HVDC for offshore wind farms

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