BIOLOGY 2 o New organism grows from a fragment

of the parent.
Reproductive Strategies o Each fragment grows into a mature,
Sexual and Asexual Reproduction fully-grown individual.
 Sexual Reproduction is the creation of an o Fragmentation must be accompanied
offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm) with regeneration.
and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote. This o The more complex organisms are, the
usually involves contact. harder it is for them to regenerate.
- The mechanisms of fertilization play an - Vegetative Propagation
important part in sexual reproduction. o Natural
- Two haploid (n) gametes form a diploid  Bulb; short, underground stems with
(2n) zygote, or fertilized egg. stored food and stemmed leaves.
- ‘n’ denotes a diploid’s chromosomes, or a Ex. Onion
haploid.  Corm; short, underground stems
 Asexual Reproduction is the creation of an with stored food with scale-like
offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm. leaves. Ex. Cocoyam, Chinese water
- Fission chestnut
o A parent divides into two halves after  Tuber; enlarged, underground stem.
the nucleus replicates. Ex. Potato
o No parent remains; only two daughter  Runner (stolon); horizontal stem
cells are left to grow to normal sizes. with buds along the ground’s
o They occur among bacteria, protozoa, surface. Ex. Strawberry
and algae.  Rhizome; underground horizontal
- Budding stem. Ex. Asparagus, Ginger
o A parent divides into two unequal o Artificial
halves.  Cutting; the use of a part of a plant
o The daughter cells form outgrowth or to reproduce. Ex. Spider plant
bud off the parent.  Layering; the stem is bent over and
o Buds may break off or remain attached covered with soil to form roots and
and form a colony. eventually it will become a new
o They occur among metazoans, corals, plant. Ex. Raspberry.
some corals, acoel flatworms, and  Grafting; the stem or bud of one
echinoderm larvae. plant (the young plant or scion) is
- Spore Formation joined permanently to another plant
o Also known as sporulation. (the mature plant or stock). Ex.
o It is the production of many spores in a Seedless fruit tree
special spore-producing structure,
known as a spore case or sac.
o Spores are microscopic, specialized cells
containing nucleus and cytoplasm
within a hard case.
o They occur among molds, ferns, and
moss.

Figure 2: Jellyfish are capable of doing both.

Advantages of sexual reproduction:

- Genetic variability
- Asset to the survival of a species

Advantages of asexual reproduction:

- Easier to reproduce
Figure 1: Life cycle of a common sporophyte. Internal and External Fertilization
 In external fertilization, eggs shed by the
- Fragmentation
female are fertilized by the sperm in the
environment.
  In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in Penis
or near the female reproductive tract, and  The human penis is composed of three cylinders
fertilization occurs within the tract. of spongy erectile tissues filled with blood
vessels.
For many animals, finding a partner for sexual  During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills
reproduction may be challenging: with blood from the arteries, causing an
 Hermaphrodism involves having moth a male erection.
and a female reproductive system.  The head of a penis has a thinner skin covering
the shaft, and is more sensitive to stimulation.
Human Reproductive System
How a sperm develops:
Male Reproductive System Stem cell
 The male’s reproductive organs are the scrotum
and penis. –meiosis
 Internal organs are the gonads, which produce
sperm and hormones, and accessory glands. Spermatogonium (2n)
 A scrotum is outside to regulate the temperature
for sperm production in the testes. –Mitosis
 Hormones are responsible for the secondary sex
organ development. Primary spermatocyte
(2n)

–Meiosis I

Secondary
spermatocyte

–Meiosis II

Spermatid
Figure 3: Male Reproductive System.

Testes –Spermiogenesis
 The male gonads, consisting of highly-coiled Spermatozoa (Sperm)
tubes surrounded by connective tissues.
 Sperm form in the seminiferous tubules. Figure 4: Sperm development.
 Leydig cells produce testosterone. Sperm
 Epididymis is where the sperm from the  Acrosome: contains enzymes for protection.
seminiferous tubules of a testes goes.  Seminal fluid: used for mobility.
 During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through
the muscular vas deferens. Female Reproductive System
 Semen contains sperm and seminal fluid, which  The female reproductive system functions to
contain food for the sperm. produce hormones and carry the fertilized
 From the vas deferens, it goes to the seminal egg.
vesicles.  Vagina repository for sperm during copulation
and serves as the birth canal.
Accessory Glands  The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva,
 Semen is produced. which consists of the labia majora, labia
 The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% minora, hymen, and the clitoris.
of the total volume of semen with thick,  The clitoris has a head called a glands covered
yellowish, and alkaline mucus, fructose, by the prepuce.
coagulating enzymes, etc. Afterwards it goes  The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich in
through the ejaculatory duct. blood vessels; the clitoris also has many nerve
 The prostate gland secretes its products directly endings.
into the urethra through several small ducts.  The ovaries (female gonads) lie in the
Thin and milky, anti-coagulant enzymes. abdominal cavity; contains follicles.
 The bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands)  Follicles are partially developed eggs, or
secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation. oocytes, that are surrounded by support cells.
 At birth, ovaries contain ~1-2 million follicles,
but only 500 fully mature in a life time.
 Oogenesis, the female counterpart of
spermatogenesis and a type of gametogenesis, is
the development an oocyte develops into an
ovum (egg).
 The corpus luteum is a mass of follicular
tissue within the ovary. It secrets estradiol and
progesterone, or hormones, that helps in
maintaining pregnancy. If the egg is not
fertilized, the corpus luteum disintegrates.
 The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus
via an oviduct, or fallopian tube.
 Cilia, hair-like projections made out of protein,
are found in the oviduct to convey the egg to the
uterus, also called the womb.
 The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many
blood vessels.
 The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into
the vagina.

Body

Major Vestibular
(Bartholin’s gland)

Figure 5: Female Reproductive System.