Astm D 7128-05

Designation: D 7128 – 05
Standard Guide for

Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow
Subsurface Investigation1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D 7128; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope familiar with the relevant material in this guide, the references
1.1 Purpose and Application: cited in the text, and Guides D 420, D 653, D 2845, D 4428/
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the technique, equipment, field D 4428M, Practice D 5088, Guides D 5608, D 5730, D 5753,
procedures, data processing, and interpretation methods for the D 6235, and D 6429.
assessment of shallow subsurface conditions using the seismic- 1.2.2 This guide is limited to two-dimensional (2-D) shal-
reflection method. low seismic-reflection measurements made on land. The
1.1.2 Seismic reflection measurements as described in this seismic-reflection method can be adapted for a wide variety of
guide are applicable in mapping shallow subsurface conditions special uses: on land, within a borehole, on water, and in three
for various uses including geologic (1), geotechnical, hydro- dimensions (3-D). However, a discussion of these specialized
geologic (2), and environmental (3).2 The seismic-reflection adaptations of reflection measurements is not included in this
method is used to map, detect, and delineate geologic condi- guide.
tions including the bedrock surface, confining layers (aquita- 1.2.3 This guide provides information to help understand
rds), faults, lithologic stratigraphy, voids, water table, fracture the concepts and application of the seismic-reflection method
systems, and layer geometry (folds). The primary application to a wide range of geotechnical, engineering, and groundwater
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of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral problems.

continuity of lithologic units and, in general, detection of 1.2.4 The approaches suggested in this guide for the
change in acoustic properties in the subsurface. seismic-reflection method are commonly used, widely ac-
1.1.3 This guide will focus on the seismic-reflection method cepted, and proven; however, other approaches or modifica-
as it is applied to the near surface. Near-surface seismic tions to the seismic-reflection method that are technically
reflection applications are based on the same principles as sound may be equally suited.
those used for deeper seismic reflection surveying, but ac- 1.2.5 Technical limitations of the seismic-reflection method
cepted practices can differ in several respects. Near-surface are discussed in 5.4.
seismic-reflection data are generally high-resolution (dominant 1.2.6 This guide discusses both compressional (P) and shear
frequency above 80 Hz) and image depths from around 6 m to (S) wave reflection methods. Where applicable, the distinctions
as much as several hundred meters. Investigations shallower between the two methods will be pointed out in this guide.
than 6 m have occasionally been undertaken, but these should 1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information
be considered experimental. or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
1.2 Limitations: course of action. This document cannot replace education or
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the shallow experience and should be used in conjunction with professional
seismic-reflection method, but it does not address the details of judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
seismic theory, field procedures, data processing, or interpre- circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or
tation of the data. Numerous references are included for that replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given
purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is professional service must be judged, nor should this document
recommended that the user of the seismic-reflection method be be applied without consideration for a project’s many unique
aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this guide means
only that the document has been approved through the ASTM
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock consensus process.
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface 1.4 The values stated in SI units are regarded as standard.
Characterization.
Current edition approved Jan. 1, 2005. Published February 2005.
The values given in parentheses are inch-pound units, which
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of are provided for information only and are not considered
this standard. standard.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
Copyright ASTM International 1

Reproduced by IHS under license with ASTM Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Licensee=malaysia-china hydro joint venture/5964027001
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D 7128 – 05
1.5 Precautions: 3.2 Definitions Specific to This Guide
1.5.1 It is the responsibility of the user of this guide to 3.2.1 acoustic impedance—product of seismic compres-
follow any precautions within the equipment manufacturer’s sional wave velocity and density. Compressional wave velocity
recommendations, establish appropriate health and safety of a material is dictated by its bulk modulus, shear modulus,
practices, and consider the safety and regulatory implications and density. Seismic impedance is the more general term for
when explosives or any high-energy (mechanical or chemical) the product of seismic velocity and density.
sources are used. 3.2.2 automatic gain control (AGC)—trace amplitude ad-
1.5.2 If the method is applied at sites with hazardous justment that varies as a function of time and the amplitude of
materials, operations, or equipment, it is the responsibility of adjacent data points. Amplitude adjustment changing the out-
the user of this guide to establish appropriate safety and health put amplitude so that at least one sample is at full scale
practices and determine the applicability of any regulations deflection within a selected moving window (moving in time).
prior to use.
3.2.3 body waves—P- and S-waves that travel through the
1.5.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the
body of a medium, as opposed to surface waves which travel
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
along the surface of a half-space.
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responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-

priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- 3.2.4 bulk modulus (elastic constant)—the resistance of a
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. material to change its volume in response to the hydrostatic
load. Bulk modulus (K) is also known as the modulus of
2. Referenced Documents compression.
2.1 ASTM Standards: 3 3.2.5 check shot survey—direct measurement of traveltime
D 420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering, De- between the surface and a given depth. Usually sources on the
sign, and Construction Purposes surface are recorded by a seismic receiver in a well to
D 653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained determine the time-to-depth relationships at a specified loca-
Fluids tion. Also referred to as downhole survey.
D 2845 Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Pulse 3.2.6 coded source—a seismic energy-producing device
Velocities and Ultrasonic Elastic Constants of Rock that delivers energy throughout a given time in a predetermined
D 3740 Practice for Minimum Requirements for Agencies or predicted fashion.
Engaged in the Testing and/or Inspection of Soil and Rock 3.2.7 common mid-point (CMP) or common depth point
as Used in Engineering Design and Construction (CDP) method—a recording-processing method in which each
D 4428/D 4428M Test Method for Crosshole Seismic Test- source is recorded at a number of geophone locations and each
ing geophone location is used to record from a number of source
D 5088 Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment locations. After corrections, these data traces are combined
Used at Nonradioactive Waste Sites (stacked) to provide a common-midpoint section approximat-
D 5608 Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment ing a coincident source and receiver at each location. The
Used at Low Level Radioactive Waste Sites objective is to attenuate random effects and events whose
D 5730 Guide to Site Characterization for Environmental dependence on offset is different from that of primary reflec-
Purposes with Emphasis on Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone, tions.
and Ground Water 3.2.8 compressional wave velocity—also known as P-wave
D 5753 Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole Geo- velocity. In seismic usage, velocity refers to the propagation
physical Logging rate of a seismic wave without implying any direction, that is,
D 5777 Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for velocity is a property of the medium. Particle displacement of
Subsurface Investigation a compressional wave is in the direction of propagation.
D 6235 Guide for Expedited Site Characterization of Haz- 3.2.9 dynamic range—the ratio of the maximum reading to
ardous Waste Contaminated Sites the minimum reading which can be recorded by and read from
D 6429 Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods an instrument without change of scale. It is also referred to as
D 6432 Guide for Using the Surface Ground Penetrating the ability of a system to record very large and very small
Radar Method for Subsurface Investigation amplitude signals and subsequently recover them. Integral to
the concept of dynamic range is the systems Analog to Digital
3. Terminology
converter (A/D). A systems A/D is rated according to the
3.1 Definitions: number of bits the analog signal is segmented into to form the
3.1.1 For general terms, See Terminology D 653. Additional digital word. A/D converters in modern seismographs usually
technical terms used in this guide are defined in Refs (4) and range from 16 to 24 bits.
(5). 3.2.10 fold (or redundancy)—the multiplicity of common-
midpoint data or the number of midpoints per bin. Where the
midpoint is the same for 12 source/receiver pairs, the stack is
3
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or referred to as “12-fold” or 1200 percent.
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on 3.2.11 G-force—measure of acceleration relative to the
the ASTM website. gravitational force of the earth.

D 7128 – 05
3.2.12 impedance contrast—ratio of the seismic impedance 3.2.23 seismic sensor—receivers designed to couple to the
across a boundary. Seismic impedance of the lower layer earth and record vibrations (for example, geophones, acceler-
divided by the seismic impedance of the upper layer. A value of ometers, hydrophones).
1 implies total transmittance. Values increase or decrease from 3.2.24 seismic sensor group (spread)—multiple receivers
1 as the contrast increases, that is, more energy reflection from connected to a single recording channel, generally deployed in
a boundary. Values less than 1 are indicative of a negative an array designed to enhance or attenuate specific energy.
reflectivity or reversed reflection wavelet polarity. 3.2.25 seismogram—a seismic record or section.
3.2.13 normal moveout (NMO)—the difference in 3.2.26 shear modulus (G) (elastic constant)—the ratio of
reflection-arrival time as a function of shot-to-geophone dis- shear stress to shear strain of a material as a result of loading
tance because the geophone is not located at the source point. and is also known as the rigidity modulus, equivalent to the
It is the additional traveltime required because of offset, second Lamé constant m mentioned in books on continuum
assuming that the reflecting bed is not dipping and that theory. For small deformations, Hooke’s law holds and strain is
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raypaths are straight lines. This leads to a hyperbolic shape for proportional to stress.
a reflection. 3.2.27 shear wave velocity (S-wave velocity)—speed of
3.2.14 normal moveout velocity (stacking velocity)— energy traveling with particle motion perpendicular to its
velocity to a given reflector calculated from normal-moveout direction of propagation (see Eq 2).
measurements, assuming a constant-velocity model. Because 3.2.28 shot gather—a side-by-side display of seismic traces
the raypath actually curves as the velocity changes, fitting a that have a common source location. Also referred to as “field
hyperbola assumes that the actual velocity distribution is files.”
equivalent to a constant NMO velocity, but the NMO velocity 3.2.29 source to seismic sensor offset—the distance from
changes with the offset. However, the assumption often pro- the source-point to the seismic sensor or to the center of a
vides an adequate solution for offsets less than the reflector seismic sensor (group) spread.
depth. Used to calculate NMO corrections to common- 3.2.30 takeout—a connection point on a multiconductor
midpoint gathers prior to stacking. cable where seismic sensors can be connected. Takeouts are
3.2.15 Nyquist frequency—also known as the aliasing or usually physically polarized to reduce the likelihood of making
folding frequency, is equal to half the sampling frequency or the connection backwards.
rate. Any frequency arriving at the recording instrument greater 3.2.31 tap test—gently touching a receiver while monitor-
than the Nyquist will be aliased to a lower frequency and ing on real-time display, to qualitatively appraise sensor
cannot be recovered. response.
3.2.16 optimum window—range of offsets between source 3.2.32 twist test—light rotational pressure applied to each
and receiver that provide reflections with the best signal-to- seismic sensor to ensure no motion and, therefore, a solid
noise ratio. ground coupling point.
3.2.17 Poisson’s ratio—the ratio of the transverse contrac- 3.2.33 wavetrain (wavefield)—(1) spatial perturbations at a
tion to the fractional longitudinal extension when a rod is given time that result from passage of a wave; and (2) all
stretched. If density is known, specifying Poisson’s ratio is components of seismic energy traveling through the earth as
equivalent to specifying the ratio of Vs/Vp, where Vs and Vp are the result of a single impact.
S- and P-wave velocities. Values ordinarily range from 0.5 (no 3.2.34 wide-angle reflections—reflections with an angle of
shear strength, for example, fluid) to 0, but theoretically they incidence near or greater than the critical angle. The critical
range from 0.5 to −1.0; {µ = =1−0.5(Vp/Vs)2 / 1−(Vp/Vs)2}. angle is defined as the unique angle of incidence at which rays
incident to a boundary (boundary defined as an abrupt vertical
3.2.18 raypath—a line everywhere perpendicular to wave-
increase in velocity) “refract” and travel in the lower, higher
fronts (in isotropic media). A raypath is characterized by its
velocity media parallel to the boundary. Wide-angle reflections
direction at the surface. While seismic energy does not travel
become asymptotic to refractions at increasing offset and can
only along raypaths, raypaths constitute a useful method of
possess exceptionally large amplitudes. If they are included in
determining arrival time by ray tracing.
CMP stacked sections they can disproportionately contribute to
3.2.19 reflection—the energy or wave from a seismic source the stacked wavelet.
that has been reflected (returned) from an acoustic-impedance 3.2.35 wiggle trace—a single line display of seismic sensor
contrast (reflector) or series of contrasts within the earth. output as a function of time.
3.2.20 reflector—an interface having a contrast in physical
properties (elasticity and/or density) that reflects seismic en- 4. Summary of Guide
ergy. 4.1 Summary of the Method—The seismic-reflection
3.2.21 roll-along switch—a switch that connects different method utilizes seismic energy that propagates through the
geophone groups to the recording instruments, used in earth, reflects off subsurface features, and returns to the
common-midpoint recording. surface. The seismic waves travel from a source to seismic
3.2.22 seismic impedance—product of seismic wave veloc- sensors deployed in a known geometry. Sound waves traveling
ity and density. Different from acoustic impedance as it downward will reflect back to the surface wherever the velocity
includes shear waves and surface waves where acoustic im- or density of subsurface materials increases or decreases
pedance, by strict definition, includes only compressional abruptly (for example, water table, alluvium/bedrock contact,
waves. limestone/shale contact).

D 7128 – 05
4.1.1 Images of reflectors (velocity or density contrast) are that, without supporting or complementary data, cannot be
used to interpret subsurface conditions and materials. Reflec- definitively interpreted.
tions returning from reflectors to seismic sensors will follow
travel paths determined by the velocities of the materials 5. Significance and Use
through which they propagate. Reflection arrivals on seismic
5.1 Concepts:
data recorded with multiple seismic sensors at different offsets
(distance between source and seismic sensor) from the source 5.1.1 This guide summarizes the basic equipment, field
can be collectively used to estimate the velocity (approxi- procedures, and interpretation methods used for detecting,
mately average) of the material between the reflection point delineating, or mapping shallow subsurface features and rela-
and seismic sensor. Reflections can be used to characterize tive changes in layer geometry or stratigraphy using the
properties of the subsurface such as continuity, thickness, and seismic-reflection method. Common applications of the
depth of layers and changes in velocity and material type. method include mapping the top of bedrock, delineating bed or
4.1.2 The seismic-reflection method depends on the pres- layer geometries, identifying changes in subsurface material
ence of discrete seismic-velocity or mass-density changes in properties, detecting voids or fracture zones, mapping faults,
the subsurface that represent acoustical impedance changes. defining the top of the water table, mapping confining layers,
Mathematically, acoustic impedance is proportional to the and estimating of elastic-wave velocity in subsurface materials.
product of mass density and acoustic wave velocity. Reflection Personnel requirements are as discussed in Practice D 3740.
may or may not occur at natural boundaries between geologic 5.1.2 Subsurface measurements using the seismic-reflection
layers or at manmade boundaries such as tunnels and mines. method require a seismic source, multiple seismic sensors,
The classic use of the seismic reflection method is to identify multi-channel seismograph, and appropriate connections (radio
boundaries of layered geologic units. However, the technique or hardwire) between each (Fig. 1, also showing optional
can also be used to search for localized anomalies such as sand roll-along switch).
or clay lenses and faults. 5.1.3 Seismic waves generated by a controlled seismic
4.1.3 Seismic energy in the earth travels in the form of body energy source propagate in the form of mechanical energy
waves and surface waves. Body waves propagating through the (particle motion) from the source through the ground or air to
earth behave similarly to sound waves propagating in air. seismic sensors where the particle (ground) motion is con-
When sound waves traveling in air from voices, explosions, verted to electrical voltage and transmitted to the seismograph.
horns, etc., come in contact with a wall, cliff, or building (all
5.1.3.1 Seismic energy travels away from the source both
acoustic contrasts), it is common to hear an echo, which is
through the ground and air. In the ground, the energy travels as
reflected sound. When a body wave propagating in the subsur-
an elastic wave, with compressional waves (Eq 1) and shear
face comes in contact with a volume of material with a
waves (Eq 2) moving away from the source in a hemispherical
different acoustical impedance in the subsurface, reflections
pattern, and surface waves propagating away in a circular
(echoes) are also generated. In the subsurface, the situation is
complex because some of the body wave energy arriving at an pattern on the ground surface.
acoustic interface can be transmitted, refracted, or converted to Vp 5 =@~K 1 4G / 3! / r# (1)
other types of seismic waves at the interface. Surface waves are 1/2 1/2
Vs 5 ~ G / r ! 5 $E / @2r ~1 1 µ!#% (2)
the dominant (in total energy) part of a seismic energy pulse
and propagate along the free surface of the earth much like a where:
wave on the ocean moves toward shore. Surface waves Vp = compressional wave velocity,
penetrate into the earth to a depth that is a function of their K = bulk modulus,
wavelength. G = shear modulus,
4.1.4 The seismic-reflection method requires contrasts in r = density,
the physical properties of earth materials, much like ground E = Young’s modulus,
µ = Poisson’s ratio, and
penetrating radar (GPR) (see Guide D 6432). The measurable
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Vs = shear wave velocity.
physical parameters (seismic velocity and density) upon which
the seismic-reflection method depends are quite different from Seismic energy propagation time between seismic sensors
the physical parameters (conductivity and dielectric constant) depends on wave type, travel path, and seismic velocity of the
on which GPR depends, but the concept of reflected energy is material. The travel path of reflected body waves (compres-
analogous. The similarities between seismic reflection and sional (P) and shear (S) waves) is controlled by subsurface
electrical methods (resistivity, spontaneous potential), electro- material velocity and geometry of interfaces defined by acous-
magnetic (EM), or potential fields (gravity or magnetics) are tic impedance (product of velocity and density) changes. A
substantially less. difference in acoustic impedance between two layers results in
4.2 Complementary Data—Geologic and hydrogeologic an impedance contrast across the boundary separating the
data obtained from borehole logs, geologic maps, data from layers and determines the reflectivity (reflection coefficient) of
outcrops, or other surface and borehole geophysical methods the boundary; for example, how much energy is reflected
are generally necessary to uniquely interpret subsurface con- versus how much is transmitted (Eq 3). At normal incidence:
ditions from seismic-reflection data. The seismic-reflection r2V2 2 r1V1 r2V2
R 5 r V 1 r V and A5r V (3)
method provides a non-unique representation of the subsurface 2 2 1 1 1 1

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved);
Reproduced by IHS under license with ASTM Licensee=malaysia-china hydro joint venture/5964027001
D 7128 – 05
FIG. 1 Schematic of Equipment and Deployment of Equipment for a Seismic Reflection Survey
where:
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R = reflectivity = reflection coefficient,

V1V2 = velocity of layers 1 and 2,
r1r2 = density of layers 1 and 2,
Vr = acoustic impedance, and
A = impedance contrast.
Snell’s law (Eq 4) describes the relationship between inci-
dent, refracted, and reflected seismic waves:
V1 V1 V1
sin i 5 sin r 5 sin t (4)
where:
i = incident angle,
r = reflected angle, and
t = refracted angle.
At each boundary represented by a change in the product of
velocity and density (acoustic impedance), the incident seismic
NOTE 1—Shows the entire wavefield.
wave generates a reflected P, reflected S, transmitted P, and
NOTE 2—Acquired with vertical geophones.
transmitted S wave. This process is described by the Zoeppritz FIG. 2 48-Channel Seismograph Record Acquired with a Seismic
equations (for example, Telford et al. (6)). Source 7.5 m Away from the Nearest Seismic Sensors
5.1.3.2 Analysis and recognition of seismic energy arrival
patterns at different seismic sensors allows estimation of depths
to reflection coefficients (reflectors) and average velocity as a time and source-to-seismic sensor distance representation
between the reflection coefficient and the earth’s surface. of the source-induced particle motion propagating in the earth.
Analog display of the seismic waves recorded by each seismic This particle motion, also known as the elastic wave field, can
sensor is generally in wiggle trace format on the seismogram be complex and is modified in a predictable way by the seismic
(Fig. 2) and represents the particle motion (velocity or accel- sensors and instrumentation used for recording the seismic
eration) consistent with the orientation and type of the seismic signal. A wave field is generally displayed in wiggle trace
sensor (geophone or accelerometer) and source. format, with the vertical (time) axis of the display typically
5.1.4 A multichannel seismograph simultaneously records referenced to the instant the seismic energy was released (t0)
the wave field at a number of seismic sensors as a function of and the horizontal axis showing the linear source-to-seismic-
time (Fig. 2). Multichannel seismic data are typically displayed sensor distance (Fig. 2). The arrivals of the wavefield at each

D 7128 – 05
seismic sensor are synchronized in time based on the selected TABLE 2 Approximate Reflectivity of Interfaces Between
digital sampling rate of the seismograph. Each seismic event of Common Materials
the wavefield represents different travel paths, particle motions, Material Middle Material Bottom Approximate
LayerA LayerB ReflectivityC
and velocities of the energy spreading outward from the
seismic source. Fig. 2 shows data acquired from a shot in the Dry Sand Dry Sand 0.0
Dry Sand Dry Clay / Saturated Clay 0.14 / 0.5
center of a line of seismic sensors Dry Sand Gravel −0.08
5.2 Parameters Measured and Representative Values— Dry Sand Saturated Sand 0.43
Dry Sand Limestone 0.75
Tables 1 and 2 provide generalized material properties related Dry Sand Shale 0.72
to the seismic-reflection method. Dry Sand Sandstone 0.63
5.2.1 The seismic-reflection method images changes in the Dry Sand Granite 0.84
Saturated Sand Granite 0.66
acoustic (seismic) impedance of subsurface layers and features, Clay Dry Sand −0.14
which represent changes in subsurface material properties. Clay Clay 0.0
While the seismic reflection technique depends on the exist- Clay Gravel −0.17
Clay Saturated Sand −0.27
ence of non-zero reflection coefficients, it is the interpreter Clay Limestone 0.71
who, based on knowledge of the local conditions and other Clay Shale 0.66
data, must interpret the seismic-reflection data and arrive at a Clay Sandstone 0.54
geologically feasible solution. Changes in reflected waveform A
Layer 1 on Fig. 1.
B
can be indicative of changes in the subsurface such as lithology Layer 2 on Fig. 1.
C
R in Eq 3, Absolute value R = 1 total reflectance.
(rock or soil type), rock consistency (that is, fractured, weath-
ered, competent), saturation (fluid or gas content), porosity,
geologic structure (geometric distortion), or density (compac- signal and then converting the analog signal to a digital format
tion). (A/D). These digital data are stored in a predetermined
5.2.2 Reflection Coeffıcient or Reflectivity—Reflectivity is a standardized format. A wide variety of seismic surveying
measure of energy expected to return from a boundary (inter- equipment is available and the choice of equipment for a
face) between materials with different acoustic impedance seismic reflection survey should be made to meet the objectives
values. Materials with larger acoustic impedances overlying of the survey.
materials with smaller acoustic impedances will result in a 5.3.1 Sources—Seismic sources come in two basic types:
negative reflectivity and an associated phase reversal of the impulsive and coded. Impulsive sources transfer all their
reflected wavelet. Intuitively, wavelet polarity follows reflec- energy (potential, kinetic, chemical, or some combination) to
tion coefficients that are negative when faster or denser layers the earth instantaneously (that is, usually in less than a few
overlie slower or less dense (for example, clay over dry sand) milliseconds). Impulsive source types include explosives,
layers and positive when slower or less dense layers overlie weight drops, and projectiles. Coded sources deliver their
faster or denser (for example, gravel over limestone) layers. A energy over a given time interval in a predetermined fashion
reflectivity of one means all energy will be reflected at the (swept frequency or impulse modulated as a function of time).
interface. Source energy characteristics are highly dependent on near-
5.3 Equipment—Geophysical equipment used for surface surface conditions and source type (8-11). Consistent, broad
seismic measurement can be divided into three general catego- bandwidth source energy performance is important in seismic
ries: source, seismic sensors, and seismograph. Sources gener- reflection surveying. The primary measure of source effective-
ate seismic waves that propagate through the ground as either ness is the measure of signal-to-noise ratio and resolution
an impulsive or a coded wavetrain. Seismic sensors can potential as estimated from the recorded signal.
measure changes in acceleration, velocity, displacement, or 5.3.1.1 Selection of the seismic source should be based
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
pressure. Seismographs measure, convert, and save the electric upon the objectives of the survey, site surface and geologic
signal from the seismic sensors by conditioning the analog conditions and limitations, survey economics, source repeat-
ability, previous source performance, total energy and band-
TABLE 1 Approximate Material Properties width possible at survey site (based on previous studies or site
P-WaveA S-WaveA
specific experiments), and safety.
Density Acoustic 5.3.1.2 Coded seismic sources will generally not disturb the
Material Velocity Velocity
(kg/m3) ImpedanceB
(m/s) (m/s) environment as much as impulsive sources for a given total
Dry sand/gravel 750C 200 1800 1.35 3 106 amount of seismic energy. Variable amplitude background
Clay 900 300 2000 1.80 3 106 noise (such as passing cars, airplanes, pedestrian traffic, etc.)
Saturated sand 1500 350 2100 3.15 3 106
Saturated clay 1800 400 2200 3.96 3 106 affects the quality of data collected with coded sources less
Shale 3500 1500 2500 8.75 3 106 than for impulsive sources. Coded sources require an extra
Sandstone 2850 1400 2100 5.99 3 106 processing step to compress the time-variable signal wavetrain
Limestone 4000 2200 2600 10.4 3 106
Granite 6000 3500 2600 15.6 3 106 down to a more readily interpretable pulse equivalent. This is
A
Velocities are mean for a range appropriate for the material (7).
generally done using correlation or shift and stack techniques.
B
Acoustic impedance is velocity multiplied by density, specifically for compres- 5.3.1.3 In most settings, buried small explosive charges will
sional waves; the equivalent for shear waves is referred to as seismic impedance result in higher frequency and broader bandwidth data, in
(units of kg/s·m2).
C
Subsonic velocities have been reported by researchers studying the ultra- comparison to surface sources. However, explosive sources
shallow near surface . generally come with use restrictions, regulations, and more

D 7128 – 05
safety considerations than other sources. Most explosive and synchronize them with the seismic source. Seismographs have
projectile sources are designed to be invasive, while weight differing numbers of channels and a range of electronic
drop and most coded sources are generally in direct contact specifications. The choice of an appropriate seismograph
with the ground surface and therefore are non-invasive. should be based on survey objectives. Modern multichannel
5.3.1.4 Sources that shake, impact, or drive the ground so seismographs are computer based and require minimal fine-
that the dominant particle motion is horizontal to the surface of tuning to adjust for differences or changes in site characteris-
the ground are shear-wave sources. Sources that shake, impact, tics. Adjustable seismograph acquisition settings that will
or drive the ground so that the dominant particle motion is affect the accuracy or quality of recorded data are generally
vertical to the surface of the ground are compressional sources. limited to sampling rate, record length, analog filter settings,
Many sources can be used for generating both shear and pre-amplifier gains, and number of recording channels. There
compressional wave energy. is limited need for selectable analog filters and gain adjust-
5.3.2 Seismic Sensors—Seismic sensors convert mechanical ments with modern, large dynamic range (>16 bits) seismo-
particle motion to electric signals. There are three different graphs. Seismographs store digital data in standard formats (for
types of seismic sensors: accelerometers, geophones (occasion- example, SEGY, SEGD, SEG2) that are generally dependent
ally referred to as seismometers), and hydrophones. on the type of storage medium and the primary design
5.3.2.1 Accelerometers are devices that measure particle application of the system. Seismographs can be single units
acceleration. Accelerometers generally require pre-amplifiers (centralized), with all recording channels (specifically analog
to condition signal prior to transmission to the seismograph. circuitry and A/D converters) at a single location, or several
Accelerometers generally have a broader bandwidth of sensi- autonomous seismographs can be distributed around the survey
tivity and a greater tolerance for high G-forces than geophones area. Distributed seismographs are characterized by several
or hydrophones. Accelerometers have a preferred direction of small decentralized digitizing modules (1–24 channels each)
sensitivity. located close to the geophones to reduce signal loss over
long-cable seismic sensors. Digital data from each distributed
5.3.2.2 Geophones consist of a stationary cylindrical mag-
module are transmitted to a central system where data from
net surrounded by a coil of wire that is attached to springs and
multiple distributed units are collected, cataloged, and stored.
free to move relative to the magnet. Geophones measure
particle velocity and therefore produce a signal that is the 5.3.4 Source and Seismic Sensor Coupling—The seismic
derivative of the acceleration measured by accelerometers. sensors and sources must be coupled to the ground. Depending
on ground conditions and source and seismic sensor configu-
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Geophones are generally robust, durable, and have unique

response characteristics proportional to their natural frequency ration, this coupling can range from simply resting on the
and coil impedance. The natural frequency is related to the ground surface (for example, land streamers, weight drop,
spring constant and the coil impedance is a function of the vibrator) to invasive ground penetration or burial (for example,
number of wire windings in the coil. spike, buried explosives, projectile delivery at bottom of a
hole). Hydrophones couple to the ground through submersion
5.3.2.3 Hydrophones are used when measuring seismic
in water in a lake, stream, borehole, ditch, etc.
signals propagating in liquids. Because shear waves are not
transmitted through water, hydrophones only respond to com- 5.3.5 Supporting Components—Additional equipment in-
pressional waves. However, shear waves can be converted to cludes a roll-along switch, cables, time-break system (radio or
compressional waves at the water/earth interface and provide hardwire telemetry between seismograph and source), quality
an indirect measurement of shear waves. Hydrophones are control (QC) and troubleshooting equipment (seismic sensor
pressure-sensitive devices that are usually constructed of one continuity, earth leakage, cable leakage, seismograph distortion
or more piezoelectric elements that distort with pressure. and noise thresholds, cable and seismic sensor shorting plug),
5.3.2.4 Geophones and accelerometers can be used for and land surveying equipment.
compressional or shear wave surveys on land. Orientation of 5.4 Limitations and Interferences:
the seismic sensor determines the seismic sensor response and 5.4.1 General Limitations Inherent to Geophysical Meth-
sensitivity to different particle motion. Some seismic sensors ods:
are omnidirectional and are sensitive to particle motion parallel 5.4.1.1 A fundamental limitation of all geophysical methods
to the motion axis of the sensor, regardless of the sensor’s is that a given set of data does not uniquely represent a set of
spatial orientation direction. Others seismic sensors are de- subsurface conditions. Geophysical measurements alone can-
signed to be used in one orientation or the other (P or S). Shear not uniquely resolve all ambiguities, and some additional
wave seismic sensors are sensitive to particle motion perpen- information, such as borehole measurements, is required.
dicular to the direction of propagation (line between source and Because of this inherent limitation in geophysical methods, a
seismic sensors) and are sensitive to vertical (SV) or horizontal seismic-reflection survey will not completely represent subsur-
(SH) transverse wave motion. Compressional wave seismic face geological conditions. Properly integrated with other
sensors are sensitive to particle motion parallel to the direction geologic information, seismic-reflection surveying can be an
of propagation (line between source and seismic sensor) and effective, accurate, and cost-effective method of obtaining
thus the motion axis of the seismic sensor needs to be in a detailed subsurface information. All geophysical surveys mea-
vertical position. sure physical properties of the earth (for example, velocity,
5.3.3 Seismographs—Seismographs measure the voltages conductivity, density, susceptibility) but require correlation to
generated by seismic sensors as a function of time and the geology and hydrology of a site. Reflection surveys do not

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directly measure material-specific characteristics (such as include mice, lizards, cattle, horses, dogs, and birds. Animals,
color, texture, and grain size), or lithologies (such as limestone, especially livestock, can produce seismic vibrations several
shale, sandstone, basalt, or schist), except to the extent that orders of magnitude greater than seismic signals at longer
these lithologies may have different velocities and densities. offset traces on high-resolution data.
5.4.1.2 All surface geophysical methods are inherently lim- (2) Geologic Sources—Geologic sources of noise include
ited by signal attenuation and decreasing resolution with depth. rockslides, earthquakes, scattered energy from fractures, faults
5.4.2 Limitations Specific to the Seismic-Reflection Method: or other discontinuities, and moving water (for example, water
5.4.2.1 Theoretical limitations of the seismic-reflection falls, river rapids, water cascading in wells).
method are related to the presence of a non-zero reflection (3) Atmospheric Sources—Atmospheric sources of noise
coefficient, seismic energy characteristics, seismic properties include wind shaking seismic sensors or cables, lightning, rain
(velocity and attenuation), and layer geometries relative to falling on seismic sensors, snow accumulations melting and
recording geometries. In a homogenous earth, no reflections falling from trees and roofs, and wind shaking surface struc-
are produced and therefore none can be recorded. When tures (for example, buildings, poles, signs).
reflection measurements are made at the surface of the earth, (4) Cultural Sources—Cultural sources of noise include
reflections can only be returned from within the earth if layers power lines (that is, 50 Hz, 60 Hz, and related harmonics),
with non-zero reflection coefficients are present within the vehicles (for example, cars, motorcycles, trains, planes, heli-
earth. Layers, for example, defined by changes in lithology copters, ATVs), air conditioners, lawn mowers, small engine-
without measurable changes in either velocity or density powered tools, construction equipment, and people—both
cannot be imaged with the seismic reflection method. Theo- crew members and pedestrians—moving in proximity to the
retical limits on bed or object-resolving capabilities of a seismic line. Radio Frequency (RF) and other electromagnetic
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seismic data set are related to frequency content of the reflected (EM) signals transmitted from radar installations, radio trans-
energy (see 8.4). mitters, or beacons can appear on seismic data at amplitudes
5.4.2.2 Successful imaging of geologic layers dipping at several times larger than source-generated seismic signals.
greater than 45 degrees may require non-standard deployments 5.4.3.2 During the design and operation of a seismic reflec-
of sources and seismic sensors. tion survey, sources of biologic, geologic, atmospheric, and
5.4.2.3 Resolution (discussed in 8.4) and signal-to-noise cultural noise and their proximity to the survey area should be
ratios are critical factors in determining the practical limita- considered, especially the characteristic of the noise and size of
tions of the seismic-reflection method. Source configuration, the area affected by the noise. The interference of each is not
source and seismic sensor coupling, near-surface materials, always predictable because of unknowns associated with earth
specification of the recording systems, relative amplitude of coupling and energy attenuation.
seismic events, and arrival geometry of coherent source- 5.4.4 Interference Caused by Source-Generated Noise:
generated seismic noise are all factors in defining the practical 5.4.4.1 Seismic sources generate both signal and noise.
limitations of seismic-reflection method. Signal is any energy that is to be used to interpret subsurface
(1) Highly attenuative near-surface materials such as dry conditions. Noise is any recorded energy that is not used to
sand and gravel, can adversely affect the resolution potential interpret subsurface conditions or diminishes the interpretabil-
and signal strength with depth of seismic energy (12). Attenu- ity of signal. Ground roll (surface waves), direct waves,
ation is rapid reduction of seismic energy as it propagates refractions, diffractions, air-coupled waves, and reflection mul-
through an earth material, usually most pronounced at high tiples are all common types of source-generated noise observed
frequencies. Attenuative materials can prevent survey objec- on a seismogram recorded during seismic reflection profiling
tives from being met. (Fig. 3).
(2) While it is possible to enhance signal not visible on raw (1) Ground Roll—Ground roll is a type of surface wave that
field data, it is safest to track all coherent events on processed appears on a reflection seismogram (see Figs. 2 and 3). Ground
seismic reflection sections from raw field data through all roll is generated by the source and propagates along the ground
processing steps to CMP stack. Noise can be processed to surface as a lower velocity, higher amplitude, dispersive wave.
appear coherent on CMP stacked sections. Ground roll can dominate near-offset seismic sensors, making
(3) Differences in water quality do not appear to change the separation of reflections at close offsets difficult. Ground roll
velocity and density sufficiently that they can be detected by can be misinterpreted as reflection arrivals, especially if the
the seismic-reflection method (13). incorrect offsets or geophone interval are used.
5.4.3 Interferences Caused by Natural and by Cultural (2) Direct Waves—The seismic energy arriving first in time
Conditions: at the sensors closest to the source is known as the direct wave.
5.4.3.1 The seismic-reflection method is sensitive to me- Direct waves are body waves that travel directly from the
chanical and electrical noise from a variety of sources. Bio- source seismic sensor through the uppermost layer of the earth.
logic, geologic, atmospheric, and cultural factors can all (3) Refractions—Refracted seismic energy travels along a
produce noise. velocity contrast (contact separating two different materials)
(1) Biologic Sources—Biologic sources of noise include returning to the surface at an angle related to the velocity above
vibrations from animals both on the ground surface and and below the contrast and with a linear phase velocity equal
underground in burrows as well as trees, weeds, and grasses to the seismic velocity of the material below the velocity
shaking from wind. Examples of animals that can cause noise contrast. Refractions are generally the first (in time) coherent

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NOTE—The reflection arrivals are shown on both records.

FIG. 3 Gained Field Records from Two Different Positions on One Seismic Line
seismic energy to arrive at a sensor, beginning a source-to- guished by their arrival pattern and cyclic nature on seismo-
sensor offset beyond those where direct wave energy arrives grams and their lower than expected normal move-out velocity.
first. For a more detailed discussion of refractions and their use 5.5 Alternative Methods—Limitations discussed above may
as a geophysical imaging tool, see Guide D 5777. preclude the use of the seismic-reflection method. Other
(4) Diffraction—Diffractions are energy scattered from geophysical (see Guide D 6429) or non-geophysical methods
discontinuous subsurface layers (faults, fractures) or points may be required to investigate subsurface conditions when
where subsurface layers or objects terminate (lens, channel, signal-to-noise ratio is too low or the resolution potential is
boulder). Diffractions are generally considered seismic noise insufficient for the survey objectives.
when undertaking a reflection survey.
(5) Air-coupled Waves—Air-coupled waves are sound 6. Procedure
waves traveling through the air, exciting the ground near the
seismic sensor and then recorded by the seismic sensor. Air 6.1 This section includes a discussion of personnel qualifi-
waves generated by the source arrive on seismograms with a cations, planning and implementing the seismic reflection
linear velocity (distance from source arrival time) of ~330 survey, processing seismic-reflection data, and interpretation of
m/s (velocity of sound in air). Cultural noise generated by seismic-reflection data.
aircraft is a form of air-coupled wave. Air-coupled waves can 6.1.1 Qualification of Personnel—The success of a seismic
reflect from surface objects and in some cases appear very reflection survey, as with most geophysical techniques, is
similar to reflections from layers within the earth on seismo- dependent upon many factors. One of the most important
grams. Air-coupled waves can alias to produce false trace-to- factors is the competence and experience of the person(s)
trace coherency and be misinterpreted as reflections. responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, processing
(6) Reflection Multiples—Reflection multiples are reflec- the data, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the
tions that reverberate between several layers in the subsurface. theory, field procedures, data processing steps and parameters,
Multiple reflections or reverberations between layers are re- interpretation of seismic-reflection data, potential artifacts and
flections and therefore appear on seismograms with all the pitfalls of seismic data processing and interpretation, and the
characteristics of reflections. Multiples can best be distin- site geology is necessary to complete a seismic reflection
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survey. Personnel not having specialized training and experi- and recording times where the signal-to-noise ratio for a given
ence should be cautious about using this technique and solicit reflection is greatest (Fig. 3). When shallow layers are the
assistance from qualified practitioners. target of the seismic reflection survey, seismic sensor and shot
6.2 Planning the Survey—Successful use of the surface spacing must be small and line separations short, the source
seismic-reflection method depends to a great extent on careful must be low energy and generate a source wavelet with a high
and detailed planning that considers geology, program objec- usable seismic frequency (15). Reflection surveys targeting
tives, and limitations (economic and methodology). The survey deep layers will usually have wider shot and seismic sensor
should be divided into unique phases or stages to allow the station spacing and lines separated by greater distances result-
survey to be halted if the objectives cannot be met. ing in reduced horizontal resolution but appropriate to meet the
6.2.1 Objective(s) of the Seismic Reflection Survey: objectives of the survey (16). Sources used for deep surveys
6.2.1.1 Planning and design of a seismic reflection survey are typically high energy and possess a lower usable seismic
should consider the objectives of the survey, practical limita- frequency source signature. It is usually difficult to image both
tions of the technique, cost limitations, and the characteristics deep and shallow reflectors using a single seismic survey
of the site. These factors determine the survey design, the configuration. Imaging requirements of the survey must be
equipment used, expertise required, reasonable level of effort, balanced with cost, equipment limitations, and earth character-
data processing needs, interpretation approach, and budget istics.
necessary to achieve the desired results. Important consider- 6.2.2 Assess Feasibility of the Seismic-Reflection Method to
ations include site geology, site conditions, ambient noise, Image Target:
depth range of investigation, resolution requirements (vertical 6.2.2.1 To assess the applicability and potential success of a
and horizontal), topography, and site access. It is good practice seismic reflection survey, one must first determine whether the
to obtain as much relevant information as possible about the targets are sufficiently large and whether large enough reflec-
site (for example, geophysical data from any previous work at tion coefficients exist for the technique to meet the survey
or near the site, geologic and geophysical logs in the study objectives. Several characteristics must be considered: reflec-
area, topographic maps, aerial photos) prior to designing a tion coefficient, resolution requirements, cost, and site charac-
survey and mobilization to the field. teristics.
6.2.1.2 A geologic/hydrologic model of subsurface condi- 6.2.2.2 Valuable insight into the likelihood that program
tions at the site should be developed early in the design phase objective(s) can be successfully accomplished and the level of
using all boring information and other geophysical and geo- resources is adequate to meet those objectives can be ascer-
logic data available for the site being investigated and any tained by studying data from previous seismic reflection and
additional information for adjacent areas as well. This model refraction surveys in the area, understanding the geology
should include and try to incorporate the thickness and type of (particularly the near-surface), and reviewing published case
soil cover, depth and type of rock, depth to water table, histories containing results and descriptions of previous sur-
continuity of target layers, contrast between target layers, and veys that successfully imaged similar targets in similar geo-
a stratigraphic section with all potential horizons, both at the logic settings.
target depths and any potential surrounding (above and below) 6.2.2.3 Forward computer modeling using known seismic
reflectors, that might be imaged with the seismic-reflection properties and layer/target geometries can help define appro-
method. priate objectives and also can assist during the design of both
6.2.1.3 A computer model of the seismic response using the the testing and production portions of the survey. If possible, a
geologic/hydrologic model and survey design parameters pro- short seismic profile, called a walkaway, with close seismic
vides a useful guide to the potential of discriminating target sensor spacing and a wide range of source-to-seismic sensor
reflections from coherent noise events and therefore options for offsets is extremely valuable in determining seismic properties
upgrading or modifying survey objectives (14). Studying the of the site and for initial estimations of the resolution and
approximate and relative locations of model reflections and signal-to-noise potential of seismic data. Ideally, several of
their apparent curvature within the seismic sensor spread these walkaway tests should be conducted around the survey
recorded for each shot station provides preliminary feedback area. A borehole with known stratigraphy, combined with
on survey designs and their potential effectiveness in meeting downhole velocity measurements, is desirable to constrain both
the survey objectives. the forward modeling and interpretations of test spread data.
6.2.1.4 Meeting the objective(s) of the survey, in particular 6.2.3 Selection of the Approach:
the depth range of interest and resolution requirements, is 6.2.3.1 Choices related to specific techniques as well as the
strongly influenced by the seismograph, source, and seismic multitude of acquisition, processing, and interpretation param-
sensors selected as well as the relative recording geometry eters selected during a seismic reflection survey must be guided
(spread) and relative location of survey lines (with respect to by data characteristics, confident identification of signal, and
target, surface, or near-surface features), and resolution char- experience.
acteristics of the data. For survey objectives to be met, it is 6.2.4 Seismic-Reflection Methods:
necessary to consider the optimum recording window length 6.2.4.1 Reflections as displayed on seismograms will nor-
and number of seismic sensors within the optimum recording mally have a unique pattern (hyperbolic curvature for linear
window necessary to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio of the seismic sensor spreads), whose shape is a function of reflector
data. The optimum recording window is the range of offsets depth and average velocity between the ground surface and
Copyright ASTM International

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10
D 7128 – 05
reflector. This curved shape allows the reflection to be uniquely determinations of velocity and subsequent estimations of depth
identified and separated from other seismic events of the must be done independently from the common offset data.
wavefield (Fig. 3). The apex of the hyperbola will be coinci- Corrections for near-surface static irregularities, non-vertical
dent with the source location when the reflector has no dip. incidence, time-to-depth, and source zero time variations are
Reflections can be present at any offset and any time after the recommended to best correlate reflections with reflectors.
first arrival wavelet has completely dissipated. The first arrival While the optimum offset method is a valid approach when the
is generally either a direct or refracted wave. Reflections within signal-to-noise ratio is high, advances in equipment and
the optimum offset and time portion of the seismogram possess computational power have made the common mid-point tech-
the highest signal-to-noise ratio and most generally can be nique the more widely accepted and used reflection profiling
uniquely identified as reflections (Fig. 3). Identification of method (see 6.2.4.4).
surface waves, air-coupled waves, refractions, direct waves, 6.2.4.4 Common Mid-Point (CMP) or Common Depth Point
guided waves, diffractions, and reflections—both primary and (CDP)—CMP is a signal enhancement technique involving the
multiples—should be possible on shot gathers and common stacking of traces with different shot and seismic sensor
mid-point (CMP) gathers. locations but a common reflecting point in the subsurface (Fig.
6.2.4.2 Spot Correlation or Single Point—Reflector depth 4). Multi-channel or multi-trace shot gathers (usually >12,
and geometry can be estimated for a particular geographic normally 24 to 96 for near-surface applications) are recorded at
location from seismograms generated from several source discrete, equally spaced locations across a range of source-to-
locations (including source locations on either end of the seismic sensor offset distances. The spacing of seismic within
sensors’ positions) and a line of multiple seismic sensor this range of source-to-seismic sensor offsets must be appro-
locations appropriate to record coherent reflections within the priate for the target characteristics and resolution potential of
optimum offset window for a particular target. In the special the data. These multi-channel shot gathers sample the entire
case of flat-lying subsurface reflectors, information on reflector wavefield with coherent signal and noise arriving at unique
depth can be estimated from a single seismogram. Reflector times on each trace of the shot gather. The objective of
depth for each multi-seismic sensor spread can be calculated processing these multi-trace gathers is to increase the signal-
using normal move-out (NMO) velocity or borehole velocity to-noise ratio and improve the resolution of events in the data.
surveys and two-way travel time from the seismograms. If Routine CMP seismic data processing includes: (1) NMO
depth information is required over a larger area, several
corrections to adjust each trace for non-vertical incident
spot-correlation surveys can be performed. Depth estimates for
raypaths between source and seismic sensor; (2) gathering of
a particular reflector are typically contoured to represent the
each trace according to consistent mid-points between source
topography of the reflector surface. Successful use of the
and seismic sensor; (3) removal of noise through muting; (4)
spot-correlation method requires excellent data quality and
suppression of noise through filtering (frequency and slope/
generally a high amplitude reflection with a consistent geom-
velocity); (5) correction for trace-to-trace lateral, near-surface
etry. This high amplitude reflection is used for correcting static
irregularities in material velocity or layer topography (static);
and other near-surface differences from one shot location to the
(6) stacking or summing all traces with a common mid-point
next.
between source and seismic sensor after corrections for non-
6.2.4.3 Optimum Offset or Common Offset—Single channel vertical incidence and reduction/suppression of noise; and (7)
data acquired from a single source-sensor pair with a fixed
correction for changes in surface elevation. Once all traces
separation at each equally spaced source location is gathered
with a common mid-point are gathered and stacked into a
according to surface location and displayed as a continuous
multifold (fold is the number of traces summed per CMP)
gather (17). Each single point trace is then displayed sequen-
reflection section, events that are coherent from trace to trace
tially with all other traces from along a survey line according
are correlated with reflections interpreted on shot gathers.
to the location of the mid-point between source and seismic
Conversion from time to depth, using measured or estimated
sensor. These common-offset sections, or common-offset gath-
velocity, results in a cross-section analogous to a 2-D geologic
ers, form a 2-D time cross-section consisting of traces with
cross-section.
uniform spatial separation and depth displayed as two-way
travel time. Traces are single fold and can be considered 6.2.5 Survey Design:
analogous to a 2-D geologic cross-section. Determining the 6.2.5.1 Location of Survey Lines—Preliminary location of
optimum offset (ideal single offset between source and seismic survey lines should take into consideration the survey target,
sensor to record the reflection of primary interest) for the target geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the site, topography
interval or reflector and associated measurement of velocity and near-surface conditions, noise sources, cultural features,
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
requires the acquisition of a multi-seismic sensor seismogram overall survey objectives, and resolution and subsurface sam-
that includes a range of offsets both significantly shorter and pling requirements. Location of survey lines is usually done
longer than the calculated single optimum offset used for with the aid of topographic maps, aerial photos, previous
production data recording. Because non-reflected seismic en- seismic data, and an on-site visit, if possible. Consideration
ergy can generate patterns on the seismogram that look like should be given to the need for data at a given location; the
reflected events, all coherent patterns on single-fold common- accessibility of the area; the proximity of wells or test holes for
offset sections should be identified, interpreted, and ground control data; the extent and location of surface obstacles (for
truth verified (preferably correlated to borehole data). The field operations and air wave echo problems), buried structures,

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aliasing of coherent noise, and reflection raypaths. In general,
seismic sensor spacing should provide for the recording of
several (>4) adjacent seismic traces within the optimum
window that fully and coherently sample the target reflection
wavelet. Over a normal range of possible signal-to-noise ratios,
both source and seismic sensor spacing could change by a
factor of two or more depending on the geologic setting and
associated set of seismic characteristics. In most cases, signal-
to-noise is difficult to predetermine; thus, the spacing of the
source and seismic sensor station might require adjustments
after, and based on, initial field testing.
(1) Source and seismic sensor orientation is important for
both compressional and shear wave reflection profiling. Seis-
mic energy generally has a dominant direction of particle
motion and is therefore polarized. Sources and seismic sensors
should be most sensitive to the dominant direction of particle
motion as specified in the survey design. Compressional wave
profiling using geophones or accelerometers requires the axis
of the magnet/coil to be nearly vertical (<10° from vertical).
Explosive sources used for compressional wave surveys re-
quire no alignment; however, compressional wave sources that
produce directional energy (force can be described with a
single vector) should have a dominant vertical force vector.
Shear wave seismic sensors should be oriented perpendicular
(SH) or parallel (SV) to the survey line, but in both cases the
axis of the coil/magnet sensor should be parallel to the ground
surface. Shear wave seismic sensors have a first motion
sensitivity that requires consistent deployment relative to one
pole of the seismic sensor’s magnet. Leveling is often neces-
sary for shear wave geophones. Shear wave sources are
directional (polarized) and require consistent alignment be-
tween source and seismic sensors relative to first motion. Shear
sources can be aligned to generate particle motion perpendicu-
lar (SH) or parallel (SV) to the survey 2-D profile. In addition,
first motion relative to the survey line can be left to right or
right to left (SH) or front to back or back to front (SV);
however, it is critical that the first motion direction is consistent
and documented.
(2) Source orientation relative to geologic structure can be
important in optimizing recorded reflections. If possible, it is
FIG. 4 (a) Common Midpoint Imaging with Rays Reflecting from
Several Layers and Same Midpoint between Source and
important to orient the source down dip (dip of the reflection
Receivers; (b) Common Midpoint Imaging with Two Source and horizon of interest relative to the ground surface) from the
Receivers with a Single Reflecting Point seismic sensor spread. Meeting the survey objectives often
requires knowledge and consideration of reflector geometry
relative to source and seismic sensor geometry. For multi-
and utilities; sources of cultural noise that will prevent acqui- channel acquisition, split spread geometries are generally
sition of useful measurements or introduce noise into the data conducive to dipping reflector environments, whereas for a
(see 5.4.3); and adequate space for a consistent and optimum given number of recording channels, end-on source to seismic
set of source-to-seismic sensor offsets to be acquired that fully sensor orientations (especially when dip changes along a
traverse the target area. profile line) provide the best velocity and therefore depth
6.2.5.2 Source and Seismic Sensor Station Geometry—The control for relatively flat-lying reflectors.
spacing of the seismic source and sensors should be based on 6.2.5.3 Spread Geometry—For reflection profiling, source-
the following issues: stacking fold or redundancy, resolution to-seismic sensor offset is one of the most critical field
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potential, trace-to-trace coherence, number of traces needed parameters. For common-offset shooting, only one offset dis-
within the optimum reflection offset and two-way reflection tance is recorded. Therefore, there is no room for error, and all
time range, arrival pattern of all coherent seismic energy, interpreted events must be correlated to a multi-channel
economics, available number of seismograph recording chan- seismogram for event identification and confirmation. For
nels, likely geometry and variability of subsurface rock layers, CMP or spot correlation style recording, the seismic sensor

D 7128 – 05
spread geometry must include a range of offsets ideal for the walkaway testing (see 6.3.1.2). Excessive cable between take-
targets of interest. In general, the maximum offset should be outs increases the signal loss, makes the cable more susceptible
approximately equal to the maximum depth of interest, while to transmitting wind noise, and results in noticeable increases
the closest offset should be no more than one-fourth the in impedance with distance from the seismograph. Cable heads
minimum depth of interest to avoid phase and amplitude or connectors need to mate fully and lock tightly. Cable to earth
distortion from inclusion of wide angle reflections in the CMP leakage, cable cross talk, and poor connections can result in
stack. Optimum resolution (highest frequency) can be obtained increased noise levels and should be avoided. Geophones are
by recording traces as near vertically incident (source and the most commonly used type of seismic sensor (see 5.3.2).
seismic sensor at same location) as possible, thereby avoiding Geophones measure velocity and are classified according to
wide-angle distortion and wavelet stretch during correction for natural frequency and coil impedance. The natural frequency
non vertical incidence. Care must be taken to avoid data of geophones used on a seismic reflection survey should be
deterioration by including near-source effects and interference appropriate for the source energy, attenuation characteristics of
with surface waves and air-coupled waves. the site, resolution requirements of the survey, and dynamic
6.2.5.4 Line Spacing and Orientation and Subsurface range of the seismograph. Accelerometers are also used for
Coverage—Since the 2-D seismic-reflection method described seismic sensors and provide a measure of particle acceleration.
here assumes that all reflection energy recorded along a profile Accelerometers require amplification of the signal at the
line is returning from the slice of earth directly beneath the seismic sensor. This amplification increases the signal ampli-
profile line, obtaining a realistic 3-D image of the subsurface tude before it is transmitted down the seismic cable and can
will generally require at least two lines. Survey coverage and also increase the noise threshold. With modern seismographs
orientation of reflection profiles should be designed to be (and for most near-surface targets), rarely is there a need for
consistent with the survey objectives. The total area surveyed seismic sensors with natural frequencies that exceed 50 Hz.
should be significantly larger than the area of interest. It is With the higher frequency nature of reflected energy and the
important to sample areas outside the primary target area so as limited penetration depths of near-surface applications dis-
to obtain an understanding of local “background” conditions in
cussed here, geophones with a natural frequency less than 10
relation to the target area and to provide some separation
Hz are rarely used for compressional wave surveys (or less
between the survey target and potential edge effects. If migra-
than 8 Hz for shear wave surveys). It should be recognized that
tion (correction for raypath distortion) is necessary, the size of
the high frequency (>100 Hz) of low frequency phones (<20
the fully sampled subsurface must be increased beyond the
target area to allow for the migration aperture. For CMP data Hz) may not be linear. A single seismic sensor configuration is
specifically, this enlarged subsurface sampled area ensures that commonly used; however, some advantage can be gained by
the area of interest will have full-fold coverage and offset adding more seismic sensors (in series or parallel) at each
distribution sufficient for complete migration of the target area. station (15). Seismic sensors are generally coupled to the
Line orientation can be critical and should be carefully ground with spikes, and, historically, spikes have provided
considered with respect to geologic features of interest, such as optimum coupling. In some situations where penetration of the
buried channels, faults, or fractures. For example, when ground is not possible, gravity coupling using plates instead of
mapping a buried channel, the reflection survey lines should spikes might produce an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
cross over the channel so that its boundaries can be determined Gravity coupling of seismic sensors in a towed spread can be
and so that the reflection profiles are as near orthogonal to the a reasonable compromise to spike-coupled seismic sensor
axis of the channel as possible. geophones in some near-surface settings. Comparisons of
6.2.5.5 Subsurface Coverage—Due to the CMP geometry of seismic sensor coupling styles should be part of the pre-survey
multiple equally spaced seismic sensors and source locations testing to verify that gravity coupling is an acceptable substi-
moving uniformly down the survey line, the subsurface sam- tute for traditional spike coupling. Standard geophone spikes
pling interval for most survey designs will be one-half the are typically about 7 cm in length; however, for some appli-
seismic sensor spacing. cations, an advantage can be gained by increasing the length of
6.2.5.6 Equipment Requirements—Recording equipment the seismic sensor spikes to as much as 14 cm.
should be selected based primarily on project objectives, with (2) Sources—It is always good to have at least two
cost and on-hand availability considered secondary. State-of- uniquely different types of sources available for testing at any
the-practice equipment should be considered an important new site. These sources should deliver energy to the ground in
criterion for maximizing the potential of successfully meeting distinctly different fashions and have the ability to vary the
the objectives of a reflection survey. This equipment would amount of energy. For example, if attempting to image a
include seismographs capable of recording the seismic wave- 30-m-deep target in an alluvial valley with a 10-m-deep water
field, with dynamic ranges greater than 100 dB and sampling table, it would be reasonable to test a small downhole explo-
rates well above the Nyquist frequency. sive (that is, downhole shotgun with 8 or 12 gauge loads) and
(1) Spread Cables and Seismic Sensors—Spread cables an impact source (that is, 7 or 9 kg hammer and striker plate).
should have sufficient seismic sensor connecting points (take- Sources available for testing should be selected based on
outs) to allow a reasonable range of seismic sensor spacings environmental limitations, resolution requirements, amount of
necessary to meet the objectives of the survey. Final selection seismic energy, adaptability to setting, economics, permitting,
of seismic sensor station spacing should come from in-field previous experience, and signal strength relative to noise.
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(3) Seismograph—The more seismograph channels avail- consistent with the published SEG-Y format (18), but some
able, the greater the potential flexibility in optimizing the liberty has been taken with respect to specific header locations
recording spread and, in some situations, the wider the depth and floating point designations.
range of targets imageable with a single survey. The number of 6.2.6.1 Data Acquisition Format—Digital data formats for
traces available should be sufficient to allow each reflection seismic-reflection data are generally an SEG format. Engineer-
event of interest to be recorded on several (>4) traces or ing seismographs have begun using SEG-2 format as described
channels within the optimum window. For most near-surface by Pullan et al. (19). SEG2 is the first string-oriented format
applications, this level of sampling will require seismographs with no fixed length. Seismic formats routinely used for storing
having at least 24 channels, but more likely 48 to 96, and in raw seismic data include SEG-2, SEG-Y, SEG-D, and SEG-B.
some cases as many as 240 channels. With the exception of SEG2, these formats are fixed length
(a) Typically the optimum set of seismic sensors for a headers. SEG-B is a multiplexed format. Other formats are
target reflector or subsurface interval is a subset of the total occasionally used but only rarely. Reference to all recognized
number of seismic sensors deployed at one time on the ground. formats can be found in the Society of Exploration Geophysics
This subset of seismic sensors can be selected either mechani- publications.
cally by a roll-along switch (when there are more sensors than 6.2.6.2 Data Processing Format—Digital formats used for
recording channels) or electronically (when each sensor is processing seismic-reflection data are generally characterized
connected to a dedicated recording channel). This optimum by fixed length headers and traces and therefore lend them-
range of seismic sensors (relative to the source location) is selves to the use of magnetic tape storage media. Most
advanced along the survey line as the source advances. processing software uses SEG-Y format for data, but very few
(b) Increasing the number of active recording channels processing formats are strictly the SEG-Y format published by
can substitute for a roll switch (mechanical or digital) in Barry et al. (18). Instead most are some modification of SEG-Y
recording sufficient and appropriate traces necessary to mini- that the software programmer has devised to make data
mally sample the target reflections. A fixed-spread geometry handling easier during data processing. Transfer of data from
(stationary spread requires no roll-along switch) generally one processing company to another or from one software
requires up to twice as many recording channels to maintain package to another has routinely been done in the recognized
sufficient and appropriate offset seismic sensors as the source SEG-Y format.
moves down the survey line. 6.3 Implementation of Survey:
(c) Operation of seismic equipment for near-surface 6.3.1 On-site Check of Survey Plan:
investigations should rely on a low noise power source, if 6.3.1.1 A systematic visual inspection of the site should be
possible (for example, battery power). Data should be recorded made upon arrival to determine if the initial survey plan is
digitally on a reliable medium, robust enough to handle the feasible. Modifications to the survey plan may be required to
rigors of the field environment. It is good practice to routinely maximize the potential for successfully meeting the objectives
test seismograph performance to ensure operation is within of the reflection program.
manufacturer’s specifications. Data should be transferred to a 6.3.1.2 A feasibility test should be the first operation to be
reliable, long-term, non-volatile digital medium as soon as undertaken once the survey plan has been appropriately modi-
possible after recording with the seismograph. fied based on the site inspection. These tests, termed “walk-
(4) Supporting Equipment—Recording seismic-reflection away” tests, allow seismic sensor spacing, source offsets,
data may require use of a roll box (switch). A roll box allows source types, seismic sensor types, record length, sampling
different groups of seismic sensors to be selected such that all interval, and seismograph parameters to be compared with the
recording channels of the seismograph maintain the optimum planned configuration and the optimum set of recording
geometry with respect to the source. Test equipment (for parameters selected. Walkaway tests also provide the first look
example, cable and takeout shorting plugs, seismograph test at the reflection potential of the site. This includes analysis of
oscillator, seismic noise monitor, seismic sensor impedance resolution potential, signal-to-noise ratio, and the feasibility
monitor, cable to earth leakage meter) can be key in trouble- that the targets of interest can be effectively imaged. Results
shooting equipment to optimize data quality and active record- from these experiments not only highlight needed changes to
ing channels. Any component located between the seismic the planned survey design, but they also represent one of the
sensors and seismograph’s A/D converters represents a poten- first opportunities to evaluate the effectiveness of the technique
tial source of electronic noise. Minimizing the use of jumper and therefore the likelihood for success. The walkaway tests
cables, roll box, adapters, or any other connecting point should provide sufficient information to determine if continu-
reduces background noise. ing to the production portion of the reflection program is
6.2.6 Data Formats—Digital data formats can be divided warranted.
into two major categories: acquisition and processing. Acqui- (1) Walkaway testing should include: (1) traces recorded
sition formats are well documented and conform to rigid with source-to-seismic sensor offsets at least 11⁄2 times the
guidelines (most published and endorsed by the Society of maximum depth of interest, (2) seismic sensor spacing that
Exploration Geophysicists—SEG). Data processing formats allows at least ten traces within the optimum window for the
vary significantly between the many software developers. shallowest reflection of interest (normally, seismic sensor
Common terminology for many processing formats is “modi- spacing for walkaways should be about half what modeling and
fied SEG-Y,” which indicates the general header formats are experience suggests is optimum for site and target), (3)
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comparisons of individual versus vertically stacked shot gath- across a relatively large area. Procedures described for con-
ers, (4) comparison of dominant reflection frequencies of ducting a CMP survey (see 6.3.3.3) are generally applicable to
sources tested, (5) comparison of signal-to-noise with different spot correlation profiling.
sources and signal stacking, (6) evaluation of environmental 6.3.3.2 Common offset or optimum offset profiling is a
impact of sources, (7) hyperbolic curve fitting to estimate continuous profiling technique that uses a series of single
normal moveout (NMO) velocity and the feasibility that seismic sensor-source pairs separated by some predetermined
interpretable coherent events are reflections, (8) estimation of optimum distance to best image a given target. Data are
imageable depth range, (9) estimates of resolution potential recorded at each equally separated source-seismic sensor pair
(vertical and horizontal), (10) selection of sampling interval along the profile line at increments appropriate for data
based on highest usable frequency and record length to ensure resolution and event continuity. Retaining a consistent separa-
deepest reflections of interest are recorded, (11) selection of tion between source and seismic sensor (constant reflecting
source-seismic sensor geometry appropriate for apparent re- angle between all source-seismic sensor pairs) is critical for
flection arrival patterns (that is, split-spread or end-on, seismic constructing a reflection cross-section. Coherent events identi-
sensor spacing, source interval), and (12) evaluation of time fied on common offset cross-sections should correlate to
break accuracy and performance of various sources and source reflections on multi-trace shot gathers. Independent determina-
configurations. Some digital processing of the walkaway data tion of velocity is necessary to convert the common offset time
might be necessary to fully appraise the characteristics of the section to a depth section. To be successful, the offset profiling
data. This can be done onsite or locally and should include: technique requires excellent data quality and frequent acquisi-
frequency filtering, amplitude scaling (automatic gain control tion of multi-channel seismograms to be used for quality
or AGC), NMO curve fitting, increasing the number of control (QC) (correlating reflection events on single fold
apparent channels of the recording system to improve apparent cross-sections with multi-channel seismograms ensures that
event coherency by gathering traces from several source offset
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interpreted coherent events are reflections and not coherent
into source-seismic sensor offset sequential order, and correla- noise). Details of acquisition, data processing, and interpreta-
tion of calculated velocities to borehole measured average tion of the common offset method are not included here
velocities. because this method has been for the most part replaced by the
(2) Verify station-to-station consistency in source perfor- CMP technique.
mance and apparent reflection characteristics by recording at 6.3.3.3 Common mid-point (CMP) reflection profiling is a
least two shot gathers from two different source locations/ continuous profiling technique using multiple seismic sensors
offsets for each source type tested. This allows comparison of to record seismic data generated by each source along a profile
wavefield changes and consistencies in reflected energy. A lack line (Fig. 5). Sources and seismic sensors are generally equally
of consistency in event curvature, wavelet characteristics, spaced appropriately for the target. Seismic sensors should be
coherent noise, or reflection amplitude with offset effects could separated from each other so that the spatial subsurface
indicate spatial aliasing or misidentification of reflection. sampling interval is appropriate for the survey objectives.
6.3.2 Lay Out the Survey Lines—Locate the best position Source spacing should normally be a whole number increment
for the seismic lines based on the survey design (see 6.2.4) and of the seismic sensor spacing and is the basis for calculating
the on-site visit (see 6.3.1). Care should be taken to ensure that CMP-stacked data fold or redundancy. Source spacing should
line placement balances survey objectives with optimum seis- be selected so that signal-to-noise ratio and lateral resolution
mic recording environment. If possible, lines should tie (cross requirements of the survey are met. Each source location
in high fold portion of the lines or at least a spread length away should be separated from the selected set or spread of seismic
from the end of lines) with each other and with any borehole sensors so that the optimum range of source-to-seismic sensor
(ground truth) available on-site. Survey lines should be laid out offsets is recorded. Each progressive move of the source station
to maximize any overlap with other geophysical or geologic along the line should be accompanied by a seismic sensor
data. spread move of equal distance so that the source and seismic-
6.3.3 Conducting the Survey: sensor geometry remains fixed. These incremental source-
6.3.3.1 Spot correlation or single point profiling requires the location advancements along the profile line should produce a
deployment of a single seismic spread and as many source seismogram for each source location. The seismogram has data
locations for that spread as necessary to record the appropriate collected from a spread of seismic sensors whose offsets have
range of offsets for a given seismic sensor spacing and number been optimized for site conditions and survey objectives
of recording channels. It is critical to fully capture the target determined from walkaway testing. By rolling the spread and
reflections within the optimum window as defined by the source along the profile line, each subsurface sample point
spread geometry. Once the depth to the reflectors of interest has (usually separated by one-half the surface seismic sensor
been estimated from velocity and two-way reflection time, the spacing) should be imaged multiple times by different source-
spread is re-deployed at a new location within a grid designed seismic sensor pairs. The number of times a particular subsur-
to sample the reflector at the desired spatial interval. This face point is sampled (fold) is a function of seismic sensor
method is not routinely employed for near-surface applications spacing, source spacing, and number of seismic sensors. This
due to the high likelihood of spatial undersampling. The redundancy in subsurface sampling is key to the signal
spot-correlation technique also requires unusually high data enhancement potential of the CMP technique. CMP stacked
quality with several, consistent reflections to be correlated sections are analogous to cross-sections of the earth (that is,

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NOTE—All of seismic sensor spread one (R1) records shot number one (S1), seismic sensor spread two (R2) records shot number two (S2), and so on.
Fold indicates the number of unique shot-seismic sensor pairs that image or sample that point. CMP station #8, for example, is the common midpoint
for three shot-seismic sensor pairs (S1-R1#5, S2-R2#3, and S3-R3#1) and, once processed, will have a single trace that has contributions from those three
traces and 3-fold redundancy, or 300 percent coverage. Seismic reflection surveys commonly include seismographs with 24 and more channels and
therefore folds in excess of 12, however only a 6-channel system and 3-fold sampling is shown here for display simplicity.
FIG. 5 Reflection Raypaths between Source and Seismic Sensor and Progression of Source and Seismic Sensors along a Standard 2-D
CMP Seismic Reflection Profile
road cut, outcrop, trench) with trace-to-trace coherent wave channels while number of contacts on the cable/seismic sensor
forms representing layers in the earth. CMP time sections side is equal to total transmission lines in the cable. The ratio
should be converted to depth using an appropriate measured of contacts on the seismograph side to contacts on the
(for example, borehole, NMO) average velocity function for cable/seismic sensor side should be equal to or greater than 1:2.
the site. Since a stacked reflection wavelet has a variety of CMP or spread cables (cables with at least as many transmis-
attributes that can be related to earth material properties, a sion lines in each cable as channels in the seismograph) are
wealth of information besides just layer structure can be used to select a specific set of seismic sensors that are passed
extracted from CMP-stacked sections when the signal-to-noise to the seismograph and recorded. When rolling along electroni-
is high. cally, information from all seismic sensors connected to the
(1) Acquisition—CMP data require a seismograph with spread cables is passed to the seismograph where software
multiple recording channels. Critical to all reflection surveying selects only the recording channels within the optimum offset
is the incremental progression of source and optimum seismic range to be digitally saved in the seismograph. Electronic
sensor offset(s) along the target transect or profile to be imaged. rolling of the spread requires a seismograph with a significantly
The process of incrementally moving the shot and seismic larger number of recording channels (greater than 50 %) than
sensor spread along the profile in a fixed configuration as necessary to accomplish the objectives of the survey, con-
described in 6.3.3.3 is referred to as rolling along. When using nected to a group of seismic sensors that span a distance
the CMP method, this progression of the source and seismic significantly longer than the optimum offset range. All seismic
sensor spread along the survey line usually involves physical sensors connected to the seismograph outside the optimum
movement of the source from station to station and the manual, spread range are then eliminated, either by the seismograph or
mechanical, electronic, or digital movement of the seismic during subsequent digital data processing.
sensor spread. Manually moving the geophone spread can be (a) Production data should undergo continuous QC
done by hand in such a way as to maintain a constant source to (6.3.6). If the seismograph used does not have a real-time
spread offset but this approach may not be the most efficient. screen display, then hard copy should be routinely generated
Mechanical or electronic movement of the seismic sensor during acquisition. Display parameters should be set to opti-
spread is usually accomplished by incorporating CMP or mize viewing of reflections interpreted during walkaway analy-
spread cables and an electronic or mechanical roll along sis. Parameter design for the production portion of the survey
switch. For mechanical rolling, a multi-contact roll along should be based on: (1) modeling and test data, (2) balancing
switch is utilized. The number of contacts on seismograph side the need for high spatial sampling and subsurface redundancy
of the switch is equal to number of seismograph recording with survey economics, (3) maximizing the number of traces
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within the “optimum window” of all target reflections, (4) (a) CMP data require digital processing. Basic or “brute”
considerations for expected dip, (5) environmental limitations processing should include assignment of source and seismic
or interferences, (6) optimizing fold and offset distributions, sensor geometries to each trace, adjustment for elevation,
and (7) concerns for uniformity in source and seismic sensor removal or suppression of coherent and random noise, correc-
coupling. As many seismic sensors as possible should be tion for non-vertical incidence (using reflection velocity esti-
responding to seismic energy through good ground coupling mations of normal move out—NMO), spectral (frequency and
and without ground leakage. Optimally 100 % of recording phase relative to amplitude) analysis and filtering or shaping,
traces are live, but realistically 85 % should be responding sorting into CMP gathers, scaling of amplitudes (for example,
cleanly to seismic energy. Geometries and recording param- automatic gain control—AGC normalize), and CMP stacking.
eters should take into account survey economics, data quality, Depending on the data, enhancements to the quality of the final
signal-to-noise ratio, and resolution. Care should be taken to CMP stacked section can come with more “advanced” process-
avoid underground facilities, utilities, and overhead electrical ing, which includes additional statics routines (for example,
power lines. General guidelines for acquisition parameters refraction, surface consistent, residual), filtering of various
include the following: (1) active (that is, recorded) spread types (for example, frequency, fk, tp), true amplitude adjust-
length should be approximately equal to the maximum depth of ments (for example, spherical divergence correction), migra-
interest; (2) source offset to the nearest seismic sensor of tion, velocity analysis (for example, semblance, constant ve-
optimum spread should be chosen so as to avoid overdriving locity panels, curve fitting to gathers), or other more
the nearest seismic sensors but allow incidence reflections to be sophisticated processing routines. The need for migration
should be determined by site characteristics and the data, being
recorded as near vertical as possible; (3) care should be taken
ever mindful that migration is not as critical for shallow, lower
not to include too many wide-angle events within the optimum
velocity data as deeper, conventional data sets and often
spread; (4) vertical stacking should be used with care (1 good
reduces resolution. Care should be taken in assignment of all
shot is better than 10 bad ones); (5) “bad shots” for whatever
parameters, but for high resolution near-surface data, it is
reason—cultural noise, source coupling, time zero break, or
critical that special care be taken in using and selecting
source location—should be re-acquired (every good data trace parameters for some operations to avoid processing artifacts on
and shot gather is important); (6) reflections coherent across CMP stacked sections. This special care includes maximum
multiple traces possessing similar characteristics should be allowable static correction during automatic routines, fan size
interpretable on approximately 20 % of all raw or minimal for fk filtering, first arrival muting, coherency processing, any
in-field processed (spectral filtered and scaled) shot gathers kind of mixing process, and taper length of mutes, to name a
recorded along the survey profile; (7) advanced processing few. Reflections that can be interpreted on shot or CMP gathers
should not be necessary to see consistent reflections on shot prior to “advanced” processing techniques should be present,
gathers (processing is to enhance, not produce); (8) consistency with generally the same characteristics, after application of the
in acquisition procedures is critical (especially for CMP data techniques.
processing and interpretation of stratigraphic features) and (b) The specific processing flow and parameters and
changes should be noted (elevation, ground condition or emphasis placed on each operation should vary to some degree
covering, and equipment—even slight variations in these can with the characteristics of each individual data set. In general,
resemble geologic changes, especially structural); (9) observ- the techniques used to process CMP data should generally
ers’ notes should be complete and contain more information follow a consistent flow (Fig. 6). CMP data processing of
about crew activities, data characteristics, noise sources, and seismic-reflection data should focus on increasing the signal-
landmarks than seems necessary at the time; and (10) data to-noise ratio and resolution potential of CMP stacked sections.
should be digitally saved on a medium separate from the Pre-stack processing should attempt to tune the spectral prop-
seismograph every day. erties, remove or at least reduce contributions from noise,
(2) Data Processing—Data processing should enhance adjust all time arrival reflection wavelets for source-to-receiver
coherent reflection events, not produce artificial reflections. offset to emulate vertical incidence, compensate for statics (due
CMP data processing flows should be reasonably consistent to variations in near-surface topography and velocity), and
from one high-resolution seismic reflection processor or pro- minimize artifacts associated with source offset, residual noise,
cessing company to another. The difference will be in the and pre-stack processes. Post-stack processing should be de-
detail—both attention to detail and the specific parameter signed to enhance coherent reflection events and their unique
selections. Many times “special” or “designer” processes or properties or attributes while retaining the tie with equivalent
proprietary processing techniques or parameters unique to coherent reflection events interpreted on pre-stack gathers.
individual data processors or processing companies will be There is no standardized processing flow. Each processing flow
used to optimize a data set. However, regardless of the should be customized to the data from a given area. The
processes or parameters used to enhance seismic-reflection sequence and types of basic processing operations performed
data, coherent events enhanced throughout processing and on CMP reflection data should be relatively consistent through-
presented as reflections on the final stacked sections should out the data set.
correlate to reflections interpreted on shot or CMP gathers. It is (3) Preliminary Interpretation—Preliminary interpretation
important to distinguish signal enhancement from processing of field data should be labeled as draft or preliminary and
artifacts. treated with caution because, in some cases, data having only
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FIG. 6 A Flow-Chart Showing One Possible Generic Sequence for Processing CMP Data
gone through preliminary analysis and processing can yield characteristics include frequency, amplitude, phase, and coher-
erroneous initial interpretations. Field analysis and brute pro- ency. Analog techniques are the most commonly used methods
cessing should be done primarily as a QC measure and should of interpreting near-surface seismic-reflection data. Interpret-
accomplish the following primary objectives: a preliminary ing shot gathers, common offset sections, CMP gathers, or
evaluation of data quality and characteristics, in-field determi- CMP stacked sections should incorporate ground truth (bore-
nation of data quality and its potential to meet the objectives of hole data in particular), all geologic (local and regional) and
the survey, a very preliminary interpretation of geology, and to geophysical (seismic as well as other methods) data and
assist in determining the appropriate final processing flow. associated interpretations, as well as other pertinent informa-
(4) Interpretation—Interpretation of seismic data should be tion about the area or site investigated. Interpretations should
appropriate for the resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and pro- consider wavelet characteristics and consistency, resolution
cessing flow of the seismic cross-sections. Techniques to potential, processing parameters, acquisition parameters, ge-
interpret seismic data can be digital or analog. A variety of ometry of coherent events, viability of apparent vertical vari-
software is available for interpretations based on seismic ability in interpreted structure and stratigraphy, and, most of
attributes or simply reflection wavelet correlations from trace all, reflections interpreted on shot or CMP gathers. Wavelet
to trace. Attributes most routinely used to interpret subsurface analysis should consider the source wavelet and the effects of

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various processing operations on the final reflection wavelet.
No geophysical data allow for unique interpretations. Interpre-
tations should therefore always incorporate as much supple-
mental information as possible, such as drilling logs, other
geophysical surveys, regional and local geologic setting, and
any borehole analysis in the area.
(a) If possible, it is good practice to correlate borehole
data (if available, especially if an uphole/downhole survey has
been conducted) with reflections that have been tracked from
the shot gather, through CMP data processing, and onto the
CMP stacked sections to establish a link between the time-
seismic sections and subsurface conditions. This correlation
provides confidence and some measure of the accuracy and
resolution of the CMP data as it relates to a geologic cross-
section. An important operation to confirm the velocity func-
tion and to assist with geologic mapping using the seismic data
is the conversion of the CMP-stacked section from two-way
travel time to depth. An accurate velocity function (used to
correct for non-vertical incident seismic raypaths) should
provide a meaningful depth section for structural interpreta-
tions. If the velocity function is not representative of the true
seismic properties, a time to depth conversion will create
reflection geometries inconsistent with true geologic structure.
(b) Reflection wavelets have a shape indicative of the
source used, material properties of the earth, each processing NOTE—Vertical resolution is one-quarter wavelength. Many times,
step, and display parameters. Considerations must be made for practical limits of one-half wavelength are more appropriate for near-
surface reflection data, which inherently have a lower signal-to-noise ratio
interference between reflection wavelets returning from reflec-
than more conventional surveys.
tors separated by less than the wavelength of the dominant FIG. 7 Resolution Potential of Seismic-Reflection Data
frequency (wavelength = velocity / dominant frequency;
l = V / f) (Fig. 7). Depending on the dominant frequency of the
seismic signal and the velocity of the subsurface materials, the mation from the site, and how much information is really
wavelength of reflection signals can vary from meters to tens of present in the seismic data. The appropriate method and focus
meters in length (Table 5). Interpretation of seismic reflection of the interpretation should be consistent with how the results
sections requires an assessment of the signal wavelength and are to be incorporated into other studies and findings and with
an understanding of the constraints this places on vertical the acquisition and processing history of the seismic reflection
resolution (see 8.4.2). Seismic traces are displayed in two-way sections.
travel times and should be converted to depth before correlat- 6.3.4 Verification of Seismic Reflection Interpretation—
ing reflections to reflectors corresponding geologic interfaces Interpretations of seismic reflections should be verified by
or hydrologic features. Velocity information from borehole comparison with existing drill data or other subsurface infor-
surveys or from reflection curve analysis should allow conver- mation or new drill information that has been acquired based
sion from two-way travel time to depth. Correlation of reflec- on the seismic interpretations and time-to-depth conversions
tion wavelets to geologic interfaces requires consideration of using measured seismic velocity. If currently available subsur-
resolution potential of the stacked data, CMP data processing face data are not sufficient to verify the interpretations or if no
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parameters, and signal-to-noise ratio. Due to the potentially data are available at all, this fact should be mentioned in the
complex nature of stacked reflection waveforms, when reflec- report. Interpretations made without the aid of ground truth
tors are separated by less than a wavelength (but more than rely on wavelet characteristics, relative geometries of reflec-
one-quarter wavelength), caution should be exercised not to tions, knowledge of the processing flow, and experience in
over interpret CMP stacked sections (Fig. 8). Common seismic similar geologic settings to make the necessary identifications,
attributes (for example, phase, amplitude, frequency, coher- correlations, and judgments. Verification relies on ground truth
ency, velocity) of stacked data can be used to deduce physical necessitating time to depth ties. Borehole correlations with
properties of rocks. CMP stacked sections are analogous to reflections based on logs, cores, or cuttings alone provide only
road cuts, outcrops, or trenches, but on the scale of tens to limited confirmation of interpretations. In some cases, average
hundreds of meters rather than the meter scale generally velocity functions based on NMO curve fitting can be used to
observed at these features. approximate time to depth conversions that are reasonable for
(c) The level of effort involved in the interpretation of the objectives and desired accuracy of the survey. Verification
CMP seismic reflection sections will depend upon the objec- should include a seismic check shot survey (uphole/downhole),
tives of the survey, the desired detail of the interpretation, the and boreholes designed to encounter areas identified on seismic
quantity and quality of supporting and complementary infor- data as unique or anomalous.

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TABLE 3 Lateral ResolutionA Limits for z = 10 m TABLE 4 Lateral ResolutionA Limits for z = 50 m
Representative Dominant Representative Dominant
Radius Fresnel Radius Fresnel
Material Type P-Wave Frequency Material Type P-Wave Frequency
Zone (m) Zone (m)
Velocity (m/s) (Hz or 1/s) Velocity (m/s) (Hz or 1/s)
Dry Sand 500 50 7.1 Dry Sand 500 50 15.8
100 5.0 100 11.2
200 3.5 200 7.9
300 2.9 300 6.5
1000 50 10.0 1000 50 22.4
100 7.1 100 15.8
200 5.0 200 11.2
300 4.1 300 9.1
Wet Sand/Dry Clay 1500 50 12.2 Wet Sand/Dry Clay 1500 50 27.4
100 8.7 100 19.4
250 5.5 250 12.2
500 3.9 500 8.7
Tight, Wet Clay/Shale 2000 50 14.1 Tight, Wet Clay/Shale 2000 50 31.6
100 10.0 100 22.4
250 6.3 250 14.1
500 4.5 500 10.0
Shale 2500 50 15.8 Shale 2500 50 35.4
100 11.2 100 25.0
250 7.1 250 15.8
500 5.0 500 11.2
Shale/Sandstone 3000 50 17.3 Shale/Sandstone 3000 50 38.7
100 12.2 100 27.4
250 7.7 250 17.3
500 5.5 500 12.2
Sandstone/Limestone 3500 50 18.8 Sandstone/Limestone 3500 50 41.8
100 13.2 100 29.6
250 8.4 250 18.7
500 5.9 500 13.2
Limestone 4000 50 20.0 Limestone 4000 50 44.7
100 14.1 100 31.6
250 8.9 250 20.0
500 6.3 500 14.1
Granite 6000 50 24.5 Granite 6000 50 54.8
100 17.3 100 38.7
250 11.0 250 24.5
500 7.7 500 17.3
A A
Lateral resolution is a measure of horizontal (map view) size necessary to Lateral resolution is a measure of horizontal (map view) size necessary to
distinguish object or layer uniqueness or separation. distinguish object or layer uniqueness or separation.
6.3.5 Quality Control (QC)—A good QC program should be 6.3.5.1 Near-surface inconsistencies in materials (and there-
used to ensure data are optimally acquired in the field, artifacts fore seismic velocity), variable topography, an extremely wide
are not produced during processing, and only reflections are and changing optimum recording window, and poor source/
interpreted and correlated to geologic or hydrologic features. seismic sensor coupling conditions necessitate following a
QC is critical and should be continuous throughout the good set of QC guidelines and careful monitoring of shot to
acquisition, processing, and interpretation phases. Appropriate shot data quality. The seismograph should be set up with the
QC requires documentation of acquisition, processing, and appropriate QC options selected (which might include wiggle
interpretation procedures and should generally include discus- trace display, nearly real-time digital filtering, and real-time
sion of testing and analysis steps, parameters tested and graphical display of noise levels) to monitor cultural, air traffic,
selected, rationale or reason for non-standard approaches or vehicle traffic noise, cable-to-ground leakage, and geophone
parameters, basis for and other data supporting interpretations, connection and quality of ground contact. If the seismograph
optional interpretations (ranked from most to least reasonable), does not have these capabilities, an external mechanism
equipment and instrumentation tests and frequency of tests, (supporting equipment) or procedure should be established to
operational thresholds, environmental conditions affecting data maintain optimum recording conditions. The seismograph
quality, and representative shot gathers for each major acqui- should be routinely checked electronically to verify that it is
sition and processing step. This documentation should be operating within manufacturer’s specifications. On-site proce-
sufficient for a near-surface seismologist competent in high- dures should be established and followed to ensure all equip-
resolution the seismic reflection method to reasonably repro- ment operates at performance levels consistent with manufac-
duce the final CMP stacked section. As part of that overall Q/C turer’s operating guidelines. The cable-to-ground resistance of
program, the following should also be addressed: equipment each seismic sensor group should be high enough to avoid
performance relative to manufacturer’s specifications, method excessive signal leakage to the ground. Each geophone string
used for field monitoring of equipment performance and should have a continuity check once connected to the spread
routine operating limits, and requirements and methods for cables confirming that string continuities are within a reason-
tracking of reflection events from shot gathers through pro- able percentage of nominal string impedance, considering
cessed sections and interpretations. cable loss. Some kind of a geophone test (for example, tap test
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

D 7128 – 05
TABLE 5 Vertical LayerA Resolution Limits
Representative
Frequency Theoretical Practical
Material Type P-Wave Velocity
(Hz or 1/s) 1⁄4 l (m) 1⁄2 l (m)
(m/s)
Dry Sand 500 50 2.5 5.0
100 1.25 2.5
200 0.62 1.25
300 0.41 0.82
1000 50 5.0 10.0
100 2.5 5.0
200 1.25 2.5
300 0.8 1.6
Wet Sand/Dry Clay 1500 50 7.5 15.0
100 3.75 7.5
250 1.5 3.0
500 0.75 1.5
Tight, Wet Clay/Shale 2000 50 10.0 20.0
100 5.0 10.0
250 2.0 4.0
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
500 1.0 2.0
Shale 2500 50 12.5 25.0
100 6.25 12.5
250 2.5 5.0
500 1.25 2.5
Shale/Sandstone 3000 50 15.0 30.0
100 7.5 15.0
250 3.0 6.0
500 1.5 3.0
Sandstone/Limestone 3500 50 17.5 35.0
100 8.75 17.5
250 3.5 7.0 NOTE—The spike or ideal trace represents the reflection coefficients at
500 1.75 3.5 each interface. If every “wiggle” on the actual trace were interpreted as a
Limestone 4000 50 20.0 40.0 layer, the interpretation of seismic data would not accurately represent the
100 10.0 20.0 subsurface.
250 4.0 8.0 FIG. 8 Actual Seismic Trace (with Simulated Noise) that Would
500 2.0 4.0
Result from a Reflection Survey over the Geologic Model
Granite 6000 50 30.0 60.0
100 15.0 30.0
250 6.0 3.0
500 3.0 1.5
These pre-stacked data should be compared and contrasted
A
Geologic layers are represented by changes in material; seismic layers are with the stacked sections. This process is critical for confident
defined by detectable changes in acoustic impedance.
matching of each coherent event on the CMP stacks with the
appropriate geologic interface.
and twist test) can help identify problems with geophone 6.3.5.3 Documentation of the procedures followed, testing
coupling, system response, cabling to seismograph, noise at and analysis done, and rationale for parameters selected during
cable and geophone connections, and excessive overall back- the acquisition, data processing, and interpretation of seismic-
ground noise levels relative to signal. Shots should not be reflection data are necessary to ensure the quality of the output
recorded if background noise levels on active (live) geophones and evaluate the effectiveness of the method. The method used
are greater than a predetermined threshold. This threshold may and objectives of the survey will generally dictate field and
vary from site to site and from one survey objective to another. processing procedures and emphasis. The effectiveness of the
6.3.5.2 For many sites, distinguishing and separating signal method can be limited by site conditions and parameter
from noise is challenging for high-resolution shallow seismic- selections.
reflection data. This is true for shot gathers and more so for 6.3.5.4 Field logs should be completed and methodically
common offset gathers and CMP-stacked data. High-amplitude maintained to document field operations (especially consis-
coherent noise events routinely arrive in the same time window tency and accuracy checks between source operator actual
as smaller-amplitude, near-surface reflections. Once seismic location, logged source location, and record number of file),
traces are digitally processed, and especially once CMP data quality appraisals, equipment type and function, param-
stacked, contributions from coherent noise are often not easy to eters and settings, site specific features and anomalies, produc-
separate from the signal. It is therefore critical that reflections tivity, QC procedures, and overall field activities.
observed on multi-trace shot gathers be tracked through signal 6.3.5.5 Changes to the planned field procedures should be
enhancement processing and correlated to reflection events documented, along with rationale for changes and compro-
interpreted on common offset and CMP-stacked sections. It is mises, if any, that changes represent. Results of walkaway
beneficial for appraising data quality and validity to have noise testing used to determine the production parameters,
several representative data samples from across the profile equipment, and procedures should be thoroughly documented,
available for each of the following sequence of gathers: raw with samples and annotations of test data retained for inclusion
multi-trace shot record, optimally filtered and scaled multi- in report.
channel shot record, CMP gather of filtered and scaled data, 6.3.5.6 Any conditions or changes in conditions that could
and NMO-corrected CMP gather of filtered and scaled data. reduce or vary the quality of the data (weather conditions,

D 7128 – 05
sources of natural and cultural noise, equipment changes, etc.) 6.3.7.3 Scaling of the seismic section (traces/cm and cm/s)
should be documented. should optimize the information in the section and match
6.3.5.7 Data being recorded (by a computer or digital- existing geologic cross-sections. This scale matching enhances
acquisition system) with no means of visibly observing the data the usefulness of the seismic data and minimizes transcription
should be reviewed as soon as possible to check data quality errors.
and measure how effectively the data will meet the program 6.3.7.4 Seismic sections should be annotated with line
objectives. Hard copy analog plots of shot records used for QC directions, borehole locations, ties with other seismic lines,
in the field should be saved until digital data can be processed. road crossings, and any other correlation points with other data.
Any annotations or observations about or concerning the data Plotting should follow map conventions with west and north on
left side of plot unless the client specifies differently.
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
made by field staff should be archived with the field logs.
6.3.7.5 Seismic sections should be accompanied by a site
6.3.5.8 Finally, the seismic-reflection data should be rou-
map identifying the locations of all the seismic sections, tie
tinely checked to determine if the recorded signal makes
locations (by CMP or shot station number), scale, significant
geologic sense. Phase velocities of coherent events should be
surface features, anomalies and obstacles, and acquisition
calculated and verified to be within a range appropriate for the directions (beginning and ending of line as acquired).
site and seismic energy type.
6.3.6 Calibration and Standardization—In general, the 7. Report
manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed for cali- 7.1 Components of the Report—The following are a list of
bration and standardization of equipment within operational the key items that should be contained within most reports. In
ranges. If no such recommendations are provided, periodic some cases, there is no need for an extensive formal report.
checks of equipment should be made to confirm operational 7.1.1 The report should include a discussion of:
fitness. Common industry practice is to use equipment that has 7.1.1.1 The purpose, objectives, and scope of the reflection
self testing abilities. Common measurements for seismographs survey.
include noise levels, harmonic distortion, crossfeed, timing 7.1.1.2 The geologic/hydrologic setting;
accuracy, and phase and amplitude distortion. A check should 7.1.1.3 Description of the method, including limitations of
also be made after each equipment problem has been diagnosed the reflection method and historical perspective on application
and repaired. An extensive and thorough operational check of of technique to similar problems;
equipment should be carried out before each project with an 7.1.1.4 Assumptions made;
abbreviated version completed before starting each day’s 7.1.1.5 The field approach, including a description of the
fieldwork. equipment and the data acquisition parameters used, testing,
6.3.7 Presentation of Data: samples of various test seismogram and in-field processing,
quality control measures, operational statistics;
6.3.7.1 Processed and interpreted seismic-reflection data
7.1.1.6 The location of the seismic line(s) on a site map that
lends itself to presentation with time/depth on the vertical axis
includes landmarks, well locations, known geologic features,
and station location or CMP location on the horizontal axis. and surface features;
The data presentation format is analogous to geologic cross- 7.1.1.7 Data processing flow, methods, and parameters with
sections derived from correlations between drill holes or justifications for their use, assumptions made during process-
renderings from rock outcrops. Data are generally presented in ing and parameter selections, and data characteristics based on
wiggle trace format with positive amplitudes shaded dark and data analysis, appendices with sufficient details of the process-
represented by a right kick or deflection. Color display of any ing flow and parameters to allow a reasonable reproduction of
of the seismic attributes can enhance the interpretability of the the stacked sections by a competent near-surface seismic
information by improving the detail viewable in the presenta- reflection professional;
tion. The most common display format is a single wiggle trace 7.1.1.8 Software used to process data, including name and
for each surface station with north and west to the left of the version number;
display and south and east on the right of the display. Wiggle 7.1.1.9 Event identifications on shot gathers from samples
traces on CMP or common offset sections represent the along the profiles and walkaway gathers collected during
amplitude of the reflected energy (Eq 1) returning from each testing, including abnormal seismic energy and interpretations
layer after adjustment (generally not true for common offset made from shot gathers enhanced later after processing;
displays) for the non-vertical incident raypaths between source 7.1.1.10 Interpretation description and highlighting of indi-
and seismic sensor. vidual features of interest on final seismic sections;
6.3.7.2 Final interpretations of seismic reflection sections (1) Name of any interpretation software used.
are used to refine or confirm the third dimension of a geologic 7.1.1.11 Presentation and discussion of interpreted and un-
or hydrologic site model. Such a model is a simplified interpreted sections with discussion of any enhancements or
characterization of a site that attempts to incorporate all the unusual processing or interpretation techniques;
essential features of the physical system under study. This 7.1.1.12 Correlations between interpretations and ground
model is usually represented as a cross-section, a contour map, truth with scales matched as closely as possible;
or other drawings that illustrate the general geologic and 7.1.1.13 The format of all recorded digital data (for ex-
hydrogeologic conditions and any anomalous conditions at a ample, SEGY, SEG2) and supporting analog information (for
site. example, notebook, hardcopy analog recorder);

D 7128 – 05
(1) All available GPS data and coordinates for beginning 8.2.2 The Fundamental Differences Between Seismic-
and ending of each seismic line. Reflection Interpretations and Drilling Interpreted Geology
(2) All survey information available, including coordinates (that is, Depths and Geometries):
of each station. 8.2.2.1 The seismic-reflection method is based upon the
7.1.1.14 Performance information, which should include measurement of particle motion as a function of two-way travel
source, seismograph, processing flow (with sufficient detail to time from the source down to the reflector and back up to the
allow an experienced shallow seismic reflection processor to seismic sensors. To image a reflector, it is necessary for a
reasonably re-create the seismic sections), field logs, and safety significant change in acoustic impedance to exist between the
plans; two layers that represent the reflecting interface.
7.1.1.15 If conditions occurred where a variance from this 8.2.2.2 When the top of the rock surface is defined by
ASTM guide is necessary, the reason for the variance should be drilling, it is often based upon refusal of the drill bit to continue
given and appropriate documentation and citation to support it; to penetrate, the number of blow counts with a split-spoon
7.1.1.16 Appropriate references for any supporting data sampler, or the first evidence of rock fragments. These methods
used in the interpretation; and may produce different interpretations of the top of the rock
7.1.1.17 Identification of the person(s) responsible for the surface and may not agree with the top of the rock surface as
acquisition, processing, and interpretation of the seismic re- interpreted by the seismic-reflection method. The differences
flection survey. between two-way travel times and depths determined by
7.1.1.18 Conclusions and recommendations should include drilling can yield as much as 15 % or more difference in the
overall summary and listing of any follow-up work that might two depth determinations, even when the top of rock is
complement and extend the seismic survey. relatively flat.
8.2.2.3 Layers geologically defined as differences in the
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. Precision and Bias lithology of consolidated or unconsolidated sediments or
8.1 Bias—For the purpose of this guide, bias is defined as a drilling changes in borehole logs don’t always have a sufficient
measure of the closeness to the truth. change in the acoustic impedance to generate a discernable
8.1.1 The bias with which geology or anomalies can be reflection on a seismogram. Changes in saturation or the nature
determined by seismic-reflection methods depends on many of pore fluids can also produce a high amplitude reflection
factors. Some of these factors are: event that may not have been observed in borehole core
8.1.1.1 Human errors in field procedures, record keeping, samples.
corrections to data, processing, and interpretation; 8.2.2.4 Depth estimates of reflections interpreted on reflec-
8.1.1.2 Instrument errors in measuring or recording; tion data require time-to-depth conversion. Seismic data are
8.1.1.3 Geometry limitations related to line location and measured in time and must be converted to depth for correla-
topography; tion to drill or other ground truth. Converting time of seismic
8.1.1.4 Noise; reflections to depth of reflectors requires knowledge of the
8.1.1.5 Variation of the earth from simplifying assumptions average velocity from ground surface to the reflector. Normal
used in the field and interpretation procedure (that is, suitability moveout (NMO) velocities are estimated from geometric
of the target for the geophysical methods being used to analysis and are inherently uncertain. Borehole velocity sur-
delineate it); veys (uphole, checkshot, downhole) provide time-to-depth
8.1.1.6 Site-specific geologic limitations, such as roads, functions with much less uncertainty than NMO analysis.
creeks, rivers, extreme topography, severely dipping subsur- Expectations of as much as 10 % difference between NMO-
face layers; and calculated velocity and average velocity measured in boreholes
8.1.1.7 Ability and experience of the field crew and inter- is reasonable.
preter. 8.2.3 Lateral Geologic Variability—Agreement between
8.2 Differences Between Depths Determined Using Seismic- seismic reflection sections and boring measurements may vary
Reflection Data and Those Determined by Drilling: considerably along the profile line, depending upon lateral
8.2.1 The bias of a seismic reflection survey is commonly geologic changes, such as dip as well as the degree of
thought of as how well the geologic interpretations agree with weathering and fracturing in the rock. Seismic reflection
borehole data. In many cases, the depth and apparent geom- measurements may not account for small lateral geologic
etries of reflectors agree reasonably well with cross-sections changes and may only provide an average depth over them. In
derived from borehole data. In other cases, there will be addition, the presence of a water table near the bedrock surface
considerable disagreement between the reflection results and can, in some cases, lead to an error in interpretation. Therefore,
boring data. While in some situations, apparent reflector depths it is not always possible to have exact agreement between
and geometries may be quite accurate, the interpreted results seismic sections and boring data along a survey line.
may disagree with a depth obtained from drilling for the 8.2.4 Positioning Differences—The drilling location and the
reasons discussed in 8.2.2 through 8.2.4. It is important that the feature or layer interpreted on the seismic reflection section
user of geologic information interpreted from reflection data be may not correspond to exactly the same point surface location.
aware of these concepts and understands that geologic infor- It is common to find that the boreholes are located on the basis
mation interpreted from seismic reflection survey will not of drill-rig access and may not be located along the line of the
always agree 100 % with drilling data. seismic profile. Differences in position can easily account for

D 7128 – 05
as much as 10 % difference in depth where top of rock is highly r 5 =VZ / 2f (5)
variable (for example, karst) or where velocity structures are
very complex. where:
8.3 Precision—For the purposes of this guide, precision is r = broadband Fresnel radius,
f = dominant frequency,
the repeatability between measurements: that is, the degree to
V = velocity, and
which the depth or wavelet representation of a reflector from Z = depth to the reflector (22).
two identical measurements in the same location with the same
equipment match one another. Precision of a seismic reflection Decreasing receiver spacing improves the apparent coher-
section will be affected by variability of source coupling, zero ency of reflection events, but mathematically does not improve
time signal, changes in near-surface data processing param- lateral resolution. A minimum receiver spacing approximate
eters, and properties or attributes emphasized during interpre- one-eighth the radius of the Fresnel zone should be maintained
tation. If a seismic reflection survey were repeated under to insure proper sampling and optimize the interpretability of
identical conditions (including processing flows and interpre- small objects on CMP stacked sections (Fig. 9).
tation philosophies), the measurements would be expected to 8.4.1.1 Lateral resolution can be thought of as the designa-
have a high level of precision. tion of the closest two objects can be that a particular seismic
8.4 Resolution: reflection section can distinguish each. Increasing the dominant
8.4.1 Lateral Resolution—Lateral resolution of a seismic frequency is the only way to improve lateral resolution for a
reflection survey is a function of seismic reflection wavelength particular material (Table 3). Depth of the target does affect the
and velocity with inherent dependence on CMP spacing, resolution (Table 4).
generally described as related to the broadband Fresnel radius. 8.4.2 Vertical Resolution—Vertical resolution is generally
An object one-quarter the Fresnel zone appears on reflection expressed in terms of bed resolution. Bed resolution is the
data as a diffraction and is considered a point source rather than thickness of a bed that can be detected or resolved. As top and
a reflecting point. Resolving horizontal variations in geometry bottom layers of a bed approach each other (as the bed gets
and/or stratigraphy is more challenging and estimating the thinner) and eventually become separated by a distance less
resolving potential of reflection data is not nearly as straight- than the wavelength of the seismic energy, reflections from the
forward in the horizontal dimension as in the vertical. Hori- top and bottom begin to interfere. Theory suggests that beds
zontal resolution has recently been described for broadband, separated by less than one-quarter the dominant wavelength
zero phase seismic data as a zone of influence (20) with cannot be detected or resolved (23). In practice, due to noise
Rayleigh’s criteria used to quantify the minimum distance two and generally less than ideal spectral characteristics, it is more
objects can be separated and still be distinguishable (21). This reasonable to assume that bed thickness needs to be half the
distance can be calculated using the relationship: dominant wavelength for the bed to be resolvable (24).
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIG. 9 Model Response for Sand Lenses of Varying Lateral Extent Illustrating Significance of Fresnel Zone Size

D 7128 – 05
8.4.2.1 Vertical resolution can be thought of as the designa- 9. Quality Assurance
tion of the thinnest layer, the top and bottom of which can be
9.1 It is generally good practice to have the entire seismic
detected by a particular seismic reflection section. For a given
reflection work program, including the report, monitored and
material type with a characteristic velocity, dominant fre-
reviewed by a person knowledgeable with the seismic-
quency is the only variable that affects vertical resolution
reflection method and site geology but not directly involved
(Table 5). Theoretical limits have been estimated based on
with the project.
modeling of elastic media without noise and with uniform
wavelet characteristics (Table 5). Practical limits represent
10. Keywords
reasonable expectations for “normal” data acquisition settings
and equipment with noise and real variability in wavelet 10.1 geophysics; near-surface; seismic reflection; surface
characteristics (Table 5). geophysics
REFERENCES
(1) Steeples, D. W., and Miller, R. D., “Seismic Reflection Methods (13) Berryman, J. G., Berge, P. A., and Bonner, B. P., “Estimating Rock
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Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol I, Review and Geophysics, Vol 67, 2002, pp. 391-404.
Tutorial, Ward, S. H. (ed.), Society of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa, (14) Fagin, S. W., ed., Seismic Modeling of Geologic Structures, Society
OK, 1990, pp. 1-30. of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa, OK, 1991.
(2) Birkelo, B. A., Steeples, D. W., Miller, R. D., and Sophocleous, M. A., (15) Knapp, R. W., and Steeples, D. W., “High-resolution Common Depth
“Seismic Reflection Study of a Shallow Aquifer During a Pumping Point Seismic Reflection Profiling: Field Acquisition Parameter
Test,” Ground Water, Vol 25, Nov-Dec, 1987, pp. 703-709. Design,” Geophysics, Vol 51, 1986, pp. 283-294.
(3) Green, A., Lanz, E., Maurer, H., and Boerner, D., “A Template for
(16) Evans, B. J., A Handbook for Seismic Data Acquisition in Explora-
Geophysical Investigations of Small Landfills,” The Leading Edge, 18,
tion, Society of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa, OK, 1997.
No. 2, 1999, pp. 248-254.
(4) Sheriff, R. E., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, 4th (17) Hunter, J. A., Pullan, S. E., Whiteley, R. J., and Nutalaya, P.,
ed., Society of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa, OK, 2002. “‘Optimum Offset’ Seismic Reflection Mapping of Shallow Aquifers
(5) Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J. A., Glossary of Geology, 1984. near Bangkok, Thailand,” Geophysics, Vol 63, 1998, pp. 1385-1394.
(6) Telford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., Sheriff, R. E., and Keys, D. A., Applied (18) Barry, K. M., Cavers, D. A., and Kneale, C. W., “Recommended
Geophysics, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990. Standards for Digital Tape Formats,” Geophysics, Vol 40, 1975, pp.
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Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, p. 741. (19) Pullan, S. E., “Recommended Standard for Seismic (/Radar) Data
(8) Miller, R. D., Pullan, S. E., Waldner, J. S., and Haeni, F. P., “Field Files in the Personal Computer Environment,” Geophysics, Vol 55,
Comparison of Shallow Seismic Sources,” Geophysics, Vol 51, 1986, 1990, pp. 1260-1271.
pp. 2067-2092. (20) Bruhl, M., Vermeer, G .J. O., and Kiehn, M., “Fresnel Zones for
(9) Miller, R. D., Pullan, S. E., Steeples, D. W., and Hunter, J. A., “Field Broadband Data,” Geophysics, Vol 61, 1996, pp. 600-604.
Comparison of Shallow Seismic Sources near Chino, California,”
(21) Kallweit, R. S., and Wood, L. C., “The Limits of Resolution of
Geophysics, Vol 57, 1992, pp. 693-709.
Zero-Phase Wavelets,” Geophysics, Vol 47, 1982, pp. 1035-1046.
--``,``,`,``,,``,`,,,,`,,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(10) Miller, R. D., Pullan, S. E., Steeples, D. W., and Hunter, J. A., “Field
Comparison of Shallow P-wave Seismic Sources near Houston, (22) Ebrom, D. A., Markley, S. A., and McDonald, J. A., “Horizontal
Texas,” Geophysics, Vol 59, 1994, pp. 1713-1728. Resolution before Migration for Broadband Data,” [Exp. Abs.],
(11) Doll, W. E., Miller, R. D., and Xia, J., “A Non-invasive Shallow Society of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa, OK, 1996.
Seismic Source Comparison on the Oak Ridge Reservation, Tennes- (23) Widess, M. D., “How Thin is a Thin Bed,” Geophysics, Vol 38, 1973,
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(12) Baker, G. S., Steeples, D. W., Schmeissner, C., and Spikes, K. T., (24) Miller, R. D., Anderson, N. L., Feldman, H. R., and Franseen, E. K.,
“Source-dependent Frequency Content of Ultrashallow Seismic Re- “Vertical Resolution of a Seismic Survey in Stratigraphic Sequences
flection Data,” Bull. Seis. Soc. Amer., Vol 90, No. 2, 2000, pp. Less than 100 m Deep in Southeastern Kansas,” Geophysics, Vol 60,
494-499. 1995, pp. 423-430.
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Astm D 7128-05

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Designation: D 7128 – 05

Standard Guide for

of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral problems.

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responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-

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R = reflectivity = reflection coefficient,

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Geophones are generally robust, durable, and have unique

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NOTE—The reflection arrivals are shown on both records.

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