SZL 415 Notes

SZL 415: ECOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Historical perspective

The concept of sustainable development dates back a long way but it was at the UN Conference
on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) that the international community met for the first
time to consider global environment and development needs. The Conference led to the
formation of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). The Stockholm Declaration and Action
Plan, which were also produced, defined principles for the preservation and enhancement of the
natural environment, and highlighted the need to support people in this process. The Conference
indicated that “industrialised” environmental problems, such as habitat degradation, toxicity and
acid rain, were not necessarily relevant issues for all countries. In particular, development
strategies were not meeting the needs of the poorest countries and communities.

In the 1980's the UN set up the World Commission on Environment and Development, also
called the Brundtland Commission. They produced a report titled "Our Common Future",
otherwise known as the Brundtland Report, which framed much of what would become the 40
chapters of Agenda 21 and the 27 principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development.

Sustainable development first began to get significant international attention in 1987, when it
was endorsed by the World Commission on Environment and Development or ‘The Brundtland
commission’ (named after its Chair, Norwegian prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland).

The Brundtland commissions work led to the United Nations (U.N) Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit in Rio de janeiro in 1992, on the 20th anniversary
of Stockholm conference, where the nations of the world endorsed sustainable development for
the first time.

They did so in two non-binding texts;

1. The Rio declaration on Environment and Development, a

statement of 27 principles for sustainable development.
2. Agenda 21, a global plan of action for sustainable
development (A blue print to rethink economic growth,
advance social equity and ensure environmental
protection).
Two treaties directed at sustainable development were opened for signature at UNCED;

1. The U.N framework Convention on Climate Change and,

 2. The Convention on Biological Diversity.
It also produced a Statement of Forest Principles. The Earth Summit also gave rise to a number
of positive responses including the emergence of thousands of Local Agenda 21 initiatives and
an enhanced political profile of environmental issues. It also led to the formation of the
Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) and many countries set up sustainable
development commissions and national strategies for sustainable development.

The earth summit: Agenda 21 and the Rio declaration

The 1992 U.N conference on Environment and development represented the effort to integrate
environmental issues with development issues.

Sustainable development included a fifth concept, that of protection of the environment in

addition to the four concepts of economic development.

The Rio declaration affirms “the right of every human being to a healthy and productive life”,
but “in harmony with nature”.

Agenda 21 describes sustainable development as “socially responsible economic development”

that protects “the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future generations”.

This statement captures a simple formula often used for sustainable development, the Three Es
which stand for Environment, Economy and Equity.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is the comprehensive international “Plan of Action” or blueprint for sustainable

development adopted at Rio. It is a broad and detailed commitment by nations around the world
to take actions to further sustainable development.

The commission on sustainable development (CSD), a part of the U.N system, monitors and
assesses overall implementation of Agenda 21.

Agenda 21 is divided into 4 sections and a total of 40 chapters.

The first two sections cover;

-          Social and Economic issues and

-          The Conservation and Management of natural resources.

The third section describes in detail the role that nine major groups should play to realize
sustainable development.

The fourth section contains a detailed program for providing financial and technical to countries.

Each chapter describes the factual basis for recommended actions, the objective of those actions,
the activities, and the entities that need to support and fund these activities.

It provides context specific meaning for sustainable development for specific economic sectors, a
specific natural resource and specific problems.

It is based to a great extent on the 27 principles stated in the Rio declaration, Agenda 21 and the
Rio declaration should thus be read together.

Agenda 21 and the Rio declaration provide a direct response to the failures of the development
model, by addressing the connections the connections between traditional development goals and
the environment.

Key principles of Agenda 21

-          Integration of the environment into decision making by governments, cooperates as

well as other decision makers.

-          The sovereign authority of nations to use their own natural resources and the
responsibility of countries to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause
environmental harm beyond their jurisdiction.

-          A precautionary approach to serious environmental risks – the precautionary

principle.

-          Internalization of environmental costs by polluters – the polluter pays principle.

-          Citizen participation in government decision making.

-          Reduction and elimination of unsustainable patterns of production and consumption

– sustainable consumption and population levels.

-          Common but differentiated responsibilities of developed and developing countries in

sustainable development.

-          Intergenerational equity – present development must not compromise the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs. The Rio declaration formulates the principle more
broadly, “ the right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental needs
of present and future generations”.
 

United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) or Rio +10

The United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), also known as Earth
Summit II or Rio +10, took place in Johannesburg, South Africa between August 26th and
September 4th 2002.

The summit was expected to provide an opportunity to strengthen the global commitments on
sustainable development. This includes ratification of agreements, such as the Kyoto and
Biosafety Protocols, along with other outstanding agreements, such as Persistent Organic
Pollutants and on Migratory and Straddling Fish Stocks. In addition, governments were expected
to make specific commitments towards progressing the Millennium Development Goals e.g.
health, gender, children, water, poverty, health and education targets.

Numerous reports from different UN bodies were used to supplement the review process,
including UNEP’s Global Environment Outlook, UNDP’s Human Development Report, WHO’s
World Health Report, World Bank’s World Development Report, IFAD’s Rural Poverty Report,
UNESCO’s World Water Development Report.

The main outcome was the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development adopted

and the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development was also
agreed upon.

The Johannesburg Declaration built on earlier declarations made at the UNCHE at Stockholm,
1972 and earth summit at Rio, 1992. While mentioning substantially multilateralism as the path
forward.

In terms of the political commitment of parties, the Declaration is a more general statement than
the Rio Declaration. It is an agreement to focus particularly on "the worldwide conditions that
pose severe threats to the sustainable development of our people, which include: chronic hunger;
malnutrition; foreign occupation; armed conflict; illicit drug problems; organized crime;
corruption; natural disasters; illicit arms trafficking; trafficking in persons; terrorism; intolerance
and incitement to racial, ethnic, religious and other hatreds; xenophobia; and endemic,
communicable and chronic diseases, in particular HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis."
Johannesburg Declaration 19.

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) or Rio +20

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), also known as Rio +20,
took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012.
The Conference focused on two themes:

(a) a Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication;

(b) the institutional framework for sustainable development.

The concept of development

Upto the first half of the twentieth centuary, this concept did not exist owing to the fact that the
colonial and imperial power structures made little provision for economic and social
advancement in the developing world, which served primarily to provide raw materials and
cheap labour.

Within the richer countries of Europe, North America, and Japan, economic growth was of
course central to the generally accepted goals of “progress” and “modernization”, but

there was relatively little concern for issues of equity and social justice.

The devastating poverty witnessed during the great depression and the situation after World War
II changed perceptions and policy drastically, resulting in focus on economic and social
improvement for the majority in richer countries as well as for the poorer nations.

Economic development was also central to theory and policy during the Cold War competition
between Capitalism and Communism.

The basic idea behind development was to create conditions ensuring that such events would not
recur; development is thus a means to an end and not an end in itself.

Since the end of world war II, development has included at least four related concepts;

-          Peace and security

-          Economic development

-          Social development

-          National governance that secures peace and development

Each of these concepts is reflected in major multilateral treaties, such as the UN charter, the
General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) a predecessor of World Trade Organisation
(WTO) and the treaty that created the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank).
Many U.N texts refer to refer to human quality of life as the objective of development, however,
it can be argued that the goal of development is human freedom or opportunity (Amartya Sen,
1999).

Development economics is Normative (what should be) and thus it concerns itself with social
and political issues, and must focus on goals, ideals, and ends, as well as economic means.

An overview of economic development, titled “The stages of Economic development” by W.W.

Rostow was published in 1960. According to this view, all successfully developing countries
would pass through a series of stages, from traditional society through economic “take-off”
to maturity and high mass consumption. This view was widely accepted by many
development theorists.

Thus economists, social scientists, and policy makers adopted a framework in which the clear
goal of economic development policy was to raise living standards throughout the world,
providing steadily more goods and services to an expanding population.

The international institutional structures set up after the second world war, including the

International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the United Nations, were
specifically designed with this goal in mind.

As development policy has evolved, different approaches have been emphasized at

different times. The original emphasis was on promoting more productive agriculture and

industrialization. In the late 1970's a focus on basic needs was advocated by Paul Streeten,

Mahbub Ul Haq, and others.4 Education, nutrition, health, sanitation, and employment for the

poor were the central components of this approach – reflecting an acknowledgment that the

Benefits of development did not necessarily “trickle down” to those who needed them most.

This perspective inspired the creation of the United Nations Development Programme’s

Human Development Index, which uses health and education measures together with Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) to calculate an overall index of development success.

 

In the 1980's the focus shifted to “structural adjustment”, including liberalization of

trade, eliminating government deficits and overvalued exchange rates, and dismantling
inefficient parastatal organizations. Structural adjustment was seen as correcting the errors of
earlier, government-centered development policies which had led to bloated bureaucracies,
unbalanced budgets, and excessive debt. But critiques of structural adjustment policies have
found them at odds with the basic needs priorities. Market-oriented reforms have often lead to
greater inequality and hardship for the poor even as economic efficiency improved. A tension
thus remains between the basic needs and market-oriented perspectives on development.

Failures of the Economic Development Model: Environmental degradation and poverty

Globally, most countries have made significant advances both in GDP and in Human

Development Index measures. But overall, the record of development on a world scale is

open to two major criticisms:

1. The benefits of development have been distributed

unevenly, with income inequalities
remaining persistent and sometimes increasing over time. The global numbers of extremely poor
and malnourished people have remained high, and in some areas have increased, even as a global
middle class has achieved relative affluence.

1. 2.      There have been major negative impacts of

development on the environment and on
existing social structures. Many traditional societies have been devastated by development of
forests, water systems, and intensive fisheries. Urban areas in developing countries commonly
suffer from extreme pollution and inadequate transportation, water, and sewer infrastructure.
Environmental damage, if unchecked, may undermine the achievements of development and
even lead to collapse of essential ecosystems.

Former World Bank President James Wolfensohn and chief economist Joseph Stiglitz
acknowledged in 1999 that these issues are crucial to address if global development is to
succeed. Harsher critics of the development paradigm, such as Richard Norgaard, see them as
indicative of fundamental error. It is evident that changes are required in both goals and methods
employed in the concept of development. For instance, the environment was not referred to
under the model envisaged by the concept of development, environmental degradation was only
seen as the incidental or necessary price of progress.

The growing awareness of these challenges to traditional development thinking has led

to the increasingly wide acceptance of a new concept – that of sustainable development.

Development which protects the environment, development which advances social justice --

phrases such as these have surrounded the introduction of what has been claimed to be a new

paradigm. The new formulation has been eagerly adopted both by critics of standard

development practice and by leaders of existing development institutions.

Sustainable development: Definition

Because of the conflict between the need to preserve the environment and the need to achieve
development goals, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or The
Bruntland Commission in 1987 sought to address the problem by formulating and defining a new
paradigm which is now referred to as Sustainable Development.

According to the report by the WCED, titled ‘Our common future’ Sustainable development was
defined as ‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs’.

– World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987.

The Essential aspects

Arising from the extensive use of this concept, three essential aspects of sustainable development
are now recognized;

1. Economic sustainability
2. Environmental sustainability
3. Social sustainability
Economic sustainability:
 

An economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods and services on a continuing
basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt, and to avoid extreme
sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial production.

Economic sustainability requires that the different kinds of capital that make economic
production possible must be maintained or augmented. These include manufactured capital,
natural capital, human capital, and social capital.

Environmental sustainability:

An environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable resource base, avoiding over-
exploitation of renewable resource systems or environmental sink functions, and depleting non-
renewable resources only to the extent that investment is made in adequate substitutes. This
includes maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and other ecosystem functions not
ordinarily classed as economic resources.

The conservation of ecosystems and natural resources is essential for sustainable economic
production and intergenerational equity. From an ecological perspective, both human population
and total resource demand must be limited in scale, and the integrity of ecosystems and diversity
of species must be maintained. Market mechanisms often do not operate effectively to conserve
this natural capital, but tend to deplete and degrade it.

Social sustainability:

A socially sustainable system must achieve fairness in distribution and opportunity, adequate

provision of social services including health and education, gender equity, and political
accountability and participation. Social equity, the fulfillment of basic health and educational
needs, and participatory democracy are crucial elements of development, and are interrelated
with environmental sustainability.

These three aspects introduce complexity to the simple definition of economic development. The
implied goals of sustainable development are multidimensional resulting in the need to balance
the various objectives and formulating new ways to judge success or failure.
Taken together, these observations suggest new guidelines for the development process. They
also require modifications to the goal of economic growth. Economic growth in some form is
required for those who lack essentials, but it must be subject to global limits and should not be
the prime objective for countries already at high levels of consumption. In terms of
sustainability, a moderate level of consumption, together with strong social institutions and a
healthy environment, represents a better ideal than ever-increasing consumption.

Sustainability means that the choice of goods and technologies must be oriented to the
requirements of ecosystem integrity and species diversity as well as to social goals.

THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

It has been proposed that the difficulty in defining sustainability may be resolved by recognizing
that some issues can be appropriately dealt with through neo-classical market efficiency, while
others require the application of Ciriancy-Wantrup’s (1952) concept of a ‘safe minimum
standard’ approach to protect essential resources and environmental functions.

It has been suggested that the criteria of possible severity and irreversibility of ecological
damages should be used to decide which theoretical framework is more appropriate. This
perspective implies that criteria other than the strictly economic – in particular, principles drawn
from the science of ecology – should be applied to problems of long-term sustainability.

It has been suggested that the economic perspective needs to be complemented by an

ecological approach (Common and Perrings 1992).

Unlike economists, whose models provide no upper bound on economic growth, physical
scientists and ecologists are accustomed to the idea of limits. Natural systems must exist
subject to the unyielding laws of thermodynamics, and the science of population ecology has
explored the implications of these laws for living organisms.

Two of the fundamental axioms of ecological and evolutionary biology are that organisms
are exuberantly over-productive, and that limits set by time, space, and energy are
inevitably encountered (Holling, 1994).

In an ecological perspective sustainability must involve limits on population and consumption

levels. These limits apply to all biological systems. While humans may appear to evade them for
a time, they must ultimately accept the boundaries of a finite planet.

However, this simple assertion of limits does not fully capture the contribution of ecologists to
the discussion of sustainability. A third axiom of ecology has even more significant implications.
The third axiom ‘concerns processes that generate variability and novelty’ – the generation
of genetic diversity and the resultant processes of evolution and change in species and
ecosystems (Holling, 1994).

Genetic diversity gives rise to resilience in ecosystems. Resilience is the ‘bounce-back’

capacity that enables a system to respond to disturbances or damage.

A forest ecosystem, for example, may recover from a pest infestation through an increase in the
population of predators that control the pest, an expansion of species unaffected by the pest, or
possibly a development of pest resistance in affected species.

The patterns of response will be widely variable, but the essential integrity of the ecosystem will
be preserved.

The key to resilience is the existence of a wide variety of species, interacting with each other
and providing a reservoir of genetic forms that provide the potential to adapt to changing
conditions.

For the ecologist, sustainability should be defined in terms of the maintenance of ecosystem
resilience.

This view of sustainability is clearly different from the human-centered conceptions put forward
by the World Commission on Environment and Development and the consumption-based
principles proposed by economic theorists.

There may be no close relationship between economic efficiency and ecological

sustainability. In order to achieve ecological sustainability, it is likely to be necessary to modify
current consumption preferences and production techniques which, while efficient in
economic terms, threaten the ecological resilience of planetary systems.

The principles of sustainability

1. The conservation of natural capital is essential for sustainable economic production

and intergenerational equity. Market mechanisms do not necessarily operate effectively
to conserve natural capital, but may tend to deplete and degrade it.
2. From an ecological perspective, both population and total resource demand must be
limited in scale, and the integrity of ecosystems and diversity of species must be
maintained.
 3. Practices consistent with sustainable development must remedy social inequities and
environmental damage, while maintaining a sound economic base.
4. Social equity, the fulfilment of basic health and educational needs, and participatory
democracy are crucial elements of development, and are interrelated with environmental
sustainability.
EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

Economic, social and environmental change is inevitable from development. Impact on the
environment includes impacts on the biophysical environment (Biotic and Abiotic), biodiversity
and other resources. Development often has substantial impact on quality and quantity Air, Land,
water, and Biological resources. Often it is associated with depletion of natural resources and the
degradation of ecosystems as well as diminishing ecosystem services (Air and water purification,
nutrient cycling). In view of the realization that human population growth and economic
development are leading to rapid changes in our global ecosystems, a millennium ecosystem
assessment was undertaken between 2001-2005, to assess consequences of ecosystem change
and to establish scientific basis of actions needed to ensure sustainability.

Specific Causes

1. Human population growth

2. Technology
3. Agriculture- intensive fishing, irrigation, land clearing,
land use change
4. Invasive species
5. Energy industry
6. Light pollution
7. Manufactured products- cleaning agents, pesticides,
pharmaceuticals
8. Mining
9. Transport
 

Specific effects on ecosystems and human well being

1. 1.      Biodiversity loss
Biodiversity generally refers to the variety and variability of life on earth. It can also be defined
in terms of the variability within species, between species, and between ecosystems. It is a
measure of the variety of organisms present in ecosystems. This can refer to the genetic
variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, Biome or Planet.

The threats to biodiversity include; habitat destruction, Invasive species, pollution, human over-
population, and over harvesting. Popularly abbreviated as HIPPO.

Habitat destruction: this is especially in relation to tropical forests. The causes of habitat loss
are; overconsumption, overpopulation, land use change, deforestation, pollution and global
warming. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are
more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Monoculture (producing or growing a single crop
especially following clearing of forests), destroys habitats for diverse species that existed before.
Biodiversity and genetic diversity have been found to be co-dependent, removal of either will
result in domination by a single species and coextinctions are more likely.

Introduced and invasive species: barriers such as large rivers, seas and oceans, mountains, and
deserts encourage independent evolution on either side of the barrier. Without barriers, species
spillover and occupy new territory, often competing with and supplanting native species. Species
are increasingly being moved by humans (accidentally/ Purposely) for food and other purposes,
and human activities are frequently the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers.
Not all introductions are invasive, some are ineffective and yet some are beneficial economically
but accompanied by costly unintended consequences, such as the oil palms in Indonesia and
Malaysia.

Nutrient loading: anthropogenic increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and other nutrient-

associated pollutants—has emerged as one of the most important drivers of ecosystem change in
terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal ecosystems, and this driver is projected to increase
substantially in the future. For example, synthetic production of nitrogen fertilizer has been a key
driver for the remarkable increase in food production during the last 50 years. Humans now
produce more reactive (biologically available) nitrogen than is produced by all natural pathways
combined.

Genetic pollution: this refers to uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping,

which can threaten endemic species with extinction. It normally results in what is refered to as
homogenization or replacement of local genomes due to numerical or fitness advantage of an
introduced species. It is a side effect of introduction and invasion. Rare species are especially
susceptible to the effects of genetic pollution. Hybridization to increase yields as well as
genetically modified organisms have resulted in genetic erosion and pollution.
Overexploitation: this occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. Examples
include; excess logging in forests, over hunting of certain species, over using soil and lack of
conservation and illegal wildlife trade. For instance, currently a quarter of the worlds fisheries
are overfished. 

Climate change: global warming is threatening biodiversity hotspots such as coral reefs.

Climate change is driven mainly by increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which affects
plant morphology, acidifies oceans and causes rise in temperature, which in turn affects species
range, phenology, and weather. These phenomena have the potential to put many species at risk
of extinction.

Human over population: biodiversity has been impacted more by this factor than by any other
factor and will continue as long as human population continues to increase. Changes in important
components of biological diversity were more rapid in the past 50 years and are projected to
accelerate.

 2.      Degradation and loss of wetland ecosystems

Wetland ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, marshes, coastal regions to a depth of 6 meters at low
tide are estimated to cover 1280 million hectares. This is however an under estimate and further
data is required for some regions. Wetlands provide a wide range of ecosystem services which
are essential for human wellbeing such as fish and fiber, water supply, biochemicals and genetic
materials, water purification, climate regulation, pollination, erosion regulation, flood regulation,
coastal protection, soil formation and nutrient cycling, and recreation and tourism. Degradation
and loss of wetlands is happening faster than other ecosystems, and the status of species of fresh
water and coastal wetlands is deteriorating faster.

Wetland ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, marshes, rice fields, and coastal areas contribute to
human well being and poverty alleviation and some groups of people living near them are highly
dependent on these services and are directly harmed by their degradation.

The primary indirect drivers of this degradation and loss is population growth and economic
development. The direct drivers include; infrastructure development, land conversion, water
withdrawal, eutrophication and pollution, over harvesting and over exploitation, introduction of
invasive species, climate change and excess nutrient loading.

The primary direct drivers for loss and degradation of coastal wetlands (saltwater marshes,

mangroves, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs) has been conversion to other land uses. Other
direct drivers include; diversion of fresh water flows, nitrogen loading, over harvesting, siltation,
changes in water temperature, and species invasions. The primary indirect drivers are growth of
human populations and growing economic activity.
The primary direct drivers for loss and degradation of rivers, lakes, freshwater marshes and
other inland wetlands as well as reductions of populations in these systems has been
infrastructure development, land conversion, water withdrawal, pollution, overharvesting,
overexploitation and invasive species. The primary indirect drivers are growth of human
populations and growing economic activity.

-          Clearing and drainage often for agriculture are the main reasons for degradation of inland
wetlands such as swamps, marshes and rivers. Changes in flow regime, transport of sediments
and chemical pollutants, modification of inland wetlands, and disturbance of migration routes
have endangered many species and resulted in the loss of others.

-          Extensive use of water irrigation and the use of nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizers for
Agriculture  have resulted in decline of delivery of services such as fresh water and some fish
species.

-          Introduction of invasive alien species is now considered a major cause of extinction of
native freshwater species.

-          Almost half of the world cities are located within 50 km of the coast, and coastal
population densities are 2.6 times larger than inland areas. This has led to conversion of of
coastal wetlands for suburban expansion and agriculture.

-          Freshwater diversion from estuaries has affected delivery of water and sediment to
nursery areas and fishing grounds in the coastal zones affecting the livelihoods of millions who
dpend on them.

-          In the mediteranean, The Florida bay in the US, parts of Austarlia, southeast asia and the
caribean, Seagrass ecosystems are damaged by a wide range of human impacts, including
dredging and anchoring in seagrass meadows, coastal development, eutrophication, hyper-
salinization resulting from reduction in freshwater inflows, siltation, habitat conversion for the
purposes of algae farming, and climate change.

-          In the east Atlantic, disruption and fragmentation of coastal wetlands important as
migration routes, have endangered many species and caused the loss of many others due to
increasing commercial shell fisheries.

-          Estuarine systems are among the most invaded ecosystems in the world, with introduced
species causing major ecological changes. For example in the san Francisco bay in California,
invasive species have been brought by ballast waters of large ships as well as fishing activities.
The ecological consequences of the invasions include habitat loss and alteration, altered water
flow and food webs, the creation of novel and unnatural habitats subsequently colonized by other
invasive alien species, abnormally effective filtration of the water column, hybridization with
native species, highly destructive predators, and introductions of pathogens and disease.

-          Since 1950, nutrient loading—anthropogenic increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,

and other nutrient-associated pollutants— has emerged as one of the most important drivers of
ecosystem change in freshwater and coastal ecosystems. It has resulted in eutrophication (a
process whereby excessive plant growth depletes oxygen in the water), acidification of
freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, large and at times toxic algal blooms, widescale
deoxygentation (and hypoxia), and a decline in the delivery of services such as fresh water and
some fish species. The negative impacts of nutrient loading can extend hundreds of kilometers
from the source of pollution (such as the creation of hypoxic “dead zones” in coastal areas).

-          Global climate change will affect many coastal wetlands through; sea level rise, increased
storm and tidal surges, changes in storm intensity and frequency, changes in river flow regimes
and sediment transport. Most affected wetland species are those unable to relocate and a variety
of migratory species dependent on various wetland types. Of all ecosystems coral reefs are the
most vulnerable. Climate change will exacerbate the effects of other drivers. Consequences of
climate change being observed are the changes in the distribution of coastal wintering shorebirds
due to rising mid-winter temperatures in western Europe.

Coral reefs

It is estimated that 19 % of the worlds corals are already dead, less than half of the worlds corals
are regarded as in good health and 60% are at risk due to destructive human related activities
especially in southeast Asia. Coral reefs are facing threats from coral mining, pollution,
overfishing, blast fishing (using explosives), digging of canals into islands and bays, diseases,
destructive fishing practices, and warming of oceans. Corals are mainly affected by;

-          Competition (from seaweed) in disturbed ecosystems.

-          Predation by the star fish especially in overfished waters.

-          Fishing practices, such as blast fishing(using dynamite), cyanide fishing, bottom

trawling in deep waters destroys cold water and deep sea corals.

-          Marine pollution, most of which originates from activities on land through runoff, wind
and drainage bringing with it erosion, land clearing, nutrients, pesticides, waste water, industrial
effluent, petroleum residue and trash. Some of these may consume oxygen leading to
eutrophication and coral death.

-          Nutrient pollution, especially by nitrogen and phosphorus can cause eutrophication,

enhancing algal growth which crowds out corals and results in hypoxic conditions. Excess
nutrients can intensify existing disease such as aspergilosis by algae that kills soft coral and
yellow band disease by bacteria that kills hard corals.

-          Air pollution

-          Marine debris

-          Dredging

-          Climate change, causing rising sea levels and temperatures causes coral bleaching.

-          Ocean acidification, due to increases in atmospheric carbondioxide. The decreasing pH,
corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution.

Wetland dependant species

Many wetland dependant species are in decline. Of the 1138 water bird populations, 41% are in
decline. Of the 964 bird species predominantly wetland dependent, 21% are extinct or globally
threatened. Over one third of freshwater wetland dependant mammals (manatees, river dolphins,
porpoises) are globally threatened. Almost a quarter of all seals, sea lions, and walruses are
threatenned, and worldwide estimated mortalities among cetacean species are several hundred
thousand a year. Approximately 20% of the worlds 10,000 described freshwater fish species
have been listed as threatened. Nearly one third (1856 species) of the worlds amphibian species
are threatened with extinction, a large proportion (964 species) of which are fresh water. At least
50% of the 200 species of fresh water turtles have been assessed by the IUCN redlist as globally
threatened. More than 75% of fresh water turtles species in Asia are listed as globally threatened,
18 of which are critically endangered and one is extinct. All six species of marine turtles that use
coastal waters for feeding and breeding are listed as threatened in the IUCN redlist. Of the 23
species of crocodiles that inhabit a range of wetlands including marshes, swamps, rivers,
logoons, and estuaries, 4 are critically endangered, 3 endangered, and 3 vulnerable.

1. 3.      Desertification
Desertification is defined by the U.N convention to combat desertification (UNCCD) as land
degradation of arid, semiarid and dry subhumid areas resulting from various factors including
climatic variations and human activities. Land degradation is referred to as reduction or loss of
the biological or economic productivity of drylands. Desertification occurs on all continents
except Antarctica, it affects the livelihoods of millions of poor people, especially the poor in
drylands. Desertification takes place worldwide in drylands which occupy 41% of Earths land
area. Drylands are all terrestrial regions where water scarcity limits biological (plants and plant
items) productivity and other ecosystem provisioning services. The intensive use and the long
term failure to balance demand and supply of these services as well as climate change results in
desertification.

Desertification is caused by a combination of factors that change over time and vary by location,
the indirect factors include population pressure, socioeconomic , international
trade and policy factors. The direct factors include land use patterns and practices,
and climate related processes.

-          There is increase in pressure on dryland ecosystems for providing services such as food,
forage, fuel, building materials, and water for humans and livestock, for irrigation, and for
sanitation. This increase is attributed to a combination of human factors and climatic factors. The
former includes indirect factors like population pressure, socioeconomic and policy factors, and
globalization phenomena like distortions to international food markets and direct factors like
land use patterns and practices and climate-related processes. The climatic factors of concern
include droughts and projected reduction in freshwater availability due to global warming.

-          Policies that lead to unsustainable resource use are major contributors to land degradation,
for instance policies to replace pastoralism with sedentary cultivation, land tenure practices and
policies that encourage overexploitation of land resources and so on.

-          The globalization phenomena, for instance removal of regional barriers, weakening local
connections, and interdependence between nations through trade liberalization, macroeconomic
reforms, and a focus on raising production for exports can lead to desertification.

-          Land use changes are as a result of changes in provision of ecosystem services and they
also cause changes in the provision of these services. Historically, dryland livelihoods have been
based on a mixture of hunting, gathering, cropping, and animal husbandry. This mixture varied
in composition with time, place, and culture. The harsh and unpredictable climate combined with
changing socioeconomic and political factors has forced dryland inhabitants to be flexible in land
use. Population pressure, however, has led to a growing tension between two main land uses:
pastoral rangeland and cultivated land use. In some areas, this led to intercultural conflicts and
desertification as herders and farmers claim access to and use of the same land.

-          Irrigation has increased cultivation and food production in drylands, but is largely
unsustainable without huge capital investment. It has also resulted in waterlogging and
salinization, water pollution, eutrophication, and unsustainable exploitation of groundwater
aquifers—that degrade the drylands’ service provisioning. In such irrigation approaches, rivers
are often disconnected from their floodplains and other inland water habitats, and groundwater
recharge has been reduced. These human-induced changes have in turn had an impact on the
migratory patterns of fish species and the species composition of riparian habitat, opened up
paths for exotic species, changed coastal ecosystems, and contributed to an overall loss of
freshwater biodiversity and inland fishery resources. This further exercabates desertification.

There are, however, wide gaps in our understanding and observation of desertification processes
and their underlying factors.

Desertification also has effects on non dryland areas in the form of dust storms, downstream
flooding, impairment of global carbon sequestration capacity, and global climate change.

1. 4.      Impacts on health
Ecosystems are the planets life support systems for the human species and all other forms of life.
These life support systems include; food, water, clean air, shelter, constant climate, as well as
other health benefits derived from having a full complement of species, intact watersheds,
climate regulation, and genetic diversity. Stresses on these services could cause major adverse
health impacts.

Fresh water:- Human interventions in watersheds, lakes and river systems take many forms -
deforestation, farming, irrigation, river damming and extractions from subterranean aquifers.
Wetlands play a crucial role in the filtering of fresh water, including the removal of various
chemicals and potentially toxic elements (e.g. heavy metals such as cadmium and lead). Fresh
water is essential for human health. It is used for growing food, drinking, personal hygiene,
washing, cooking and the dilution and recycling of wastes. Water scarcity jeopardizes food
production, human health, economic development and geopolitical stability.

Food:- Worldwide, undernutrition accounts for nearly 10% of the global burden of disease.
Almost all of this occurs in poor countries where food production has not kept up with
population increases, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Timber, fiber and fuel:- indoor combustion of biomas fuels is associated with morbidity and
mortality among children in poor households. Outdoor air pollution is caused predominantly by
the combustion of non-renewable fossil fuels for electricity generation, transport and industry.
Timber exploration causes loss of biodiversity as well as changing microbial ecology resulting in
emerging infectious diseases such as Nipah virus in Malaysia.

Biological products:- due to intensification of food production, expanded irrigation, forest

clearing and intensive exploitation of capture fisheries have resulted in loss from nature of
potential medicinal compounds.
Nutrient cycling and waste detoxification:- ecosystems have a role in recycling and redistribution
of nutrients. Disruption of these functions results in soil infertility, hence reduced crop yields.
Human health can be harmed by exposure to certain toxins produced by algal blooms. These can
occur as a result of eutrophication of waterways excessively loaded with nitrates and phosphates
infiltrating from run-off water discharged in agricultural, industrial and domestic processes.
Organic and inorganic chemical pollutants through pesticide use can harm various human body
organ systems.

Regulation of infectious diseases:- human induced changes in ecosystems may alter the range
and activity of infectious agents as well as their vectors, resulting in emergence and re-
emergence of infectious diseases. Such human induced changes include; destruction, alteration
or encroachment of habitat, dam construction, irrigation, stream diversion, landuse change,
uncontrolled urbanization (urban sprawl), resistance to pesticides, climate change, international
travel and trade, human introduction of pathogens, reductions in biodiversity (natural predators
of vectors), particular livestock production methods, trade in wild animal species, human
induced genetic changes of vectors and pathogens (antibiotic resistant bacteria).

Cultural, spiritual and recreational services:- such services improve mental health.

Climate regulation:- regional climatic conditions are influenced by changes in ecosystems and
landscapes such as deforestation and desertification. Human induced alteration of atmospheric
composition (green house effect) affects climatic conditions. Extreme weather events (including
heat waves, floods, storms and droughts) and sea-level rise are anticipated to increase as a result
of climate change. Effects include deaths, injuries, economic disruption, infrastructure damage,
population displacement, communicable diseases. Growth in human settlements in
geographically sensitive locations such as coastal zones and flood plains increases exposure to
extreme events.

 
 

ECOLOGICALLY SOUND CROP AND LIVESTOCK FARMING

The conventional globalized and industrialized agriculture and food supply as currently practiced
is not sustainable as per the three aspects of sustainability (economic, social, environmental).
This is evident by the ‘ecological degradation (soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, disease and pest
outbreaks) and the social duress (poverty, malnutrition, dependency, loss of livelihood diversity)’
that accompanies this conventional form of agriculture (Gliessman, 2007; 2015).

The current industrialized agriculture has its roots in the ‘Green Revolution’ model of the 1960s
which emphasized high yielding monoculture farming (Corn, beans, rice, wheat, sugarcane) and
the use of agroindustrial inputs such as heavy dosing with synthetic chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, capital intensive technology and heavy exploitation of water resources, but did not
pay much regard to the ecological and social consequences (Altieri, 2012).

Evidence indicates, however, that this model has negatively impacted the environment and rural
society. A number of “ecological diseases” have been associated with intensification of food
production. These can be grouped into diseases of the ecotope, which include erosion, loss of soil
fertility, depletion of nutrient reserves, salinization and alkalinization, pollution of water
systems, loss of fertile croplands to urban development, and diseases of the biocoenosis, which
include loss of crop, wild plant, and animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies,
pest resurgence and genetic resistance to pesticides, chemical contamination, and destruction of
natural control mechanisms (UNEP, 2005).

 The following are some of the negative effects currently being experienced as a result of
modern agriculture as currently practiced;

 Erosion of soil nutrient quality and health: the use of synthetic fertilizers has led to soil
degradation and water pollution, which in turn limit productivity. The application of
synthetic fertilizers is subject to diminishing returns and in addition, the sources (Rock
phosphate) of these fertilizers are finite.
 Contribution to climate change and lack of resilience: Agriculture is both a source of
carbon emissions and a carbon sink, and it both contributes to and mitigates climate
change. Major agricultural sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions include the use of
fossil fuels and fertilizers and the loss of organic matter in soils resulting from intensive
cultivation practices. The biggest contributors of GHG emissions are nitrogen fertilizer,
followed by enteric fermentation of farm animals, mainly cattle.
 Loss of biodiversity and human health decline attributed to indiscriminate pesticide use:
the use of synthetic pesticides poses significant risk to human health and biodiversity.
 Loss of biodiversity limits the capacity of the ecosystem to provide essential services and
destroys natures capacity to keep pests and diseases under control. Loss of genetic
variability means that food supply will be more vulnerable to outbreaks of disease and
pests, as well as loss of capacity to adapt to changing climatic conditions. Genetically
engineered varieties threaten biodiversity and food security by giving global control over
food produced worldwide to a few multinational seed and chemical companies.
 Perpetuation of dependency and malnutrition: the high cost of manufactured fertilizer and
pesticides can push small scale farmers into a cycle of debt and dependency. Despite the
fact that the world already produces enough food to feed 9 to 10 billion people (the
population peak expected by 2050), there are 1 billion people hungry people as a result of
poverty and inequality.
 Reliance on expensive non-renewable and artificial resources (fossil fuels, agrochemicals
and genetically engineered crops) that damage the basic natural resources needed for food
production.
 Indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources to produce artificial monocultures.
 Profit maximization rather than feeding the world, especially by agrochemical
corporations from sales of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, and genetically engineered
seeds. It relies on non-renewable and artificial resources (fossil fuels, agrochemicals and
genetically engineered seeds) that damage the natural resources needed for food
production.
 As a result of this realization, an alternative agricultural paradigm, one that encourages more

ecologically, biodiverse, resilient, sustainable and socially just forms of agriculture is being
promoted (Altieri, 2012). This alternative paradigm has become synonymous with the approach
referred to as Agroecology. The other similar approaches to agroecology are Agricultural
ecology, certified organic agriculture, alternative agricultural movements, multifunctional
agriculture, sustainable rural livelihoods, food security and food sovereignty, urban and
periurban agriculture. These other approaches incorporate agroecological principles to various
degrees.

Ecological agriculture

This is a holistic production management system aimed at promoting and enhancing the
ecosystem. It is based on mimicking nature and minimizing use of external inputs such as
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. It emphasizes deployment of productive systems guided by
ecological principles. It aims at optimizing the health and productivity of the interdependent
units (Soil, plants, animals, people).
Elsewhere it has been described as follows ‘Ecological Farming ensures healthy farming and
healthy food for today and tomorrow, by protecting soil, water and climate, promotes
biodiversity, and does not contaminate the environment with chemical inputs or genetic
engineering’ -Greenpeace research laboratories, University of Exeter.

Agricultural ecology (Cox and Atkins, 1979; Tivy, 1990):

Agricultural ecology is one of the academic foundations of agroecology. Unlike agroecology,

agricultural ecology does not address the socio-economic or political elements of
agroecosystems, focusing instead on developing an ecological understanding of biophysical
agricultural processes such as soil fertility and nutrient use and cycling. Agroecology differs
from agricultural ecology because of its emphasis on practice, its identification with principles
and objectives, and its incorporation of aspects of sociology and economics (Dalgaard,
Hutchings and Porter, 2003).

Certified organic agriculture:

The practices of certified organic agriculture are codified in a set of standards that are clearly
defined and transparent. This ensures that producers get a price premium, however, this could be
restrictive for some options including to free thought, the social movement associated with
agroecology lacks protection under such an arrangement, and sustainably produced products are
at risk of being pushed to a high-value niche market.

Alternative agriculture movements

This involves individuals and organizations following agroecological principles for food and non
food production, but do not necessarily subscribe standards such as those by certified organic
agriculture. Instead, less costly participatory guarantee systems are adopted to ensure market
access, under these systems producer networks agree on shared principles and practices and peer
control which they make transparent to the consumer. Alternative agriculture movements use a
range of principles, including ‘permaculture’, ‘eco- agriculture’, ‘biodynamic agriculture’,
‘natural farming’ and ‘alternative agriculture’ – all of which can be inspired and influenced by
agroecology. The differences between these approaches and agroecology lie in their ideological
heritage and the relative value and importance that is ascribed to different practices.

Multifunctional agriculture

This is a key concept used to show the many land uses and ecosystem services that agriculture
provides beyond production of food and fibre. It is concerned with the provision of public goods
and services by agricultural landscapes (Renting et al., 2009). It is a key concept in the EU
Common Agriculture Policy.

The sustainable rural livelihoods framework

This is a framework widely used in development research and planning and viewed as
complementary to agroecology.

The concepts of food security and food sovereignty

The key assumptions of these concepts are that hunger is as a result of imbalances in the food
system leading to poor food access and distribution and that food security can be better achieved
through local production than through dependence on imports.

Urban and peri-urban Agriculture

These are increasingly being promoted as strategies sustainable urban development, food
security, efficient use of local resources, and often, emphasis is usually on soil conservation and
recycling of water and waste, and it also focuses on bringing food producers and consumers
together.

AGROECOLOGY

Agroecology:

The term agroecology has diverse definitions depending on the time period referred to and the
cultural setting. The term as used today means either: a scientific discipline, an agricultural
practice, or a political or social movement (Wezel 2009).  The following are some of the
definitions of agroecology and how it has changed over time;

“A discipline that defines, classifies, and studies agricultural systems from an ecological and
socio-economic perspective.” (Altieri, 1987).

“The application of ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of
sustainable agroecosystems.” (Altieri, 1995).

“The integrative study of the ecology of the entire food systems, encompassing ecological,
economic, and social dimensions.” (Francis et. al., 2003).

“An integrative discipline that includes elements from agronomy, ecology, sociology and
economics”, “the study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment
within agricultural systems.” (Dalgaard, Hutchings and Porter, 2003).
“The interactions among natural processes in artificial systems designed to meet human goals.”
(Wojtkowski, 2004).

“The science of applying ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of
sustainable food systems.” (Gliessman, 2007).

One of the most complete definitions of agroecology today is the “ecology of the food system”
(Francis et al., 2003). It has the explicit goal of transforming food systems towards sustainability,

such that there is a balance between ecological soundness, economic viability and social justice
(Gliessman, 2015). However, Altieri’s long-standing definitions (1987, 1995) to describe
agroecology as “a discipline that defines, classifies and studies agricultural systems from an
ecological and socio-economic perspective, and applies ecological concepts and principles to the
design and management of sustainable agroecosystems” has been widely adopted.

Agroecology consists of principles, concepts and strategies that must form the foundation of any
system of food production that can make a legitimate claim to being a more sustainable
successor to industrial agriculture. These principles, concepts and strategies offer a design
framework for sustainable agro-ecosystems.

Agroecology envisages sustainable food systems with the following properties;

1. They should have minimal negative effects on the environment and release

insignificant amounts of toxic or damaging substances into the atmosphere, surface
water, or groundwater;
2. They should minimize the production of greenhouse gases (GHGs), work to mitigate
climate change by increasing the ability of managed systems to store fixed carbon, and
facilitate human adaptation to a warming climate;
3. They should preserve and rebuild soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and maintain the
soil’s ecological health;
4. They should use water in a way that allows aquifers to be recharged and the water needs
of the environment and people to be met;
5. They should rely mainly on resources within the agro-ecosystem, including nearby
communities, by replacing external inputs with nutrient cycling, better conservation, and
an expanded base of ecological knowledge;
6. They should work to value and conserve biological diversity, both in the wild and in
domesticated landscapes;
 7. They should guarantee equality of access to appropriate agricultural practices,
knowledge and technologies and enable local control of agricultural resources;
8. They should eliminate hunger, ensure food security in culturally appropriate ways and
guarantee every human being a right to adequate food;
9. They should remove social, economic and political injustices from food system.
 

Following the negative ecological and social effects of the ‘Green Revolution’ and
industrialization of agriculture, Agroecology has emerged as the new paradigm that aims to make
agriculture sustainable in all three aspects (economic, ecologic, and social) but most importantly
it internalizes ecological aspects in agricultural production.

Evidence suggests that the growing industrialization and globalization of the worlds agriculture
and food supply is degrading human well being as well as the natural world. Industrial
agriculture which is corporate controlled, and promotes agrochemically based, monocultural,
export-oriented systems are negatively impacting public health, ecosystem integrity, food quality
and nourishment, traditional rural livelihoods, and indigenous and local cultures, while
accelerating indebtedness among millions of farmers, and their separation from lands that have
historically fed communities and families.

Agro-ecology is not just a science, since the 1970s, the concept has come to refer also to an
approach to agriculture, a social and a political movement.

As a movement, agro-ecology essentially seeks to increase the autonomy and control of small-
scale farmers over agricultural and food systems, building strategic alliances with consumers and
other civil society actors. The movement includes both farmers‟ organizations and non-
government organizations (NGOs) seeking to spread the practice of agro-ecology to more
farmers (horizontal scaling up or scaling out), to support and advocate for policy measures and
regulations that specifically support agro-ecology, and to challenge obstacles holding back the
potential of smallholder agriculture. Critical issues for farmers include having secure access to
and control over land and other natural resources, as well as ensuring their rights to access,
breed, produce, conserve, purchase, exchange, and use the seeds that they need.

As an approach, agro-ecology aims to make agriculture economically, ecologically, and socially

more sustainable. The realization of agro-ecological principles depends primarily upon
mimicking natural processes, thus creating beneficial biological interactions and synergies
between the components of the agro-ecosystem. Creating suitable combinations of strategies and
practices is context-specific, and is focused on site-specific solutions. It is highly knowledge-
intensive, based on the know-how of small-scale producers and on agro-ecological science and
experimentation.

 
 

Strengths of natural systems;

1. Efficiency: Efficient energy flows are characteristic of

natural systems. The sun’s energy captured by green
plants is used by many organisms. Natural systems are
also efficient in capturing rainfall and releasing it
slowlyin rivers and streams.
2. Diversity: many natural systems are characterized by
diversity both below and above ground, which provides
checks on plant diseases and nutrient availability.
3. Self  sufficiency: as a result of diversity natural terrestrial
ecosystems are self suffcient, requiring only sunlight and
rainfall.
4. Self regulation: as a result of diversity outbreaks of
diseases or pests that cause severe damage are
uncommon.
5. Resiliency: in case of disturbances many natural systems
are resistant to disturbances and are able to bounce back.
 

Agroecology combines elements of traditional farmers knowledge with elements of modern

ecological, social and agronomic science, creating a dialogue of wisdoms from which principles
for designing and managing biodiverse and resilient farms are derived.  These principles
materialize in specific technological forms. The basic idea is that agroecosystems should mimic
the functioning of local ecosystems and exhibit nutrient cycling, complexity and enhanced
biodiversity. This should then translate into productive, pest-resistant, nutrient rich systems, that
are ecologically efficient and protective to the environment. A key agroecological strategy in
designing a sustainable agricultural system is to reincorporate diversity both at field level
(variety mixtures, rotations, polycultures, agroforestry, crop-livestock integration) and at
landscape level (hedgerows and corridors).

Agroecological principles

Agrocology has its roots in ecology and there are six principles of ecology;

1. Networks: nature is a network of living systems nested

within other living systems that are interconnected.
2. Cycles: matter cycles continually through the web of life,
hence ecosystems do not generate waste.
 3. Solar energy: this is the fundamental source of energy
that drives all ecological cycles.
4. Partnership: exchanges of energy and resources in an
ecosystem are sustained by cooperation, not competition.
5. Diversity: all ecosystems derive stability and resilience
through the richness of diversity.
6. Dynamic balance: an ecosystem is a flexible ever
fluctuating network.
Agroecology is based on the application of the following five core principles (borrowed from the
principles of ecology) in the design of farming systems;

1. Enhancing the recycling of biomass, optimizing nutrient

availability, and balancing nutrient flow;
2. Securing favourable soil conditions for plant growth,
particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing
soil biotic activity;
3. Minimizing losses due to flows of sunlight, air, and
water by way of micro-climate management, water
harvesting, and soil management through increased soil
cover;
4. Enhancing species and genetic diversification in time and
space at the field and landscape levels in the agro-
ecosystem;
5. Enhancing beneficial biological interactions and
synergies among components of agro-biodiversity and
the surroundings, thus promoting key ecological
processes and functions.
The core principles have the core objective of;

1. Building soil structure, improving soil health, recycling

nutrients and ensuring local sourcing
2. Conserving and using water efficiently
3. Sustaining and improving functional diversity (both on a
spatial and a temporal scale).
 

These core principles of agroecology are put into action through various technological forms or
practices. The aim of these practices is to promote processes that are fundamental for an
agroecosystem to function. The processes include; nutrient cycling, pest regulation, allelopathy
and so on. Indicators such as soil quality and plant health are used to check if the principles are
being applied correctly. The appropriate technologies should be based on indigenous knowledge
and rationale, geared to total farm productivity, be economically viable, be accessible,
environmentally sound, socially, culturally and gender sensitive and they should be risk averse
and adaptable to different circumstances.

Agroecological practices

Nature tends towards complexity, hence, agroecology designs complex agroecosystems. The
strategies for agroecosystem diversification include; crop rotations, cover cropping, crop-
livestock mixtures, agroforestry, polycultures, intercropping, multilines, and variety mixtures.
The main aim of diversification is the enhancement and maintenance of agrobiodiversity as a
strategy for provisioning ecological services which emerge from beneficial ecological
interactions among crops, animals and soils. In addition, there will be better resource use
efficiency, higher resistance to invaders and increased nutrient cycling.

Agroecological farming is therefore based on homeostasis, self-regulation and biodiversity. As

such, it differs substantially from the paradigm of industrial agricultural production: artificial
control of natural processes, extensive use of synthetic inputs and genetic uniformity (Silici,
2014).

Most of the farming methods that fall under the definition of agroecological practices pre-date
the development of agroecology as a concept and have been part of traditional farming systems.
Agroecology has merely provided a coherent framework that conceptualises the effects of these
practices.

The following are some of the agroecological practices;

1. 1.      Conservation tillage: tillage buries residues

leaving the soil bare and more susceptible to to the
erosive effects of rain. Tillage also breaks up natural soil
aggregates that help infiltration, storage and drainage of
precipitation. No or minimum tillage improves soil
structure – including aeration and water infiltration and
retention capacity – and organic matter.
2. 2.      Mixing crops in a single plot, such as
intercropping and poly-cultures: this involves planting
 crops within certain spatial proximity resulting in
biological complementarities which; improve nutrient
and input efficiency, use of space and pest regulation,
thus enhancing crop yield stability.
3. 3.      Crop rotation and fallowing: nutrients are
conserved from one season to the next, and the life
cycles of insect pests, diseases, and weeds are
interrupted. Use rotations that are complex, if possible
use crops that remain without soil disturbance for a
number of years.
4. 4.      Cover crops and mulching: to provide multiple
benefits such as: habitat for beneficial insects to enhance
biological control of pests, adding nitrogen (Clover and
Vetch), provide nutrients to the soil, reduce erosion,
enhancing water infiltration into soil, adding organic
matter to soil and retaining nutrients in soil. Flattening
cover crop mixtures on the soil surface not only reduces
erosion, but also lowers fluctuations in soil moisture and
temperature, improves soil quality, and enhances weed
suppression resulting in bette crp performance.
5. 5.      Create field boundaries and zones within fields that
are attractive to beneficial insects. This usually
involvesnplanting a mix of flowering plants around or
inside fields to provide shelter and food for beneficials.
6. 6.      Crop-livestock integration including aquaculture:
allows high biomass output and optimal nutrient
recycling, beyond economic diversification.
7. 7.      Integrated nutrient management: such as use of
animal manures, compost, organic manure, tree leaves,
cover crops, rotation crops that leave large amounts of
residue and nitrogen-fixing crops: allows the reduction or
elimination of the use of chemical fertilizers. Soil
organic matter creates healthy soils which; have good
nutrient availability, good water and air relations, disease
suppression properties, hospitable conditions for roots,
low weed seed populations and so on. However, care
must be taken not to overload soil with nutrients using
large quantities of organic materials. Use different types
of organic materials because they have different effects
on soil biological, chemical and physical properties.
8. 8.      Biological management: of pests, diseases and
weeds, such as integrated pest management, push and
pull methods and allelopathy: decrease long-term
incidence of pests and reduce environmental and health
hazards caused by the use of chemical control.
9. 9.      Efficient water harvesting: (especially in dryland
areas) such as small-scale irrigation allows to reduce the
need for irrigation while increasing its efficiency.
10. 10.  Manipulation of vegetation structure and plant
associations: improves efficiency of water use as well as
promoting biodiversity.
11. 11.  Agro-forestry systems: especially the use of
multifunctional trees: maintains and improves soil
fertility through nitrogen fixation, nutrient uptake from
deep soil horizons and their litter helps replenish soil
nutrients and enhances soil structure and they also
modify the microclimate.
12. 12.  Use of local resources and renewable energy
sources, composting and waste recycling: allows a
reduction in the use of external inputs as well
diminishing pressure on the natural resource base.
13. 13.  Green manures: these are fast growing plants sown
to cover bare soil. Their foliage smothers weeds and their
roots prevent soil erosion. When dug back into the
ground while green, they return valuable nutrients to the
soil and improve soil structure.
14. 14.  Reduce soil compaction: this can be done by
keeping off fields when they are too wet, redistributing
loads, using traffic lanes etc..
15. 15.  Use a variety of practices to reduce erosion: keep
soil covered with living vegetation or crop residue (cover
crops, rotation sod (grass) crops, reducing tillage),
terracing, grassed waterways, strip cropping along the
contour (alternating crop and sod crop), natural or
planted buffers between fields and streams.
16. 16.  Holistic landscape management: around field
perimeters (windbreaks, shelterbelts, insect strips, trap
crops and living fences), across multiple fields (mosaics
of crop types and land-use practices) and at the landscape
to regional scale (river buffers, woodlots, pastures and
natural or semi-natural areas).
 17. 17.  Holistic herding: developed by Allan Savory
(Research biologist and game ranger) and his collegues
in the 1960s in Zimbabwe (Northern Rhodesia). It is
aimed at restoring grassland function to the benefit of the
ecosystem and those that depend on it. It is guided by
four principles; nature functions in wholes, environments
are different and no one practice/technique fits all,
properly managed livestock can improve land health by
mimicking the behavior of wild herbivores interacting
with grasslands, and time is ore important than numbers
(overgrazing is directly related to amount of time plants
are exposed to grazing and time lapse between
consecutive grazing events). This technique takes
advantage of the action of the hooves of herbivores to
till, the urine and dung to fertilize the soil, and correct
timing of grazing events. This technique borrows from
earlier work by Jan smuts (concept of holism and
evolution, 1926), Andre voisin (French pasture
specialist), John Acocks (South African botanist), and
from the observations of Navajo medicine men and
Scottish shepherds about the connection between land
health and action of hooves of sheep.
 

Traditional ecologically sustainable agriculture

The evolution of agroecosystems is as a result of the interaction between social and ecological
systems. These interactions  between nature and society have taken place for centuaries. The
more harmonious the interaction the better the beter the resulting agricultural system. For
example the waru waru system in the Andean highlands, has allowed the communities to grow
crops in a frosty environment 4000m above sea level, by applying knowledge of the physical
property of water. They cultivate crops in raised beds surrounded by water which absorbs heat
during day time and dissipating it at night.

Agroecological systems are deeply rooted amongst traditional small scale farmers, who for
centuaries have developed farming systems, many of which offer promising sustainability
models, in that these systems promote biodiversity, thrive without agrochemicals and sustain
yields all year round to meet local food needs.
The evolution of these systems has been nourished by complex forms of traditional knowledge
vegetation, animals and soils within geographical and cultural areas.

Based on observation and experimental learning, successful adaptations are passed from
generation to generation.

Agroecological innovations are a rich resource, they are often standardized but flexible, and
respond and adapt to each particular situation.

Several benefits can emerge from correct retrieval and use of this knowledge;

-          Detailed knowledge of productive resources and environment

-          Time tested indepth knowledge of the local area

-          Identification of best farmer practices for dissemination

-          Use of locally adapted crop varieties and animal species

-          Criteria for technology development considering local goals and priorities, gender
preferences etc.

-          Basis of testing new technologies, and the fit to local circumstances

In many instances however, this knowledge has been eroded and lost, a dialogue of wisdoms
should be created, therefore, agroecological approaches combined with traditional approaches
would facilitate building of resilient ecosystems.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (a paper on EIA)

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the tools for environmental management
amongst others such as; Environmental Audit and Monitoring; Environmental restoration,
conservation and easement orders; environmental inspections, analysis and records and
environmental quality standards  under Environment Management Coordination Act (EMCA). It
is a procedure for evaluating the likely impact of a proposed activity on the environment. The
aim of this procedure is to provide decision makers with information about possible
environmental consequences of proposed project, activity, program, or policy. It requires
decisions to be influenced by that information, and it ensures that potentially affected persons
participate in the decision-making process. The EIA has been adopted globally through the 1972
stockholm conference, in principle 17 of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and
development which states that;
 ‘Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed
activities that are likely to have a significant impact on the environment and are subject to a
decision of a competent authority.’

It has also been endorsed by Agenda 21, where individuals, groups, and organizations are
expected to participate in EIA procedures during assessments of environmental suitability of
infrastsructure in human settlements.

Principles of EIA

1. It should be applied as a tool to achieve sustainable

development.
2. It should be applied as a tool to implement
environmental management rather than a report to a
report needed for approval of project proposals.
3. It should be integrated in the project life cycle to ensure
that environmental information is provided at appropriate
stages.
4. It should be applied to all proposed actions likely to have
a significant adverse effect on environment and human
health.
5. It should include an analysis of feasible alternatives to
the proposed action.
6. It should include meaningful opportunities for public
participation.
7. It should be carried out in a multi- or inter-disciplinary
manner using practicable science.
8. It should integrate information on social, economic and
biophysical aspects.
 

EIA and the EMCA (Laws of Kenya)

EMCA makes provision for EIA in sections 58 and 59 thereof. Section 58 inter alia obliges the
proponent of a project to undertake or cause to be undertaken at his own expense an
environmental impact assessment study and prepare a report thereof. A proponent must not
implement a project likely to have a negative environmental impact or for which an EIA is
required under the Act or Regulations unless an EIA has been concluded and approved by
NEMA. At the end of the environmental impact assessment study process an environmental
impact assessment study report is produced.

Stages of an EIA

An environmental impact assessment undergoes through the following stages;

A. Screening: screening determines which projects or developments require a full or partial

impact assessment study.

B. Terms of reference: an EIA study must be conducted in accordance with terms of reference
developed during the scoping exercise by the proponent and approved by NEMA. Scoping is
identification of the potential impacts that are relevant to assess and to derive terms of reference
for the impact assessment. The terms of reference include matters required to be considered in
the making of an EIA including;

o Ecological considerations that is the impact of project on

biological diversity, sustainable use and ecosystem
maintenance.
o Social considerations including economic impacts, social
cohesion or disruption, effect on human health,
immigration or emigration, communication and effects on
culture and objects of culture value.
o Landscape
o Land uses
o Water: impacts of the proposal on water sources and
drainage patterns/drainage systems.
C. Environmental impact assessment Study: an EIA study is to be conducted in accordance
with the general environmental impact assessment guidelines and sector EIA guidelines set out
in the Third Schedule to the Regulations.

An environmental impact assessment study must take into account environmental, social,
cultural, economic, and legal considerations, and shall:

 
i) identify the anticipated environmental impacts of the project and the scale of the impacts;

ii) identify and analyze alternatives to the proposed project;

iii) propose mitigation measures to be taken during and after the implementation of the project;
and

iv) develop an environmental management plan with mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating
the compliance and environmental performance which shall include the cost of mitigation
measures and the time frame of implementing the measures.

D. The Environmental Impact Assessment Study Report

After an EIA study has been conducted the proponent submits to the Authority an EIA Study
Report incorporating but not limited to the following information:

i) the proposed location of the project;

ii) a concise description of the national environmental legislative and regulatory framework,
baseline information,

iii) and any other relevant information related to the project; the objectives of the project;

iv) the technology, procedures and processes to be used, in the implementation of the project;

v) the materials to be used in the construction and implementation of the project;

vi) the products, by-products and waste to be generated by the project;

vii) a description of the potentially affected environment;

viii) the environmental effects of the project including the social and cultural effects and the
direct, indirect, cumulative, irreversible, short-term and long-term effects anticipated;

ix) alternative technologies and processes available and reasons for preferring the chosen
technology and processes;

x) analysis of alternatives including project site, design and technologies and reasons for
preferring the proposed site, design and technologies.

xi) an environmental management plan proposing the measures for eliminating, minimizing or
mitigating adverse impacts on the environment; including the cost, time frame and responsibility
to implement the measures;
xii) provision of an action plan for the prevention and management of foreseeable accidents and
hazardous activities in the course of carrying out activities or major industrial and other
development projects;

xiii) the measures to prevent health hazards and to ensure security in the working environment
for the employees and for the management of emergencies;

xiv) an identification of gaps in knowledge and uncertainties which were encountered in

compiling the information;

xv) an economic and social analysis of the project;

xvi) an indication of whether the environment of any other state is likely to be affected and the
available alternatives and mitigating measures; and

xvii) such other matters as the Authority may require.

The environmental impact assessment study report must also be accompanied by a non-technical
summary outlining the key findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study and must be
signed by the proponent and environmental impact assessment experts involved in its
preparation.

E. Public participation

Public participation is at the centre of EIA. During the process of conducting an environmental
impact assessment study the proponent must in consultation with NEMA seek the views of
persons who may be affected by the project. After the approval of the EIA Report by NEMA, the
proponent must;

a) publicize the project and its anticipated effects and benefits by:

o posting posters in strategic public places in the vicinity of

the site of the proposed project informing the affected
parties and communities of the proposed project;
o publishing a notice on the proposed project for two
successive weeks in a newspaper that has a nation-wide
circulation; and
o making an announcement of the notice in both official and
local languages in a radio with a nation-wide coverage for
at least once a week for two consecutive weeks;
b) hold at least three public meetings with the affected parties and communities to explain the
project and its effects, and to receive their oral or written comments;

c) ensure that appropriate notices are sent out at least one week prior to the meetings and that the
venue and times of the meetings are convenient for the affected communities and the other
concerned parties; and

d) ensure, in consultation with the Authority that a suitably qualified co-ordinator is appointed to
receive and record both oral and written comments and any translations thereof received during
all public meetings for onward transmission to the Authority.

F. Comments from Lead Agencies

After NEMA has received the Report, has to submit a copy thereof to any relevant lead agencies
for their comments. Lead agencies review the report to ensure that it complies with the terms of
reference under Regulation 11 and that it is comprehensive. They thereafter send their comments
to NEMA on the report within 30 days or such extended time as the Authority may specify.18 If
no comments are received from the Lead Agencies the Authority may proceed with the
determination of the application for the implementation of the project.

G. Submission of comments and public hearing

Regulation 21 obligates NEMA to invite the public to make oral or written comments on the
report. The invitation for public comments shall state;

i) The nature of the project;

ii) The location of the project;

iii) The anticipated impacts of the project and the proposed mitigation measures to respond to the
impacts;

iv) The times and place where the full report can be inspected; and

v) The period within which the Authority shall receive comments.

Upon receipt of both oral and written comments the Authority may hold a public hearing. On
conclusion of the hearing, the presiding officer shall compile a report of the views presented at
the public hearing and submit a report to the Director General of NEMA within 14 days from the
date of the public hearing. The Authority may then approve the Environmental Impact
Assessment Study Report and issue an EIA Licence under Regulation 24.

Strategic environment assessment / integrated impact assessment

This is a process of subjecting public policy, programmes and plans to test for compliance with
sound environmental management. Agenda 21 emphasizes the importance of integrated
environment and development decision-making and promotes the use of EIA and other policy
instruments for this purpose. Whereas EIA concerns itself with the biophysical impacts of
proposals only (e.g. effects on air, water, flora and fauna, noise levels, climate etc), SEA and
integrated impact assessment analyze a range of impact types including social, health and
economic aspects.

Regulation 42 (1) obligates lead agencies in consultation with the Authority to subject all
proposals for public policy, plans and programmes for environmental implementation to a
strategic environmental assessment to determine which ones are the most environmentally
friendly and cost effective when implemented individually or in combination with others.

Such an assessment has to consider the effect of implementing alternative policy actions taking
into consideration: the use of natural resources; the protection and conservation of biodiversity;
human settlement and cultural issues; socio-economic factors; and the protection, conservation of
natural physical surroundings of scenic beauty as well as protection and conservation of built
environment of historic or cultural significance. Government and all the lead agencies will have
to incorporate principles of strategic environmental assessment in the development of sector or
national policy. The content of a strategic environmental impact report are provided in
Regulation 43 (1).

Environmental Audit

Section 68 of EMCA obligates NEMA with the responsibility of carrying out environmental
audit of all activities that are likely to have significant effect on the environment. An
environmental audit study must be undertaken on development activities likely to have adverse
environmental impacts such as ongoing projects commenced prior to the coming into force of the
regulations or new projects undertaken after completion of an environmental impact assessment
study report. In carrying out an environmental audit study the auditor must carry out an appraisal
of all the project activities including the production of goods and services; give adequate
consideration to environmental regulatory frameworks, environmental health and safety
measures and sustainable use of resources. The principles applicable to EIA are also relevant in
an environmental audit.

DEVELOPMENT AND BIODIVERSITY (LOSS / CONSERVATION)

The findings of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment revealed that about 60 percent of the
ecosystem services such as fresh water, capture fisheries, air and water regulation, and the
regulation of regional climate, natural hazards and pests were being managed unsustainably and
in a state of degradation. Furthermore, the report stated that the ongoing degradation and loss of
ecosystem services was an obstruction to the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) that had
been agreed by the World leaders at the United Nations in 2000.

The MA exposes the paradox in the human-nature relationship. On one hand the degradation to
ecosystem services and loss of biodiversity are a direct result of human activity, while on the
other hand, Human survival and development are dependent on ecosystem services—one of most
important value of biodiversity.

All systems are dynamic and subject to change as a result of unpredictable events. Global
environmental change coupled with ongoing globalization and associated economic,
demographic and social development has led to the extensive transformation of our environment.
Human population is projected to increase to 9 billion by 2050 (United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs 2009) and this will greatly increase the demand for energy (Dias et
al. 2006). Over the last one hundred years social development has been responsible for the
degradation and transformation of many ecosystems, and for much of the planet’s largest
systems—the oceans, freshwater ecosystems and forests, the threshold that signifies the “tipping
point” for a system has been reached. This will have profound implications for the wellbeing of
future generations as the long-term survival and sustainability of human civilization depends

on the health and resilience of ecosystems providing services that are integral to human survival

(Monticino et al.  2007).

 
Most human population across the planet profits to varying degrees from natural resources and
other ecosystem services sourced elsewhere. The use of some of these services, such as timber
products, minerals, fossil fuels and oceanic fish stocks is internationally regulated but much of
the planet’s natural capital and ecosystem services including clean air, pollination, biological
pest control, decomposition and hydrological regimes are not.

Strategies for achieving ecologically sustainable economic growth include;

-          Internalization of externalities: Examples include property rights for environmental assets,
payments for ecosystem services, and liabilities for environmental damage. Developing effective
incentives requires an in-depth understanding of the ecological implications of externalities.

-          Creating mechanisms for sustaining ecosystem services: Such as pricing of carbon
sequestration, water provisioning services, regulation of land use, the direct protection of
biodiversity, and the development of “green standards” to which projects must adhere.

-          Enhance decision makers capacity to predict environmental impacts: Routine assessments
of environmental risks, such as environmental impact statements, play an important role in
identifying short-term environmental damage, but they rarely account for impacts that take
decades to emerge. Recognizing that environmental impacts are often highly uncertain, it is
important to develop models better able to project the consequences of anthropogenic
environmental change. Equally important are new monitoring systems to detect problematic
trends before they surpass society’s ability to address them. Precautionary measures should be
taken, such as those in many national regulations and international agreements concerning
human, animal, and plant health—a recent example is the World Trade Organization’s Sanitary
and Phytosanitary Agreement.

-          Managing for resilient ecosystems: Ecosystem management strategies need to leave a
“margin of error”, trading some short-term yield for long-term resilience that sustains a suite of
services.

Biodiversity

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth and includes variation at all levels of biological
organisation from genes to species to ecosystems. Genetic, organismal and ecological diversity
are all elements of biodiversity with each including a number of components (Gaston & Spicer
2004).
All of these elements of biodiversity have led to a large number of formal definitions; Delong
(1996) reviewed 85 different definitions. An important and widely used definition is that
included within the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This treaty was signed by over
150 nations at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from
all sources including, inter alia [among other things], terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems”.

Components of biodiversity

1. Genetic diversity- variety of genetic material within a

species or a population. the main indicators at this level
are heterozygosity, and it involves measuring the number
of polymeric genes in the population, the number of
alleles for each polymorphic gene, and number of genes
per individual that are polymorphic.
2. Species diversity- number of species present in different
habitats. The main indicators at this level are species
richness, abundance, evenness.
3. Ecosystem diversity- the variety of habitats, biotic
communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere.
The indicators at this level include; physic-chemical
indicators (pH, salinity, nutrients, etc), biological
indicators (Biodiversity of flora and fauna), habitat
indicators (landuse change, extent) and ecosystem
services.
 

1.2. Measuring biodiversity

In order to think about fundamental questions associated with biodiversity, such as where it
occurs, how fast it is disappearing or how it can be maintained; we first need to be able to
measure it. This is actually very difficult to do as biodiversity is a multidimensional concept that
cannot be reduced to a single number (Purvis & Hector 2000). Imagine two islands with different
organisms: island A has 6 reptiles, 1 bird and 1 mammal. Island B has 4 reptiles and 4 mammals.
We could say that island A is more diverse as it has 3 different taxa whilst island B has only 2,
but island B has a more even spread of the two taxa. Neither measure is wrong as ‘richness’ and
‘evenness’ are both facets of biodiversity and no single number can

incorporate both without loss of information. Purvis & Hector (2000) describe three facets of
biodiversity that can be measured:

• Numbers: e.g. the number of genes, populations, species or taxa in an area.

• Evenness: a site containing 1000 species may not seem very diverse if 99.9% of the species are
the same. Many diversity indices have been developed such as Simpson’s and Shannon’s
diversity indices that attempt to convey the extent to which individuals are distributed among
species. There are also equivalent measures for genetic diversity such as measures of
heterozygosity that incorporate both allele

number and relative frequencies.

• Difference: some pairs of alleles, populations, species or taxa may be very similar whilst others
are very different. For example, if populations within a species are very different they may be
considered as different sub-species, management units or evolutionary significant units. Some
differences may be considered to be more important than others, for example, ecological
differences between species may be important for ecosystem function. All of these kinds of
differences are likely to be at least partly reflected by phylogenetic diversity among organisms,
which is the sum total of the branch lengths in the evolutionary tree (phylogeny) that links the
organisms together. If you sample the phylogeny in different places you will find different
things.

Although biodiversity can be measured in lots of different ways the most commonly used
measure is that of species richness, there are a number of reasons for this (Purvis & Hector 2000;
Gaston & Spicer 2004):

1. Species often keep their genes to themselves and thus can have independent evolutionary
trajectories and unique histories; it thus makes biological sense to measure species richness
rather than a higher taxonomic grouping.

2. It is often easier to count the number of species compared to other measures of biodiversity.
Humans tend to be able to recognise species and these are the units typically used in folk
knowledge, practical management and political discourse. Humans can visualise variation in
biodiversity as variation in species richness.

3. There is a substantial body of information already available on species, for example, in

museums and herbaria.
4. Species richness can act as a ‘surrogate’ for other measures of biodiversity. In general as long
as the number of species involved is moderate, greater numbers of species will tend to have more
genetic diversity and will tend to have greater ecological diversity as more niches, habitats or
biomes will be represented.

There are however some disadvantages in the use of species richness as a measure of
biodiversity. One of these is that the number of species that you count depends on the species
concept that you adopt. For example, using the biological species concept 40 – 42 species of
birds-of-paradise are recognised in Australasia; if the phylogenetic species concept is used this
increases to 90 species (Gaston & Spicer 2004).

Another limitation arises if species richness is used synonymously with biodiversity without
emphasising the fact that species richness represents just one element of what biodiversity is.

We also need to consider the spatial scale over which species richness can be considered, with a
distinction commonly being made between alpha, beta and gamma diversity. Alpha diversity
refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem and is typically measured as
the number of species within that area. Beta diversity is the species diversity between areas and
involves comparing the number of species that are unique to each area. Gamma diversity is a
measure of the overall diversity across a region (Gaston & Spicer 2004).

Uses and values of biodiversity

Under the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the Ecosystem Approach forms the basis for
considering all the services provided to people by biodiversity and ecosystems in a holistic
framework (Secretariat of the Convention for Biological Diversity, 2004).

In the typology suggested by the MA, four broad types of service were recognized, namely:

1. Those that cover the material or provisioning services;

2. Those that cover the way ecosystems regulate other
environmental media or processes;
3. Those related to the cultural  or spiritual needs of people;
and finally
4. The supporting  services that underpin these other three
types.
Consumptive value:

o Food/Drink
 o Fuel
o Medicine
o Better crop varieties
o Industrial Material
Non-Consumptive Value:

o Recreation
o Education and Research
o Traditional value
Ecological services:

o Balance of  nature

o Biological productivity
o Regulation of climate
o Degradation of waste
o Cleaning of air and water
o Cycling of nutrients
o Control of potential pest  and disease causing species
o Detoxification of soil and sediments
o Stabilization of  land against erosion
o Carbon sequestration  and  global climate change
o Maintenance of  Soil fertility
 

BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity change is caused by a range of drivers. A driver is any natural or human-

induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. A direct
driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes. An indirect driver operates more diffusely,
by altering one or more direct drivers. Important direct drivers affecting biodiversity are habitat
change, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution.

Changes in biodiversity and in ecosystems are almost always caused by multiple,

interacting drivers. Changes are driven by combinations of drivers that work over time (such
as population and income growth interacting with technological advances that lead to climate
change) or level of organization (such as local zoning laws versus international environmental
treaties) and that happen intermittently (such as droughts, wars, and economic crises).

 
Biodiversity change is most clearly a consequence of the direct drivers. However, these
reflect changes in indirect drivers—the root causes of changes in ecosystems.These can be
classified into the following broad categories: change in economic activity, demographic change,
sociopolitical factors, cultural and religious factors, and scientific and technological change.

o Global economic activity increased nearly sevenfold

between 1950 and 2000, and in the millennium
assessment scenarios it is projected to grow a further three-
to sixfold by 2050. The many processes
of globalization have amplified some driving forces of
changes in ecosystem services and attenuated other forces
by removing regional barriers, weakening national
connections, and increasing the interdependence among
people and between nations .
o Global population doubled in the past 40 years, reaching 6
billion in 2000. It is projected to grow to 8.1–9.6 billion by
2050, depending on the scenario. Urbanization influences
consumption, generally increasing the demand for food and
energy and thereby increasing pressures
on ecosystems globally.
o Over the past 50 years, there have been significant changes
in sociopolitical drivers, including a declining trend in
centralized authoritarian governments and a rise in elected
democracies, which allows for new forms of management,
in particular adaptive management, of environmental
resources.
Culture conditions individuals’ perceptions of the world, and by influencing what they consider
important, it has implications for conservation and consumer preferences and suggests courses of
action that are appropriate and inappropriate. The development and diffusion of scientific
knowledge and technologies can on the one hand allow for increased efficiency in resource use
and on the other hand can provide the means to increase exploitation of resources.

Source: Millenium Ecosystem Assessment.

Habitat change

Fragmentation is caused by natural disturbance (such as fires or wind) or by land use change and
habitat loss, such as the clearing of natural vegetation for agriculture or road construction, which
divides previously continuous habitats. Larger remnants, and remnants that are close to other
remnants, are less affected by fragmentation. Small fragments of habitat can only support
small populations, which tend to be more vulnerable to extinction. Moreover, habitat along the
edge of a fragment has a different climate and favors different species to the interior. Small
fragments are therefore unfavorable for those species that require interior habitat, and they may
lead to the extinction of those species. Species that are specialized to particular habitats and those
whose dispersal abilities are weak suffer from fragmentation more than generalist species with
good dispersal ability. Fragmentation affects all biomes, but especially forests and
major freshwater systems.

Invasive alien species

Invasive alien species have been a major cause of extinction, especially on islands and
in freshwater habitats, and they continue to be a problem in many areas. In freshwater
habitats, the introduction of alien species is the second leading cause of species extinction, and
on islands it is the main cause of extinction over the past 20 years, along with habitat destruction.
The rate of introductions continues to be extremely high; for example, in New Zealand plant
introductions alone have occurred at a rate of 11 species per year since European settlement in
1840.

Overexploitation

Overexploitation remains a serious threat to many species and populations. Among the most

commonly overexploited species or groups of species are marine fish and invertebrates, trees,
and animals hunted for meat. Most industrial fisheries are either fully or overexploited, and the
impacts of overharvesting are coupled to destructive fishing techniques that destroy habitat, as
well as associated ecosystems such as estuaries and wetlands. Even recreational and subsistence
fishing has contributed to what is known as the “shifting baselines” phenomenon, in which what
we consider the norm today is dramatically different from pre-exploitation conditions.

Many of the current concerns with overexploitation of bushmeat (wild meat taken from the
forests by local people for income or subsistence) are similar to those of fisheries,
wheresustainable levels of exploitation remain poorly understood and where the offtake is
difficult to manage effectively. Although the true extent of exploitation is poorly known, it is
clear that rates of offtake are extremely high in tropical forests. The trade in wild plants and
animals and their derivatives is poorly documented but is estimated at nearly $160 billion
annually. It ranges from live animals for the food and pet trade to ornamental plants and timber.
Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses national borders, the effort to regulate it
requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from overexploitation.

Nutrient loading / pollution

Over the past four decades, nutrient loading has emerged as one of the most
important drivers of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater, and
coastalecosystems. While the introduction of nutrients into ecosystems can have both beneficial
and adverse effects, the beneficial effects will eventually reach a plateau as more nutrients are
added (for example, additional inputs will not lead to further increases in crop yield), while the
harmful effects will continue to grow. Synthetic production of nitrogen fertilizer has been the
key driver for the remarkable increase in food production of the past 50 years . The total amount
of reactive, or biologically available, nitrogen created by human activities increased ninefold
between 1890 and 1990, with most of that increase taking place in the second half of the century
in association with increased use of fertilizers. These changes are mirrored by phosphorus
accumulation in soils, which can serve as an indicator of eutrophication potential
for freshwater lakes and phosphorus-sensitive estuaries. Potential consequences include
eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems, hypoxia in coastal marine ecosystems, nitrous oxide
emissions contributing to global climate change, and air pollution by NOx in urban areas.

Climate change

Climate change in the past century has already had a measurable impact on
biodiversity. Observed recent changes in climate, especially warmer regional temperatures, have
already had significant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, including causing changes
in species distributions, population sizes, the timing of reproduction or migration events, and an
increase in the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks. Many coral reefs have undergone major,
although often partially reversible, bleaching episodes when local sea surface temperatures have
increased during one month by 0.5–1o Celsius above the average of the hottest months.
Precipitation patterns have changed spatially and temporally, and global average sea level rose
0.1–0.2 meters. By the end of the century, climate change and its impacts may be the
dominant direct driver of biodiversity loss and changes in ecosystem services globally.
Recent studies, using the climate envelope/species-area technique, estimated that the projected
changes in climate by 2050 could lead to an eventual extinction of 15–52% of the subset of 1,103
endemic species (mammals, birds, frogs, reptiles, butterflies, and plants) analyzed. While the
growing season in Europe has lengthened over the last 30 years, in some regions of Africa the
combination of regional climate changes and anthropogenic stresses has led to decreased cereal
crop production since 1970. Changes in fish populations have been linked to large-scale climate
oscillations; El Niño events, for instance, have affected fisheries off the coasts of South America
and Africa, and decadal oscillations in the Pacific have affected fisheries off the west coast of
North America.

The scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change project an increase

in global mean surface temperature of 2.0–6.4o Celsius above preindustrial levels by 2100,
increased incidence of floods and droughts, and a rise in sea level of an additional 8–88
centimeters between 1990 and 2100.

Harm to biodiversity will grow worldwide with increasing rates of change in climate and
increasing absolute amounts of change. In contrast, some ecosystem services in some regions
may initially be enhanced by projected changes in climate (such as increases in temperature or
precipitation), and thus these regions may experience net benefits at low levels of climate
change. As climate change becomes more severe, however, the harmful impacts on ecosystem
services outweigh the benefits in most regions of the world. The balance of scientific evidence
suggests that there will be a significant net harmful impact on ecosystem services worldwide if
global mean surface temperature increases more than 2 o Celsius above preindustrial levels or at
rates greater than 0.2o Celsius per decade (medium certainty).Climate change is projected to
further adversely affect key development challenges, including providing clean water, energy
services, and food; maintaining a healthy environment; and conserving ecological systems and
their biodiversity and associated ecological goods and services.

o Climate change is projected to exacerbate the loss

of biodiversity and increase the risk of extinction for
many species, especially those already at risk due to factors
such as low population numbers, restricted or patchy
habitats, and limited climatic ranges (medium to high
certainty).
o Water availability and quality are projected to decrease in
many arid and semiarid regions (high certainty).
o The risk of floods and droughts is projected to increase
(high certainty).
o The reliability of hydropower and biomass production is
projected to decrease in some regions (high certainty).
 o The incidence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and
dengue and of waterborne diseases such as cholera is
projected to increase in many regions (medium to high
certainty), and so too are heat stress mortality and threats of
decreased nutrition in other regions, along with severe
weather traumatic injury and death (high certainty).
o Agricultural productivity is projected to decrease in the
tropics and sub-tropics for almost any amount of warming
(low to medium certainty), and there are projected adverse
effects on fisheries.
Projected changes in climate during the twenty-first century are very likely to be without
precedent during at least the past 10,000 years and, combined with land use change and the
spread of exotic or alien species, are likely to limit both the capability of species to migrate and
the ability of species to persist in fragmented habitats.

CONSERVATION OF BODIVERSITY

Strategies for conservation and management of biodiversity include:

-Biodiversity inventories

-Monitoring and Data base management

-Conserving Biodiversity in protected Habitats

o In situ conservation –sacred groves and lakes, biosphere

reserves, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
o Ex situ conservation - Seed Bank, Gene Bank, Pollen
Bank, DNA Bank, botanical garden, zoological garden,
aquaria
 

-Restoration of Biodiversity

-Imparting Environmental Education

-Enacting, mainstreaming strengthening and enforcing Environmental Legislation

-Population Control

-Reviewing the agriculture practice

-Controlling Urbanization

-Conservation through Biotechnology

-Economic tools for conserving biodiversity such as; ecosystem service valuation, Payments for
ecosystem services, carbon trading, land tools based on purchasing land rights, offset credits
(green finance).

Planning for the conservation of biodiversity can be approached in two ways: habitat - or
ecosystem based and species-based.

The ecosystem approach to Conservation

The Ecosystem Approach has become one of the most influential and most cited concepts to be
promoted in the context of implementation of the CBD.

The Ecosystem Approach was not only designed as a primary framework for conservation

action under the Convention on Biological Diversity, but it was equally expected to comprise
strategies that were to adequately address the interlinkages between biodiversity and human
development.

At its second meeting, held in Jakarta, November 1995, the Conference of the Parties (COP) of
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted the Ecosystem Approach as the primary
framework for action under the Convention, and subsequently has referred to the Ecosystem
Approach in the elaboration and implementation of the various thematic and cross-cutting issue
work programmes under the Convention (Decision II/8).

The Ecosystem Approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living
resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the
Ecosystem Approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. It is
based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological
organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among
organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an
integral component of ecosystems.

(Extracted from the website of the Convention on Biological Diversity;

http://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/)

Species-based approaches

Species based approaches require the review of taxa with the aim of identifying species

considered to be of a high priority for conservation, most importantly threatened species and
those of actual or potential resource value. Conservation or recovery plans can then be developed
for these species. The advantage of this approach lie largely on its allowing of resources to be
directed to the most urgent cases, that is, species known to be most imminently in danger of
extinction. Its disadvantages are that, given existing knowledge and resources, only a tiny
proportion of the world’s biota can be adequately surveyed to set priorities. Moreover, even for
those taxa which have been surveyed, adequate resources are available to implement recovery
plans for only a small proportion for those identified as of high priority, which anthropogenic
prejudices dictates that these are often higher vertebrates.

Attempts to reconcile the two approaches centre on identification of areas of high diversity and

endemism, particularly of threatened species, and the use of particular species as flagships, to
justify the preservation of areas of habitat which thereby conserve other species of lower
conservation priority.

Legal frameworks for conservation (Conventions)

Current global strategies in conservation are exercised through legal regulations enforced
through social and political frameworks. Increased globalization over the last 70 years has
moved conservation more towards international conventions and agreements that are designed to
overcome the hurdle of administrative boundaries. Nevertheless, international directives for
conservation are ultimately administered through national policy and legislation.
 

THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)

Developing countries are now demanding a greater share of the economic benefits arising from

the use of resources within their boundaries which until now have mainly accrued to the
industrial countries with the technological capability to exploit them. At the same time, the
developed world has become increasingly apprehensive about the accelerating rate of loss of
biodiversity and its global consequences. Developed countries want to see the use of biological
resources placed on a sustainable basis, and are linking their overseas development assistance to
this tenet, which often clashes with the sovereign rights of developing countries to manage their
resources as they deem best on behalf of their citizens. In addition, the developed countries have
until recently been able to exploit the genetic resources of tropical countries for agricultural and
pharmacological advantage to little cost, but have now become concerned both about the
continued erosion of these resources and the increasing erosion of these resources and the
increasing restrictions developing countries are placing on their use. These parallel

concerns about the exploitation of biological resources expressed by both the industrialized and

undrerindustrialised countries have led to the negotiations for a convention on biological

diversity.

The origin of the convention negotiations goes back to the initial drafts prepared in 1987 by

IUCN in response to a resolution adopted at its 16th General Assembly. The IUCN document
focused on measures to reinforce the conservation of b biodiversity in situ through the provision
of economic incentives based on sustainable use. Its main breakthrough, apart from galvanising
activity, was the recognition of the rights of the producer countries to share equally in the
benefits of their resource use: new, innovative, funding mechanisms such as import duties, trade
tariffs and royalty payments on the sale of commodities incorporating products of the biological
resources of other countries were proposed. In 1988, IUCN circulated a comprehensive draft
amongst the participating countries at the UNEP Governing Council. This stimulated extensive
discussion, resulting in acceptance of the need for an international convention with UNEP, as the
appropriate inter-governmental agency, was instructed to pursue. The narrow focus envisaged by
IUCN was then expanded to include ex situ conservation, land races and wild relatives of
commercial crop varieties, access to technologies and scientific skills by developing countries to
exploit their own genetic resources. Formal negotiations started in November 1990. The
conference for the adoption of the agreed text of the convention on biological diversity met at
UNEP headquarters in Nairobi on 22 May 1992 and adopted the text. Representatives 157
countries appended their signature to the convention during the conference on Biological
Diversity in Rio de Janeiro from 5th to 14th June 1992. Kenya signed on the 11th June 1992.

The convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna, 1975
(CITES)

This is a framework by state parties to control international trade in species with the aim of
preventing their depletion. Many species protected under this convention have been successfully
preserved. This convention categorizes species into three appendices based on the threat level;

1. Appendix I: Species facing the threat of extinction, and

are therefore subject to stringent trade controls.
2. Appendix II: Those species subject to controlled trade,
though not facing extinction.
3. Appendix II: these are species placed proactively by state
parties for the purpose of soliciting assistance from other
parties in controlling trade.
 

It was drafted in 1963 following a resolution of the IUCN, ratified in 1973, and became binding
in 1975, it has over 150 state parties and protected species are over 30,000.

The Ramsar Convention, 1971

 This convention aims at ensuring cooperate national and international action to ensure
sustainable use of wetlands and resources found in them.

According to this convention wetlands are “areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether
natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish
or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 m.” it is
the only convention concerned with a specific type of habitat.

It was first drafted following the waterfowl conservation conference in 1962, in1971 it was
adopted in Ramsar, Iran. There are more than 138 state parties, it protects over 1,308 sites.

The World Heritage Convention, 1972

Formally referred to as ‘the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and
Natural Heritage’ it is the framework through which outstanding sites of world culture and
natural heritage are identified for preservation. These sites are contained in the World Heritage
List. It is advised by the IUCN, International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM),the International Council of Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) and it is housed under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO). It was first drafted by IUCN in 1968 following a conference in 1965,
drafts were presented at the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in 1972, and it
was adopted and ratified in 1972 at the General Conference of UNESCO. It has more than 150
state parties.

UNESCO’s Man and the earth’s program advocate the creation of multi-zones of biosphere
reserves. This concept encourages private initiatives in forest products, ecotourism, agriculture in
transition areas. The global network of these biosphere reserves comprises more than 409 sites.

Convention on Migratory Species, 1979 (Bonn Convention)

The aim of this convention is to “conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species
throughout their range”. It is the framework through which cooperate measures for the
protection, management and research into endangered migratory species are conducted. It
consists of two appendices;

1. Appendix I – Endangered migratory species needing

international cooperate protection.
2. Appendix II – Species likely to benefit from protection
of international agreements, under this convention.
It became binding in 1983, it is composed of more than 81 state parties. The agreements
protecting various species include:

-        EUROBATS, 1991 – Protection of Bats in Europe.

-        Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas, 1991.

-        African-Eurasian Water bird Agreement (AEWA), 1995.

-        Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and
Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS), 1996.

-        Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, 2001.

 
 

Biodiversity policy: Implementation framework and structures

The implementation of biodiversity policy and action at national and international levels is
usually divided up between several sectors of society, and is reliant on effective communication
and coordination.

An example is environmental economics that requires the combined efforts of biodiversity

specialists and economists to provide solutions to questions such as: How much biodiversity do
we need? What is the economic value of biodiversity? Who has to foot the bill?

At the international level the efforts of many experts have been coordinated under the umbrellas
of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the TEEB study (The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity; TEEB—The Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity 2008, TEEB—The
Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity 2009), to inform policy and action and provide
answers to problematic questions.

The environmental Kuznets curve

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, which posits that in the early stages of
economic development environmental degradation will increase until a certain level of income is
reached (known as the turning point) and then environmental improvement will occur.

Possible explanations of the effects of income levels on environmental degradation

-        Rising income brings population growth rates down, therefore population pressure on the
environment decreases.

-        As economic development progresses and income grows, the share of industry will go
down as services goes up, thus sectoral changes may favor less-polluting sectors.

-        It is likely that economic growth increases the possibility that more modern and less
pollution intensive man-made capital and technology are introduced.

-        As income grows environmental concern rises .

However, overall economic growth and growth in incomes may or may not benefit the
environment.

Three relationships can be distinguished, depending on the indicator for environmental

degradation under consideration.

A-    Indicators that show improvement with rising incomes.

B-    Indicators that show deterioration initially, followed by improvement with rising incomes.

C-    Indicators that show deterioration with rising incomes, e.g per capita carbon dioxide
emissions.