Psychological Well-Being in Adult Life

Author(s): Carol D. Ryff

Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Aug., 1995), pp. 99-104
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Association for Psychological Science
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 CURRENTDIRECTIONS INPSYCHOLOGICALSCIENCE 99

formulations just listed. Detailed re

Psychological Weil-Being in Adult Life view reveals, in
fact, that they tend
to in certain
Carol D. Ryff overlap emphasizing
qualities of human Wellness. These
points of convergence are depicted
in the inner circle of Figure 1. The
periphery of the figure identifies the
Knowledge of psychological
DEFINING FEATURES conceptual and theoretical writings
well-being persistently lags behind
OF WELL-BEING from which these features of well
knowledge of psychological dys being were derived. The
function. The imbalance is evident key dimen
in of research?studies of Three literatures provide theoret sions of this synthetic model of well
magnitude in
ical guidance understanding the being are self-acceptance, positive
psychological problems dwarf the
meaning of psychological well relationships with other people, au
literature on positive psychological
in the being.1 Developmental psychology, tonomy, environmental mastery,
functioning?and meaning of
particularly life-span developmental purpose in life, and personal
basic terms (e.g., typical usage
psychology, offers numerous depic growth. I have constructed defini
equates health with the absence of
A person tions of Wellness, conceived as pro tions for each dimension, provided
illness). is viewed as men
gressions of continued growth across in Table 1, by integrating different
tally sound if he or she does not suf
the life course. These perspectives elements from the guiding theories.
fer from anxiety, depression, or
include Erikson's model of the stages Self-acceptance, for example, in
other forms of psychological symp
of psychosocial development, B?h cludes not only the possession of
tomatology. This prevailing formula a
ler's formulation of basic life tenden positive attitude toward the self,
tion never gets to the heart of Well cies that work toward the fulfillment emphasized by Maslow, Rogers, Al
ness; to do so, we must define and Neugarten's
of descriptions lport, and Jahoda, but also the ac
mental health as the of the life,
presence of personality change in adulthood ceptance of one's good and bad
positive. and old age. Clinical psychology qualities, included in the Jungian ac
To explicate the positive how
is,
also offers multiple formulations of count of individuation, and accep
ever, to grapple with basic values
well-being, such as Maslow's con tance of one's past life, described by
and ideals of the human experience.
ception of self-actualization, Rog Erikson as part of the task of in
These values are no less evident in ego
ers's view of the fully functioning Taken together, these six di
definitions of human suffering, al tegrity.
person, Jung's formulation of indi mensions encompass a breadth of
though consensus in identification of
viduaron, and Allport's conception Wellness that includes positive eval
the negative is somehow easier to of a
maturity. Finally, the literature on uations of one's self and one's life,
achieve. Despite these challenges,
mental health, although guided sense of continued growth and de
much has been written, within the
defini velopment as a person, the belief
field of psychology and outside it, largely by absence-of-illness
tions of well-being, includes signifi that life is purposeful and
meaning
regarding the contours of positive
cant exceptions, such as Jahoda's ful, the possession of good relation
psychological functioning.
formulation of positive criteria of with other people, the capacity
ships
mental health and Birren's concep to one's life and the sur
manage
tion of positive functioning in later rounding world effectively, and a
life. sense of self-determination.
These perspectives, even in com This conceptual framework bears
Carol D. Ryff is Professor of Psy
bination, have had little impact on little resemblance to extant scientific
chology and Associate Director of studies of subjective well-being, in
empirical research on psychological
the Institute on Aging at the Uni
well-being. a The neglect stems, in which measures of happiness and
versity of Wisconsin-Madison. Her
part, from lack of operational def life satisfaction are the reigning em
research centers on the meaning
and measurement of initions and measures, but it is also pirical indicators.2 Conceptual ra
psychological
its due perhaps to the diversity of these tionales for these criteria are gener
well-being, change and stability
across adult life, and the factors characterizations of Wellness. What, ally lacking. Studies of life
(experiential and attitudinal) that amidst these lengthy descriptions, satisfaction abound in research on
explain variations in human Well are the essential features of positive aging; the lack of theory reflects the
ness. Address correspondence to psychological functioning? historical emphasis on applied initi
Carol D. Ryff, University of Wis One strategy for this liter
moving atives, with intervention and pro
consin, 1202 West Johnson St.,
ature to the empirical arena is to fo gram development being of far
Madison, Wl 53706.
cus on points of convergence in the greater importance than the task of

? 1995 American
Copyright Psychological Society 99
 100 VOLUME 4, NUMBER 4, AUGUST 1995

garding patterning of well-being

across the life
course, with the ex
maturity executive processes ception of Erikson's writings about
of
(Allport) personality ego integrity in later life (suggesting
fully (Neugarten)
functioning that self-acceptance might be more
person easily achieved by the aged than by
(Rogers) purpose basic life younger people). To explore possi
self tendencies
in ble age differences, we asked
acceptance life (B?hler)
young, middle-aged, and old-aged
self personal environmental
adults in our first empirical study
actualization ]
mastery (designed to establish the validity
(Maslow) growth
autonomy positive
and reliability of the measures) to
personal
rate themselves on each of the di
relationships. development
(Erikson)
mensions of well-being. These rat
individuation ings revealed a diverse pattern of sig
(Jung) aging nificant age differences (see top of
mental mental Fig. 2). Certain aspects of well
health health being, such as environmental mas
(Jahoda) (B irren)
tery and autonomy, increased with
of and their theoretical origins. age, particularly from young adult
Fig. 1. Core dimensions well-being
hood to midlife. Other aspects, such
as growth and purpose in
personal
life, decreased, especially from
defining essential properties of well point toof positive function midlife to old age. The remaining
aspects
being. Studies of quality of life in are in current scien two aspects, positive relations with
ing that missing
America, conducted largely through tific studies of subjective well-being, others and self-acceptance, showed
use of sociological surveys, have and offer conceptually rich alterna no age differences across
significant
perpetuated measures of happiness tives to the emphasis on negative the three age periods, and therefore
and life satisfaction via a largely un functioning in mental health re are not shown in the figure.
questioned assumption that happi search. A second study, based on the
ness is the highest of all human same three age groups, revealed
goods. This view may, at its origins, highly similar findings. These sam
rest on mistaken translation of DESCRIPTIVESTUDIESOF ples were based on community vol
the philosophical starting point, unteers, however, and, therefore,
PSYCHOLOGICALWELL-BEING
namely, Aristotle's
writing on eudai lack generalizability. In a more re
monia. To this term with hap cent study that sharply re
equate Among the many descriptive employed
piness is to miss important distinc questions that can be asked about duced versions of the original scales,
tions made long ago between the data were obtained on the psycho
well-being, my colleagues and I
satisfaction of and wrong de logical well-being of a national sam
right have addressed whether profiles of
sires. Thus, a more apt characteriza
positive functioning vary across the ple. These findings (see bottom of
tion of the highest of all human life Fig. 2) underscore the of
course, whether men and consistency
goods is the striving for perfection the cross-sectional age patterns. En
women differ in basic dimensions of
that represents the realization of Wellness, and whether well-being vironmental mastery and autonomy
one's true potential.3 Other philo again showed increases with age,
varies across cultures. All these stud
sophical perspectives on the "good ies have been conducted within the purpose in life and personal growth
life" further underscore the need for framework of showed declines with aging, and
more differentiated concep the six guiding dimen
richer, self-acceptance revealed no age dif
sions of psychological well-being,
tions of Wellness, and caution ferences. For self-ratings of positive
operational ?zed with structured self
against the reliance on hedonic report scales.5 relations with others, the results
pleasure as the ultimate desired end Age Differences across studies varied between no dif
in life.4 ferences and increases with age.
Whether or not prevailing empir Longitudinal studies are neces
ical indicators are theoretically and The theories on which the dimen sary to clarify whether these age pat
philosophically defensible, it is clear terns reflect developmental, mutura
that the aforementioned theories sions are based offer little insight re tional changes or cohort (historical)

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 CURRENTDIRECTIONS INPSYCHOLOGICALSCIENCE 101

Table 1. Definitions of theory-guided dimensions of well-being

Characteristics of Characteristics of
Dimension a low scorer
a high scorer
Feels dissatisfied with is
self; disappointed
Self-acceptance Possesses positive attitude toward self; in is
acknowledges and accepts multiple aspects of self, with what has occurred past life;

including good and bad qualities; feels positive troubled about certain personal qualities;
about past wishes to be different than what he or
life she is
Positive relations with Has satisfying, trusting relationships with
warm, Has few close, trusting relationships with
other others; is concerned about the welfare of others; finds it difficult to be warm, open,
people
others; is of strong empathy, affection,
capable and concerned about others; is isolated
and
intimacy;
understands give-and-take of and frustrated in interpersonal
human relationships relationships; is not willing to make
compromises to sustain important ties with
others
Autonomy Is
self-determining and independent; is able to Is concerned about the expectations and
to think and act in certain evaluations of relies on of
resist social pressures others; judgments
ways; regulates behavior from
within; evaluates others to make
important decisions; conforms to
personal standards
self by social pressures to think and
Environmental mastery Hassense of and competence in act in certain ways
mastery
managing the environment; controls complex
Has
difficulty managing everyday affairs; feels
of external
array makes effective use
activities;
unable to change or improve
of surrounding opportunities; is able to choose
or create contexts suitable to personal needs surrounding context; is unaware of
and values surrounding opportunities; lacks sense of
control over external world
Has in life and a sense of
feels few goals
in life goals directedness; Lacks sense of meaning in life; has
Purpose is to
there meaning present and past life; holds or aims, lacks sense of direction; does not
that life see in has
beliefs give purpose; has aims and purpose past life; no outlooks or
objectives for living sees beliefs that give life
meaning
Personal growth Has
feeling of continued development; self Has sense of personal stagnation; lacks sense
as
growing and expanding; is open to new of improvement or expansion over
time;
experiences; has sense of realizing his or her feels bored and uninterested with life;
feels
potential; sees improvement in self and unable to
develop new attitudes or
behavior over time; is changing in
ways that behaviors
reflect more self-knowledge and effectiveness
I_ _I
differences. Whatever the explana no longer idealize continued self
These findings are particularly
tion, older adults' recurring lower development or purposeful living. relevant in
light of prior mental
self-ratings on purpose in life and Sex Differences health research, which has repeat
personal growth warrant
attention. edly documented a higher incidence
to im As in the case of age differences,
These patterns point possibly of certain psychological prob
portant psychological challenges of lems, such as depression, among
later life, and may support related the theoretical starting points offered women.7 When the positive end of
arguments that contemporary social few insights regarding possible dif the mental health spectrum is con
structures lag behind the added ferences between men and women sidered, however, it seems that
years of life many people now en on various dimensions of well women have greater psychological
joy.6 That is, opportunities for con being. Across multiple sets of data, strengths than men in certain aspects
tinued growth and development and however, we have found that of
well-being, and comparable pro
for experience may be women of all ages consistently rate files with regard to other dimen
meaningful
limited for older persons today. An themselves higher on positive rela sions. To miss these findings is to tell
alternative hypothesis is that older tions with others than do men, and an incomplete story about the psy
persons place less value on personal that women tend to score higher chological functioning of women.
growth and purpose in life than do than men on personal growth. The Cultural Differences
younger age groups. However, we remaining four of
aspects psycholog
have had respondents rate their ide ical well-being have consistently How culture bears on fundamen
als of well-being, and these data shown no significant differences be
challenge the notion that the aged tween men and women. tal conceptions of self, self-in

? 1995 American
Copyright Psychological Society
 102 VOLUME 4, NUMBER 4, AUGUST 1995

midlife adults from South Ko

105 Validation Sample 9
rea.
Itwas found that, on the
whole,
Americans were much more to
likely
100 attribute positive qualities to them
selves than were Koreans, a finding
consistent with formulations of un
S 95 derlying cultural differences in self
presentation. Despite these main ef

CO fects of culture, analyses within

?
90 cultures revealed that Koreans, as
C/)
predicted, showed highest self
ratings on the measure of positive re
lations with others, and lowest self
85
ratings for self-acceptance and
personal growth. Among U.S. re
spondents, personal growth was
80 Young Midlife Older rated especially for
highest, women,
and autonomy, contrary to the pur
18 ported emphasis on self-determina
National Sample tion in our own culture, was rated
lowest. Sex differences were the
17
same in both cultures: Women rated
themselves significantly higher than
16 men on positive relations with others
o and personal growth. Qualitative
o
C/) data showed that the Koreans placed
15
greater emphasis on the
(0 well-being
o of other people (e.g., children) in
C/)
14 defining their own well-being than
did the Americans.

13

12
UNDERSTANDING
Young Midlife Older VARIATIONS INWELL-BEING
Dimensions of
Weil-Being

"O Relations ? Personal Growth & Purpose in Life^Env. Mastery O Autonomy Many nationally representative
Positive
surveys have employed broad socio
such as
in
2. Self-ratings on the six dimensions of (see Fig. 1) for young, middle demographic factors,
Fig. well-being
aged, and olderadults. The top graph shows scoresfrom the original sample. Scores are come, education, age, and marital
and
based on a 20-item scale ranging from 20 to 120. The bottom graph shows scores from parental status, to explain vari
a national sample. Scores are based on a 3-item scale ranging from 3 to 18. Only results ations in well-being. In
subjective
showing significant are combination, these broad factors
age differences graphed.
rarely account for even 10% of the
relation-to-others, and health is an autonomy, might have greater sa variance in reports of happiness or
increasingly prevalent theme in so lience in our own Western cultural life satisfaction. From our perspec
whereas others-oriented di tive, understanding a who does and
cial scientific inquiry.8 Much of this context,
discussion involves contrasts be mensions of such as does not possess high profile of
well-being, pos
tween cultures that value individual itive relations with others, might be well-being requires closer examina
ism and independence and those of greater significance in in tion of the actual substance of
Eastern, peo
that value collectivism and interde terdependent cultures. These issues ple's lives, that is, their life
experi
pendence. These ideas suggest that were examined in a midlife sample ences.

more self-oriented aspects of well of U.S. adults and a sociodemo In a series of we have in
studies,
being, such as self-acceptance or graphically comparable sample of vestigated life and indi
experiences,

Published Press
by Cambridge University
 CURRENTDIRECTIONS INPSYCHOLOGICALSCIENCE 103

viduals' interpretations of these ex- I sonal growth, positive relations with good provides thus another telling
periences, as key influences on others, autonomy, depression, and characterization of the human con
psychological well-being.10 The ex anxiety. An important finding is that dition, one notably missing in scien
periences range from having and older women are in poor phys
who tific discourse on mental health.
raising children, to ical health but compare themselves
Acknowledgments?I am indebted to a
growing up with
an alcoholic parent, to experiencing favorably with other women have
psychological well-being compara rich and valuable array of collaborators. It
educational and occupational
is our collective efforts that constitute the
achievements in to having ble to that of women in phys
midlife, good program of research reported here. Spe
health problems and relocation ex ical health. cial thanks are extended to Essex,Marilyn
periences in later life. These experi Ongoing longitudinal studies, of Sue Heidrich, Corey Keyes, Young Hyun
Lee, Pamela Schmutte, Marsha Seltzer,
ences vary by their location in the differing patterns of educational and and Sandra Tweed for their many valu
life occupational achievements in mid
course, by the nature of the chal able contributions. I also acknowledge
or task and by their typ life (via the Wisconsin Longitudinal the support and stimulation provided by
lenge posed, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur
icality (Is the experience shared by Study), and of the experience of Research Network on Successful Midlife
many or few? Is it or unex community relocation in later life, Development (Gilbert Brim, Director).
expected a
will contribute new findings that The work is further supported by grant
pected?). from the National Institute on Aging
Our formulation of how experi clarify the directional relationships (1R01AG08979).
ences are interpreted draws exten between life their inter
experiences, Notes
sively on social psychological the pretation, and psychological well
ory. For example, we are interested being.
in how people make sense of their WELL-BEING: A
1. For see CD. Ryff, Beyond Ponce de
life by comparing them reviews,
experiences
selves with others (social compari Leon and life satisfaction: New directions inquest of
son processes), by evaluating the successful aging, International Journal of Behavioral
SCIENTIFICLUXURY? Development, 12, 35-55 (1989);
CD.
Ryff and M.J.
feedback they perceive from signifi Essex, Psychological well-being in adulthood and
To be well psychologically is old
markers and explanatory pro
cant others (reflected appraisals), by age: Descriptive
cesses, in Annual Review of Gerontology and Geri
trying to understand the causes of atrics,
Vol.
11, K.W. Schaie and M.P. Lawton, Eds.
New York, 1992).
their experiences (attributional pro more than to be free of distress or (Springer,
2. N.M. Bradburn, The Structure of Psycholog
cesses), and by attaching relative im other mental problems. It is to pos ical (Aldine, 1969); E. Diener,
Well-Being Chicago,
portance to such experiences (psy sess positive self-regard,mastery, Subjective well-being, Psychological Bulletin, 95,
542-575 (1984); M.P. Lawton, The varieties of
chological centrality). Specific autonomy, positive relationships wellbeing, in Emotion in Adult Development, CZ.
Eds.
hypotheses regarding the influence with other people, a sense of pur Malatesta and CE.
F.
Izard,
M.
(Sage, Beverly Hills,
CA, 1984); Argyle, and N. Schwarz,
of these interpretive processes on posefulness and Strack,
meaning in life, and Eds., Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary
well-being are detailed in our indi feelings of continued growth and de Perspective (Pergamon, New York, 1991).
3. Bradburn, note 2; D. Norton, Personal Des tinies (Princeton
vidual studies. velopment. Scientific study of these University Press, Princeton, NJ,
Collectively, these studies dem 1976); A.S. Waterman, The Psychology of Individ
aspects of human Wellness may be ualism (Praeger,
New York, 1984); A.S. Waterman,
onstrate that life and Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of per
experiences seen as fanciful frosting on the cake,
sonal expressiveness (Eudaimonia) and hedonic en
how they are interpreted provide a luxury agenda likely to be about joyment, Journal
of
Personality and Social Psychol
678-691 (1993).
useful avenues for understanding elite samples of privileged lives. Par ogy, 64,
in cial 4. L.C Becker, Good lives: Prolegomena, So
human variations well-being. The adoxically, one of the most impor Philosophy and Policy, 9, 15-37 (1992); J.S.
research on midlife parenting tant reasons to the
study end positive
Mill, Autobiography (London, Penguin Books,
1973); L.W. Sumner, Two theories of the
good, So
shows, for example, that consider of the mental health spectrum is to cial Philosophy and Policy, 9, 1-14 (1992); B. Rus
able variance (20%-29%) in adults' identify what is in sell, The Conquest of Happiness (Bantam Books,
missing people's New York,
environmental mastery, purpose in 1968) (Original work published 1930).
lives. That is, in between people 5. CD. Ryff, Happiness is
everything, or is it?
life, ^elf-acceptance, and who are suffering from major psy Explorations
on the
meaning of psychological well
depression
being, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,in
is accounted for by parents' percep chological disorders (the category 57, 1069-1081 CD.
(1989); Ryff, Possible selves
tions of how their grown children receiving the greatest research atten adulthood and old age: A tale of shifting horizons,
CD.
have "turned out" and how these Psychology and Aging, 6, 286-295 (1991);
tion) and those who possess psycho Keyes, The structure of psycholog
Ryff and C.L.M.
children compare with the parents logical well-being is ical
perhaps a sig well-being revisited, Journal of Personality and
In later the Social Psychology (in
themselves. life, physical nificant and neglected category of press).
M.W. Riley and J. Riley, Longevity and social structure: The
6.
health problems of aging women, people: individuals who are not potential of the added years, inOur
Paradox and A.
combined with their assessments of Aging Society: Promise, Pifer and L.
troubled by psychological dysfunc
Bonte, Eds. (W.W. Norton, New York, 1986).
how they compare with other older tion, but who, nonetheless, lack 7. B.R. Strickland, Women and depression,
of the positive
in
women, explain substantial varia many psychological Current Directions Psychological Science, 1,
132-135 (1992).
tion (16%-27%) of reports of per goods in life. The absence of the

Copyright ? 1995 American

Psychological Society
 104 VOLUME 4, NUMBER 4, AUGUST 1995
8. H.R. Markus and S. Culture and midlife, unpublished manuscript, University of Wis and Essex, The of
Kitayama, Ryff M.J. interpretation life expe

the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and consin, Madison(1995). rience and well-being: The
sample case of reloca
T.S.
motivation, Psychological Review, 98, 224-253 10. R.M. Hauser, W.H. Sewell, J.A. Logan, tion, Psychology and Aging, 7, 507-517 (1992);
H.C A. and M.M. Y.H.
(1991); Triandis, The self and social behavior Hauser, CD. Ryff, Caspi, MacDonald, CD. Ryff, Lee, M.J. Essex, and P.S. Schmutte,
in cultural Psychological Review, The Wisconsin Longitudinal Adults as My children and me: Mid-life evaluations of grown
differing contexts, Study: parents
96, 506-520 (1989); R.A. Shweder and M.A. Sulli and children at age 50, ?ASSISTQuarterly, 16,
23 children and of self,
Psychology
and
Aging, 9, 195
van, Cultural psychology: Who needs it?Annual Re 38 (1992); S.M. Heidrich and CD. Ryff, The role of 205 (1994); S. Tweed and CD. Ryff, Adult children
in the
view of Psychology, 44, 497-523 (1993). social comparisons processes psychological of alcoholics: Profiles of Wellness and distress, Jour
Y.H.
9. CD. Ryff, Lee, and K.C Na, Through adaptation of elderly adults, of
Journal Gerontology, nal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 133-141 (1991).
the lens of culture: Psychological well-being at 48, P127-P136 (1993); and note
Ryff Essex, 1;CD.

from visible speech, but even indi

Faces
Perceiving Talking viduals with normal hearing are in
If
Dominic W. Massaro and Michael M. Cohen fluenced by these visible cues. you
make an auditory tape of the non
sense sentence "My bab pop me
poo brive," and dub itonto a video
No one doubts the importance of how both tape of someone saying, "My gag
people perceive speech by
the face in social interactions, but ear
and eye. kok me koo grive," a viewer will be
people seldom think of it as playing likely to hear, "My dad taught me to
much of a role in verbal communi drive." In this example, first created
cation. A number of observations
PERCEIVINGSPOKEN by Harry McGurk,1 the nonsense
suggest otherwise, though: Many
LANGUAGE from each of the two modalities was
people dislike talking over the tele selected to approximate the mean
phone and are irritated by poorly ingful sentence. Auditory "brive"
Although people take under
dubbed foreign films. Some people
standing speech for granted, it is an provides strong support for "brive"
even comment that they hear the amazing accomplishment. No com but also some support for "drive."
television better with their glasses Similarly, visual "grive" provides
puter has been programmed to un
on. Children born blind learn some support for both "grive" and
derstand speech as well as a 3-year
speech distinctions more slowly
old child. One reason people are "drive," and very little support for
than their sighted
cohorts. It has such experts is their ability to use "brive." In this case, "drive" is the
been well known for some time that many different cues to disambiguate best interpretation because it has
the deaf and hearing impaired can a substantial support from both the au
message. Some stimulus cues are
make valuable use of lipreading, ditory and the visual sources of in
contained in the speech signal, and
which is better termed speechread others are present in the situational formation. A similar analysis can be
but more
ing, recently investigators have shown and linguistic context. An example given for the other segments that
that even people with of an auditory cue is the /s/ in sin; have conflicting auditory and visual

normal are greatly influ this sound has a particular noise information. The perceiver naturally
hearing
enced by the visible speech in face quality that differs from that of the III combines the auditory and visual
to-face communication. Our re cues sentences into something meaning
in shin. Contextual from the
search is aimed at understanding word and sentence can also be im ful because the auditory and visual
Dominic W. Massaro is Professor portant. For example, if the Isl seg inputs are both reasonably consis
is a tent with the sentence.
ment in legislature replaced by meaningful
musical tone, a listener may still per Although this example involves
of and Michael M. Co
Psychology ceive the word as intact. Even less of the interpretation of a sentence, the
hen is Research Associate in the the word is for research we present addresses more
Department of Psychology, Uni necessary recognition
when it is spoken in a sentence, directly the perception of a single
versity of California, Santa Cruz.
such as "The governor gave an ad speech segment without meaning.
Address correspondence to Domi
nic W. Massaro, of dress to the state_." Our research is carried out in the
Department
In face-to-face communication, framework of a fuzzy logical model
Psychology, University of Califor
nia, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; there are also cues important
avail of perception (FLMP).2 The central
e-mail: able from the face, lips, and tongue assumption of this approach is that
[email protected]; is
URL: of the speaker. Of course, hearing perceiving speech fundamentally
WWW http://mambo.ucsc. a pattern recognition problem.
edu/psl/dwm.html. impaired persons benefit greatly

Published Press
by Cambridge University