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MATHEMATICS
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 10
Authors, Editors and Reviewers:
C.K. Bansal (B.Sc., M.A.)

Rachel Mary Z. (B.Sc.)
Mesaye Demessie (M.Sc.)
Gizachew Atnaf (M.Sc.)
Tesfa Biset (M.Sc.)
Evaluators:
Tesfaye Ayele
Dagnachew Yalew
Tekeste Woldetensai
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Published E.C. 2002 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,
Ministry of Education, under the General Education Quality
Improvement Project (GEQIP) supported by IDA Credit No. 4535-ET,
the Fast Track Initiative Catalytic Fund and the Governments of Finland,
Italy, Netherlands and the United Kingdom.
© 2010 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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ISBN 978-99944-2-044-5
Contents
Unit 1 Polynomial Functions ............................. 1

1.1 Introduction to polynomial functions ....................... 2
1.2 Theorems on polynomials ........................................ 19
1.3 Zeros of a polynomial function ................................ 27
1.4 Graphs of polynomial functions .............................. 36
Key Terms ................................................... 50
Summary .................................................... 50
Review Exercises on Unit 1 ........................... 51
Unit 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . 53

5
4
y
y=e
y = ex
x
y=x
y=x
2.1 Exponents and logarithms ....................................... 54
3
2.2 The exponential functions and their graphs ........... 75
2 y = ln x
y = lnx
1
x
2.3 The logarithmic functions and their graphs ............ 84
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
2.4 Equations involving exponents and
-2
logarithms ................................................................ 92
-3
-4 2.5 Applications of exponential and logarithmic

functions .................................................................... 98
Key Terms .................................................. 104
Summary ................................................... 104
Review Exercises on Unit 2 .......................... 106
Unit 3 Solving Inequalities .............................. 111

y
4
3.1 Inequalities involving absolute value .................... 112
3
2
3.2 Systems of liner inequalities in two variables ........ 119
1 3.3 Quadratic inequalities............................................. 127
x
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 Key Terms .................................................. 140
-1
-2
Summary ................................................... 140
Review Exercises on Unit 3 .......................... 141
Unit 4 Coordinate Geometry ........................... 143

4.1 Distance between two points ................................. 144
4.2 Division of a line segment ....................................... 148
4.3 Equation of a line ..................................................... 153
4.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines ............................ 165
Key Terms ......................................... ............. 169
Summary ........................................... ............ 169
Review Exercises on Unit 4 .............................. 170
Unit 5 Trigonometric Functions ...................... 171

f(x)=
f(x) sin x
 = Sin(x) 5.1 Basic trigonometric functions ................................. 172
y
f(x)
 ==cos(x)
cos x
1
f(x)
5.2 The reciprocal functions of the basic
0.5
trigonometric functions .......................................... 201
0 x
- 0.5 5.3 Simple trigonometric identities ............................... 207
-1
-2π π - 0 π π 2π 5.4 Real life application problems ............................... 213
Key Terms ......................................... ............. 219
Summary ........................................... ............ 219
Unit 6 Plane Geometry ................................... 225

6.1 Theorems on triangles ............................................. 226
6.2 Special quadrilaterals ............................................. 239
6.3 More on circles ........................................................ 246
6.4 Regular polygons .................................................... 261
Key Terms ......................................... ............. 265
Summary ........................................... ............ 266
Unit 7 Measurement ....................................... 269

7.1 Revision on surface areas and volumes of prisms
and cylinders ........................................................... 270
7.2 Pyramids, cones and spheres ................................ 277
7.3 Frustums of pyramids and cones ........................... 284
7.4 Surface areas and volumes of composed solids.. 294
Key Terms ......................................... ............. 298
Summary ........................................... ............ 298
Table of Trigonometric Functions..................................... 301
Table of Common Logarithms ......................................... 302
Unit
Polynomial functions are the most widely used functions in
Mathematics. They arise naturally in many applications.
Essentially, the graph of a polynomial function has no breaks
and gaps. It describes smooth curves as shown in the figure
above.
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define polynomial functions.
perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials.
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems.
determine the number of rational and irrational zeros of a polynomial.
sketch and analyse the graphs of polynomial functions.
Main Contents
1.1 Introduction to polynomial functions
1.2 Theorems on polynomials
1.3 Zeros of polynomial functions
1.4 Graphs of polynomial functions
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 10
INTRODUCTION
There is an extremely important family of functions in mathematics called polynomial
functions.
Stated quite simply, polynomial functions are functions with x as an input variable,
consisting of the sum of several terms, each term is a product of two factors, the first
being a real number coefficient and the second being x raised to some non-negative
integer power.
In this unit you will be looking at the different components of polynomial functions.
These are theorems on polynomial functions; zeros of a polynomial function; and
graphs of polynomial functions. Basically the graph of a polynomial function is a
smooth and continuous curve. However, you will be going over how to use its degree
(even or odd) and the leading coefficient to determine the end behaviour of its graph.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL

FUNCTIONS
OPENING PROBLEM
Obviously, the volume of water in any dam fluctuates from season to season. An
engineer suggests that the volume of the water (in giga litres) in a certain dam after
t-months (starting 1st September) is described by the model:
v (t) = 450 – 170t + 22t2 – 0.6t3
Electric Power Corporation rules that if the volume falls below 200 giga litres, its side-
wise project, “irrigation”, is prohibited. During which months, if any, was irrigation
prohibited in the last 12 months?
Recall that, a function f is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first
element, which means that for any given x in the domain of f, there is a unique pair
(x, y) belonging to the function f.
In Unit 4 of Grade 9 mathematics, you have discussed functions such as:
2 1
f ( x) = x + , g (x) = 5 – 3x, h (x) = 8x and l ( x) = − 3x + 2.7.
3 2
Such functions are linear functions.
A function f is a linear function, if it can be written in the form
f (x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0,
where a and b are real numbers.
2
Unit 1 Polynomial Functions
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers and the range is also the set of all real
numbers.
If a = 0, then f is called a constant function. In this case,
f (x) = b.
This function has the set of all real numbers as its domain and {b} as its range.
Also recall what you studied about quadratic functions. Each of the following
functions is a quadratic function.
1 2
f (x) = x2 + 7x – 12, g (x) = 9 + x , h (x) = – x2 + π, k (x) = x2,
4
l (x) = 2 (x – 1)2 + 3, m (x) = (x + 2) (1 – x)
If a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0, then the function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic function.
Since the expression ax2 + bx + c represents a real number for any real number x, the
domain of a quadratic function is the set of all real numbers. The range of a quadratic
function depends on the values of a , b and c.
Exercise 1.1
1 In each of the following cases, classify the function as constant, linear, quadratic,
or none of these:
a f (x) = 1 – x2 b h (x) = 2 x−1

4
c h (x) = 3 + 2x d g (x) = 5 – x
5
−1
2
e f (x)= 2 3 f f (x) =  
3
g h (x) = 1 − | x | h f (x) = (1 – 2 x ) (1 + 2 x)
3
i k (x) = (12 + 8x) j f (x) = 12x−1
4
( x + 1) (x − 2)
k l ( x) = l f ( x) = x4 − x +1
x − 2
2 For what values of a, b, and c is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c a constant, a linear or a
quadratic function?
3
1.1.1 Definition of a Polynomial Function

Constant, linear and quadratic functions are all special cases of a wider class of
functions called polynomial functions.
Definition 1.1
Let n be a non-negative integer and let an, an – 1, . . ., a1, ao be real
numbers with an ≠ 0. The function
p(x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao
is called a polynomial function in variable x of degree n.
Note that in the definition of a polynomial function

p (x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao
i an , an – 1, an – 2, . . ., a1 , ao are called the coefficients of the polynomial function
(or simply the polynomial).
ii The number an is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial function and
anxn is the leading term.
iii The number a0 is called the constant term of the polynomial.
iv The number n (the exponent of the highest power of x), is the degree of the
polynomial.
Note that the domain of a polynomial function is R.
Example 1 Which of the following are polynomial functions? For those which are
polynomials, find the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term.
2 7 x
a f (x) = x4 – 12x2 + x + b f (x) =
3 8 x
c g (x) = ( x + 1) 2 d f (x) = 2x–4 + x2 + 8x + 1
x2 + 1 8 15
e k (x) = f g (x) = x
x2 + 1 5
6
g f (x) = (1 – 2 x ) (1 + 2 x) h k ( y) =
y
Solution:
2
a It is a polynomial function of degree 4 with leading coefficient and
3
7
constant term .
8
b It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not R.
4
g ( x) = ( x + 1) = x + 1 , so it is not a polynomial function because it

2
c
cannot be written in the form g (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao.
d It is not a polynomial function because one of its terms has a negative
exponent.
x2 + 1
e k (x) = 2 = 1, so it is a polynomial function of degree 0 with leading
x +1
coefficient 1 and constant term 1.
8
f It is a polynomial function of degree 15 with leading coefficient and
5
constant term 0.
g It is a polynomial function of degree 2 with leading coefficient – 2 and constant
term 1.
h It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not R.
A polynomial expression in x is an expression of the form

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + . . . + a1 x + ao
where n is a non negative integer and an≠ 0. Each individual expression ak xk making up
the polynomial is called a term.
ACTIVITY 1.1
x2 + 3 − 6 x4 7
1 For the polynomial expression + x − x3 ,
4 8
a what is the degree? b what is the leading coefficient?
c what is the coefficient of x3? d what is the constant term?
2 A match box has length x cm, width x + 1 cm and height 3 cm,
a Express its surface area as a function of x.
b What is the degree and the constant term of the polynomial obtained above?
We can restate the definitions of linear and quadratic functions using the terminology
for polynomials. Linear functions are polynomial functions of degree 1. Nonzero
constant functions are polynomial functions of degree 0. Similarly, quadratic
functions are polynomial functions of degree 2. The zero function, p (x) = 0, is also
considered to be a polynomial function but is not assigned a degree at this level.
Note that in expressing a polynomial, we usually omit all terms which appear with zero
coefficients and write others in decreasing order, or increasing order, of their exponents.
5
x 2 − 2 x5 + 8 7
Example 2 For the polynomial function p(x) = + x − x3 ,
4 8
a what is its degree? b find an, an – 1 , an – 2 and a2.
c what is the constant term? d what is the coefficient of x?
x 2 − 2 x5 + 8 7 x2 2 5 8 7
Solution: p(x) = + x−x =
3
− x + + x − x3
4 8 4 4 4 8
1 5 3 1 2 7
= – x −x + x + x +2
2 4 8
a The degree is 5.
−1 1
b an = a5 = , an –1 = a4 = 0, an – 2 = a3 = –1 and a2 = .
2 4
c The constant term is 2.
7
d The coefficient of x is .
8
Although the domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers, you may
have to set a restriction on the domain because of other circumstances. For example, in
a geometrical application, if a rectangle is x centimetres long, and p (x) is the area of the
rectangle, the domain of the function p is the set of positive real numbers. Similarly, in a
population function, the domain is the set of positive integers.
has, a polynomial function p is said to
Based on the types of coefficients it has,
be:
a polynomial function over integers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all integers.
a polynomial function over rational numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all
rational numbers.
a polynomial function over real numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all real
numbers.
Remark: Every polynomial function that we will consider in this unit is a polynomial
function over the real numbers.
2 4 7
For example, if g ( x ) =x − 13 x 2 + , then g is a polynomial function over rational and
3 8
real numbers, but not over integers.
If p (x) can be written in the form, anxn + an –1 xn – 1 + ... + a1 x + ao, then different
expressions can define the same polynomial function.
6
For example, the following expressions all define the same polynomial function as
1 2
x −x.
2
x2 − 2 x 1 1 2 1 
a b − x + x2 c ( x − 2 x) d x  x − 1
2 2 2 2 
Any expression which defines a polynomial function is called a polynomial expression.
Example 3 For the polynomial expression 6x3 – x5 + 2x + 1,
a what is the degree? b what is the coefficient of x3?
c what is the leading coefficient? d what is the constant term?

Solution:
a The degree is 5. b The coefficient of x3 is 6.
c The leading coefficient is – 1. d The constant term is 1.
Consider the functions f ( x) =

( x + 3)( x − 1) and g(x) = x + 3.
x −1
When f is simplified it gives f (x) = x + 3, where x ≠ 1. As the domain of f is not the set
of all real numbers, f is not a polynomial function. But the domain of g is the set of all
real numbers. The functions f and g have different domains and you can conclude that f
and g are not the same functions.
When you are testing an expression to check whether or not it defines a polynomial
function, you must be careful and watch the domain of the function defined by it.
Exercise 1.2
1 Which of the following are polynomial functions?
a f (x) = 3x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 9 b f (x) = x25 + 1
1 2 2
c f (x) = 3x–3 + 2x–2 + x + 4 d f (y) = y + y+1
3 3
3 2
e f (t ) = + 2 f f (y) = 108 – 95y
t t
g f (x) = 312x6 h f (x) = 3x2 − x3 + 2
7
4 x 2 − 5 x3 + 6
i f (x) = 3x + x + 3 j f (x) =
8
3 18
k f (x) = l f (y) =
6+ x y
a x
m f (a) = n f (x) =
2a 12
1
o f (x) = 0 p f (a) = a 2 + 3a + a2
9 83 4
q f (x) = x + 54 x97 + π r f (t) = − 2π
17 7
 2  3
s f (x) = (1 – x) (x + 2) t g ( x) =  x −  x + 
 3  4
2 Give the degree, the leading coefficient and the constant term of each polynomial
function in Question 1 above.
3 Which of the polynomial functions in Question 1 above are:
a polynomial functions over integers?
b polynomial functions over rational numbers?
c polynomial functions over real numbers?
4 Which of the following are polynomial expressions?
( x + 3) 2
a 2 3−x b y (y – 2) c
x+3
( y − 3) ( y −1) (t − 5) (t − 1)
d y 2 + 3 + 2 − 3y3 e f
2 t −1
( x − 3) ( x 2 + 1) x2 + 4
g h y + 2y – 3y i
x2 + 1 x2 + 4
5 An open box is to be made from a 20 cm long
square piece of material, by cutting equal
squares of length x cm from the corners and
turning up the sides as shown in Figure 1.1. x
x
a Verify that the volume of the box is given
x
by the function v (x) = 4x3 – 80x2 + 400x.
b Determine the domain of v.
Figure 1.1
8
1.1.2 Operations on Polynomial Functions

Recall that, in algebra, the fundamental operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. The first step in performing operations on polynomial
functions is to use the commutative, associative and distributive laws in order to
combine like terms together.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1 What are like terms? Give an example.
2 Are 8a2, 2a3 and 5a like terms? Explain.
3 For any three real numbers a, b and c, determine whether each of the following
statements is true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
a a – (b + c) = a – b + c b a + (b – c) = a + b – c
c a – (b – c) = a – b + c d a – (b – c ) = a – b – c
4 Verify each of the following statements:
a (4x + a) + (2a – x) = 3 (a + x)
b 5x2 y + 2xy2 – (x2y – xy2) = 4x2y + 3xy2
c 8a – (b + 9a) = – (a + b)
d 2x – 4 (x – y) + (y – x) = 5y – 3x
5 If f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + 1 and g (x) = x2 – x – 1, then which of the following
statements are true?
a f (x) + g (x) = x3 + x2 – x b f (x) – g (x) = x3 – 3x2 + x + 2
c g (x) – f (x) = 3x2 + x3 – x – 2 d f (x) – g (x) ≠ g (x) – f (x).
6 If f and g are polynomial functions of degree 3, then which of the following is
necessarily true?
a f + g is of degree 3. b f + g is of degree 6.
c 2f is of degree 3. d fg is of degree 6.
Addition of polynomial functions

You can add polynomial functions in the same way as you add real numbers. Simply
add the like terms by adding their coefficients. Note that like terms are terms having the
same variables to the same powers but possibly different coefficients.
9
For example, if f (x) = 5x4 – x3 + 8x – 2 and g (x) = 4x3 – x2 − 3x + 5, then the sum of
f (x) and g (x) is the polynomial function:
f (x) + g (x) = (5x4 – x3 + 8x – 2) + (4x3 – x2 – 3x + 5)
= 5x4 + (–x3 + 4x3) – x2 + (8x – 3x) + (–2 + 5) . . . (grouping like terms)
= 5x4 + (4 – 1)x3 – x2 + (8 – 3) x + (5 – 2) . . . . . . (adding their coefficients)
= 5x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 5x + 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (combining like terms).
Therefore, the sum f (x) + g (x) = 5x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 5x + 3 is a polynomial of degree 4.
The sum of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f + g, and is defined as:
f + g : (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 4 In each of the following, find the sum of f (x) and g (x):
2 2 1 1
a f (x) = x3 + x – x + 3 and g (x) = −x3 + x2 + x − 4 .
3 2 3
b f (x) = 2x5 + 3x4 – 2 2x3 + x – 5 and g (x) = x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 6x + 8.
Solution:
2 2 1  3 1 2 
a f (x) + g (x) = (x3 + x − x + 3) +  −x + x + x − 4 
3 2  3 
2 1   1 
= (x3 – x3) +  x 2 + x 2  +  − x + x  + (3 − 4) . . . (grouping like terms)
3 3   2 
 2 1  1
= (1 – 1)x3 +  +  x 2 + 1 −  x + ( 3 − 4 ) . . (adding their coefficients)
 3 3  2
1
= x2 + x − 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (combining like terms)
2
1
So, f (x) + g (x) = x2 + x – 1, which is a polynomial of degree 2.
2
b f (x) + g (x) = (2x5 + 3x4 – 2 2x3 + x – 5) + (x4 + 2 x3 + x2 + 6 x + 8)
= 2x5 + (3x4 + x4) + (_2 2 x3 + 2 x3 ) + x 2 + (x + 6x) + ( − 5 + 8)
= 2x5 + (3 + 1)x4 + (–2 2 + 2 )x3 + x2 + (1 + 6) x + (8 – 5)

= 2x5 + 4x4 – 2 x3 + x2 + 7x + 3
So, f (x) + g (x) = 2x5 + 4x4 – 2 x3 + x2 + 7x + 3, which is a polynomial function
of degree 5.
10
ACTIVITY 1.3
1 What do you observe in Example 4 about the degree of f + g?
2 Is the degree of (f + g) (x) equal to the degree of f (x) or g (x),
whichever has the highest degree?
3 If f (x) and g (x) have same degree, then the degree of (f + g) (x) might be lower
than the degree of f (x) or the degree of g (x).Which part of Example 4 illustrates
this situation? Why does this happen?
4 What is the domain of (f + g) (x)?
Subtraction of polynomial functions

To subtract a polynomial from a polynomial, subtract the coefficients of the
corresponding like terms. So, whichever term is to be subtracted, its sign is changed and
then the terms are added.
For example, if f (x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7 and g (x) = 8x2 – x3 + 4x + 5, then the difference
of f (x) and g (x) is the polynomial function:
f (x) – g (x) = (2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7) – (8x2 – x3 + 4x + 5)
= 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7 – 8x2 + x3 – 4x – 5 . . . . . . (removing brackets)
= (2 + 1) x3+(–5 – 8) x2+(1 – 4)x + (–7 – 5) . .(adding coefficients of like terms)
= 3x3 – 13x2 – 3x – 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(combining like terms)
The difference of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f – g, and is defined as:
(f − g) : (f – g) (x) = f (x) − g (x), for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 5 In each of the following, find f – g;
a f (x) = x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4 and g (x) = x4 – x3 + 5x2 + 6x
b f (x) = x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1 and g (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 6x – 9
Solution:
a f (x) – g (x) = (x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4) – (x4 – x3 + 5x2 + 6x)
= x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4 –x4 + x3 –5x2 – 6x……....(removing brackets)
= (1 – 1)x4 + (3 + 1)x3 + (–1 – 5)x2 – 6x + 4..(adding their
coefficients)
= 4x3 – 6x2 – 6x + 4 ......................................(combining like terms)
Therefore, the difference is a polynomial function of degree 3,
f (x) – g (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 6x + 4
11
b f (x) – g (x) = (x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1) – (x3 + 2x2 + 6x – 9 )

= x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1 – x3 – 2x2 – 6x + 9
= x5 + (2x3 – x3) – 2x2 + (–8x – 6x) + (1 + 9)
= x5 + (2 – 1)x3 – 2x2 + (–8 – 6) x + (1 + 9)
= x5 + x3 – 2x2 – 14x + 10
Therefore the difference f (x) – g (x) = x5 + x3 – 2x2 – 14x + 10, which is a
polynomial function of degree 5.
Note that if the degree of f is not equal to the degree of g, then the degree of (f – g) (x) is the
degree of f (x) or the degree of g (x), whichever has the highest degree. If they have the
same degree, however, the degree of (f – g) (x) might be lower than this common degree
when they have the same leading coefficient as illustrated in Example 5a.
Multiplication of polynomial functions

To multiply two polynomial functions, multiply each term of one by each term of the
other, and collect like terms.
For example, let f (x) = 2x3 – x2 + 3x – 2 and g (x) = x2 – 2x + 3. Then the product of
f (x) and g (x) is a polynomial function:
f (x) . g (x) = (2x3 – x2 + 3x – 2)⋅(x2 – 2x + 3)
= 2x3(x2 − 2x + 3) − x2(x2 − 2x + 3) + 3x(x2−2x + 3)−2(x2 − 2x +3)
= 2x5 – 4x4 + 6x3 – x4 +2x3 – 3x2 +3x3 – 6x2 + 9x – 2x2 + 4x – 6
= 2x5 + (–4x4 – x4) + (6x3 + 2x3 + 3x3) + (–3x2 – 6x2 – 2x2) + (9x + 4x) – 6
= 2x5 – 5x4 + 11x3 – 11x2 + 13x – 6
The product of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f⋅g, and is defined as:
f⋅g : (f⋅g) (x) = f (x)⋅g(x), for all x ∈ ℝ.
Example 6 In each of the following, find f . g and give the degree of f . g :
3 2 9
a f (x) = x + , g (x) = 4xb f (x) = x2 + 2x, g (x) = x5 + 4x2 – 2
4 2
3 9
Solution: a f (x).g (x) =  x 2 +  .(4 x) = 3x3+18x
4 2
So, the product (f.g) (x) = 3x3 + 18x has degree 3.
12
b f (x).g (x) = (x2 + 2x).(x5 + 4x2 – 2)

= x2 (x5 + 4x2 – 2) + 2x (x5 + 4x2 – 2)
= x7 + 2x6 + 4x4 + 8x3 – 2x2 – 4x
So, the product (f⋅g) (x) = x7 + 2x6 + 4x4 + 8x3 – 2x2 – 4x has degree 7.
In Example 6, you can see that the degree of f⋅g is the sum of the degrees of the two
polynomial functions f and g.
To find the product of two polynomial functions, we can also use a vertical arrangement
for multiplication.
Example 7 Let f (x) = 3x2 – 2x3 + x5 – 8x + 1 and g (x) = 5 + 2x2 + 8x. Find f (x). g (x)
and the degree of the product.
Solution: To find the product, f.g, first rearrange each polynomial in descending
powers of x as follows:
x5 – 2x3 + 3x2 – 8x + 1 Like terms are written
2x2 + 8x + 5 in the same column.
5x5 + 0x4 –10x3 + 15x2 – 40x + 5 . . . . .(multiplying by 5)

8x6 + 0x5 – 16x4 + 24x3 – 64x2 + 8x . . . . . . . .(multiplying by 8x)
2x7 + 0x6 – 4x5 + 6x4 – 16x3 + 2x2 …. (multiplying by 2x2)
2x7 + 8x6 + x5 – 10x4 – 2x3 – 47x2 – 32x + 5 . ......(adding vertically.)
Thus, f (x).g (x) = 2x7 + 8x6 + x5 – 10x4 – 2x3 – 47x2 – 32x + 5 and hence the
degree of f.g is 7.
ACTIVITY 1.4
1 For any non-zero polynomial function, if the degree of f is m
and the degree of g is n, then what is the degree of f .g?
2 If either f or g is the zero polynomial, what is the degree of f .g?
3 Is the product of two or more polynomials always a polynomial?
Example 8 (Application of polynomial functions)
A person wants to make an open box by cutting equal squares from the corners of
a piece of metal 160 cm by 240 cm as shown in Figure 1.2. If the edge of each
cut-out square is x cm, find the volume of the box, when x = 1 and x = 3.
13
160 cm
160 – 2x
x 240 – 2x x
x x
240 cm
160 – 2x
240 – 2x
Figure 1.2
Solution: The volume of a rectangular box is equal to the product of its length,
width and height. From the Figure 1.2, the length is 240 – 2x, the width is
160 – 2x, and the height is x. So the volume of the box is
v (x) = (240 – 2x) (160 – 2x) (x)
= (38400 – 800x + 4x2) (x)
= 38400x – 800x2 + 4x3(a polynomial of degree 3)
When x = 1, the volume of the box is v (1) = 38400 – 800 + 4 = 37604 cm3
When x = 3, the volume of the box is
v (3) = 38400 (3) – 800 (3)2 + 4 (3)3 = 115200 – 7200 + 108 = 108,108 cm3
Division of polynomial functions

It is possible to divide a polynomial by a polynomial using a long division process
similar to that used in arithmetic.
Look at the calculations below, where 939 is being divided by 12.
7 78
12 939 12 939
84 84
99 99
96
3
14
The second division can be expressed by an equation which says nothing about division.
939 3
939 = (78 × 12) + 3. Observe that, 939 ÷ 12 = 78 + (3÷12) or = 78 + .
12 12
Here 939 is the dividend, 12 is the divisor, 78 is the quotient and 3 is the remainder of
the division. What we actually did in the above calculation was to continue the process
as long as the quotient and the remainder are integers and the remainder is less than the
divisor.
ACTIVITY 1.5
x2 − x + 2 4
1 Consider the following: f (x) = = x +1+ . Which
x−2 x−2
polynomials do you think we should call the divisor, dividend,
quotient and remainder?
2 Divide x3 + 1 by x + 1. (You should see that the remainder is 0)
3 When do we say the division is exact?
4 What must be true about the degrees of the dividend and the divisor before you
can try to divide polynomials?
5 Suppose the degree of the dividend is n and the degree of the divisor is m. If
n > m, then what will be the degree of the quotient?
When should we stop dividing one polynomial by another? Look at the three
calculations below:
3
x x+2 x+2+
x +1
x+1 x2 + 3x + 5 x + 1 x2 + 3x + 5 2
x + 1 x + 3x + 5
x2 + x x2 + x x2 + x
2x + 5 2x + 5 2x + 5
2x + 2 2x + 2
3 3
3
0
The first division above tells us that
x2 + 3x + 5 = x (x + 1) + 2x + 5.
It holds true for all values of x ≠ –1. In the middle one of the three divisions, you
continued as long as you got a quotient and remainder which are both polynomials.
15
When you are asked to divide one polynomial by another, stop the division process
when you get a quotient and remainder that are polynomials and the degree of the
remainder is less than the degree of the divisor.
Study the example below to divide 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 by x – 2.
x2
Think =x
x
2x 3 6x
Think = 2x2 Think =6
x x
2x2 + x + 6 Quotient
Divisor x – 2 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 Dividend
2x3 – 4x2 multiply 2x2 (x – 2)
x2 + 4x + 7 subtract
x2 – 2x multiply x (x – 2)
6x + 7 subtract
6x – 12 multiply 6 (x – 2)
Remainder 19 subtract
So, dividing 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 by x – 2 gives a quotient of 2x2 + x + 6 and a

2 x3 − 3x2 + 4 x + 7 19
remainder of 19. That is, = 2x2 + x + 6 +
x−2 x−2
The quotient (division) of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f ÷ g, and is
defined as:
f ÷ g : ( f ÷ g) (x) = f (x) ÷ g (x), provided that g (x) ≠ 0, for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 9 Divide 4x3 – 3x + 5 by 2x – 3
Solution: 2x2 + 3x + 3 Arrange the dividend and the divisor in
3 2 descending powers of x.
2x – 3 4x + 0x – 3x + 5
Insert (with 0 coefficients) for missing terms.
4x3 – 6x2
Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
6x2 – 3x + 5 term of the divisor.
6x2 – 9x Multiply the divisor by 2x2, line up like terms
6x + 5 and, subtract
Repeat the process until the degree of the
6x – 9
remainder is less than that of the divisor.
Remainder 14
Therefore, 4x3 – 3x + 5 = (2x2 + 3x + 3) (2x – 3) + 14
16
Example 10 Find the quotient and remainder when

x5 + 4x3 – 6x2 – 8 is divided by x2 + 3x + 2.
Solution:
x 3 − 3 x 2 + 11x − 33
x 2 + 3 x + 2 x5 + 0 x 4 + 4 x3 − 6 x 2 + 0 x − 8
x5 + 3x 4 + 2 x3
−3 x 4 + 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 0 x − 8
−3 x 4 − 9 x 3 − 6 x 2
11x 3 + 0 x 2 + 0 x − 8
11x 3 + 33 x 2 + 22 x
−33 x 2 − 22 x − 8
−33 x 2 − 99 x − 66
77 x + 58
3 2
Therefore the quotient is x – 3x + 11x – 33 and the remainder is 77x + 58
x5 + 4 x3 − 6 x 2 − 8 77 x + 58
We can write the result as = x3 − 3x2 + 11x − 33 + 2 .
x + 3x + 2
2
x + 3x + 2
Group Work 1.1

1 Find two polynomial functions f and g both of degree three
with f + g of degree one. What relations do you observe
between the leading coefficients of f and g?
f
2 Given f (x) = x + 2 and g (x) = ax + b, find all values of a and b so that is a
g
polynomial function.
Given polynomial functions g (x) = x + 3, q (x) = x − 5 and r ( x) = 2 x + 1 , find a
2 2
3
f ( x) r ( x)
function f (x) such that = q ( x) + .
g ( x) g ( x)
Exercise 1.3
1 Write each of the following expressions, if possible, as a polynomial in the form
anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao:
a (x2 – x – 6) – (x + 2) b (x2 – x – 6)(x + 2)
2 x2 − x − 6
c (x + 2) – (x – x – 6) d
x+2
x+2
e f (x2 – x – 6)2
x − x−6
2
g
x–3
2 + 23 – x h (2x + 3)2
i (x2 – x + 1)(x2 – 3x + 5) j (x3 – x4 + 2x + 1) – (x4 + x3 – 2x2 + 8)
17
2 Let f and g be polynomial functions such that f (x) = x2 – 5x + 6 and g (x) = x2 – x + 3.

Which of the following functions are also polynomial functions?
f
a f+g b g–f c f⋅g d
g
e f −g
2
f 2f + 3g g f2
3 If f and g are any two polynomial functions, which of the following will always be
a polynomial function?
f
a f+g b f–g c f⋅g d
g
3 1 f −g
e f2 f g− f g
4 3 f +g
4 In each of the following, find f + g and f – g and give the degree of f, the degree of
g, the degree of f + g and the degree of f – g:
2
a f (x) = 3x – ; g (x) = 2x + 5
3
b f (x) = –7x2 + x – 8; g (x) = 2x2 – x + 1
c f (x) = 1 – x3 + 6x2 – 8x; g (x) = x3 + 10
5 In each of the following,
i find the function f⋅g.
ii give the degree of f and the degree of g.
iii give the degree of f⋅g.
a f (x) = 2x + 1; g (x) = 3x – 5
b f (x) = x2 – 3x + 5; g (x) = 5x + 3
c f (x) = 2x3 – x – 7; g (x) = x2 + 2x
d f (x) = 0; g (x) = x3 – 8x2 + 9
6 In each of the following, divide the first polynomial by the second:
a x3 – 1; x – 1 b x3 + 1; x2 – x + 1
c x4 – 1; x2 + 1 d x5 + 1; x + 1
e 2x5 – x6 + 2x3 + 6; x3 – x – 2
7 For each of the following, find the quotient and the remainder:
a (5 – 6x + 8x2) ÷ (x – 1) b (x3 – 1) ÷ (x – 1)
c (3y – y2 + 2y3 – 1) ÷ (y2 + 1) d (3x4 + 2x3 – 4x – 1) ÷ (x + 3)
 2
e (3x3 – x2 + x + 2) ÷  x + 
 3
18
1.2 THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS

1.2.1 Polynomial Division Theorem
Recall that, when we divided one polynomial by another, we apply the long division
procedure, until the remainder was either the zero polynomial or a polynomial of lower
degree than the divisor.
For example, if we divide x2 + 3x + 7 by x + 1, we obtain the following.
x+2 quotient
2
Divisor x + 1 x + 3x + 7 dividend
2
x +x
2x + 7
2x + 2
5 remainder
In fractional form, we can write this result as follows:
dividend quotient remainder
x 2 + 3x + 7 5
=x+2+
x +1 x +1
divisor divisor
This implies that x2 + 3x + 7 = (x + 1) (x + 2) + 5 which illustrates the theorem called

the polynomial division theorem.
ACTIVITY 1.6
1 For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find q (x) and
r (x) that satisfy f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x).
a f (x) = x2 + x – 7; d (x) = x – 3 b f (x) = x3 – x2 + 8; d (x) = x + 2
c f (x) = x4 – x3 + x – 1; d (x) = x – 1
2 In Question 1, what did you observe about the degrees of the polynomial
functions f (x) and d (x)?
f ( x)
3 In Question 1, the fractional expression is improper. Why?
d ( x)
r ( x)
4 Is proper or improper? What can you say about the degree of r (x) and d (x)?
d ( x)
19
Theorem 1.1 Polynomial division theorem

If f(x) and d(x) are polynomials such that d(x) ≠ 0, and the degree of d(x)
is less than or equal to the degree of f(x), then there exist unique
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
f(x) = d(x) q(x) + r(x)
Dividend Quotient
Divisor Remainder
where r(x) = 0 or the degree of r (x) is less than the degree of d(x). If the
remainder r(x) is zero, f(x) divides exactly into d(x).
Proof:-
i Existence of the polynomials q (x) and r (x )
Since f (x) and d (x) are polynomials, long division of f (x) by d (x) will give a
quotient q(x) and remainder r (x), with degree of r (x) < degree of d (x) or r (x) = 0.
ii The uniqueness of q (x) and r (x )

To show the uniqueness of q (x) and r (x), suppose that
f (x) = d (x)q1(x) + r1(x) and also
f (x) = d (x)q2(x) + r2(x) with deg r1(x) < deg d (x) and deg r2(x) < deg d(x).
Then r2(x) = f (x) – d (x) q2(x) and r1(x) = f (x) – d (x) q1(x)
⇒ r2(x) – r1(x) = d (x) [q1(x) – q2(x)]
Therefore, d (x) is a factor of r2(x) – r1(x)
As deg (r2(x) – r1(x)) ≤ max {deg r1 ( x), deg r2 ( x)} < deg d (x) it follows that,
r2(x) – r1(x) = 0
As a result r1(x) = r2(x) and q1(x) = q2(x).
Therefore, q (x) and r (x) are unique polynomial functions.
20
Example 1 In each of the following pairs of polynomials, find polynomials q (x) and
r (x) such that f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x).
a f (x) = 2x3 – 3x + 1; d (x) = x + 2
b f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + x + 5; d (x) = x2 + 1
c f (x) = x4 + x2 – 2 ; d (x) = x2 – x + 3
Solution:
f ( x) 2 x 3 − 3x + 1 9
a = = 2 x2 − 4x + 5 −
d ( x) x+2 x+2
⇒ 2x3 − 3x + 1 = (x+2)(2x2 − 4x + 5) − 9
Therefore q (x) = 2x2 – 4x + 5 and r (x) = − 9.
f ( x) x3 − 2 x 2 + x + 5 7
b = = x−2+ 2
d ( x) x +1
2
x +1
⇒ x3 – 2x2 + x + 5 = (x2 + 1) (x – 2) + 7
Therefore q (x) = x – 2 and r (x) = 7.
f ( x) x4 + x2 − 2 −4 x + 1
c = = x2 + x −1 + 2
d ( x) x − x+3
2
x − x+3
⇒ x4 + x2 – 2 = (x2 – x + 3) (x2 + x – 1) + (–4x + 1)
giving us q (x) = x2 + x – 1 and r (x) = –4x + 1.
Exercise 1.4
1 For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find the quotient q (x) and
remainder r (x) that satisfy the requirements of the Polynomial Division Theorem:
a f (x) = x2 – x + 7; d (x) = x + 1
b f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x + 3; d (x) = x2 + x – 1
c f (x) = x2 + 8x – 12; d (x) = 2
2 In each of the following, express the function f (x) in the form
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + r (x) for the given number c.
1
a f (x) = x3 – 5x2 – x + 8; c = –2 b f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 2x – 14; c =
2
3 Perform the following divisions, assuming that n is a positive integer:
x3n + 5x2n + 12 xn + 18 x3n − x2n + 3xn − 10
a b
xn + 3 xn − 2
21
1.2.2 Remainder Theorem

The equality f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x) expresses the fact that
Dividend = (divisor) (quotient) + remainder.
ACTIVITY 1.7
1 Let f (x) = x4 – x3 – x2 – x – 2.
a Find f (_2) and f (2).
b What is the remainder if f (x) is divided by x + 2?
c Is the remainder equal to f (–2)?
d What is the remainder if f (x) is divided by x – 2?
e Is the remainder equal to f (2)?
2 In each of the following, find the remainder when the given polynomial f (x) is
divided by the polynomial x – c for the given number c. Also, find f (c).
a f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1; c = –1 b f (x) = x6 + 1; c = –1, 1
c f (x) = 3x3 – x4 + 2; c = 2 d f (x) = x3 – x + 1; c = –1, 1
Theorem 1.2 Remainder theorem

Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let c be
any real number. If f(x) is divided by the linear polynomial (x – c), then
the remainder is f(c).
Proof:-
When f (x) is divided by x – c, the remainder is always a constant. Why?
By the polynomial division theorem,
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + k
where k is constant. This equation holds for every real number x. Hence, it holds
when x = c.
In particular, if you let x = c, observe a very interesting and useful relationship:
f (c) = (c – c) q (c) + k
= 0. q (c) + k
=0+k=k
It follows that the value of the polynomial f (x) at x = c is the same as the remainder k
obtained when you divide f (x) by x – c.
22
Example 2 Find the remainder by dividing f (x) by d (x) in each of the following
pairs of polynomials, using the polynomial division theorem and the
remainder theorem:
a f (x) = x3 – x2 + 8x – 1; d (x) = x + 2
b f (x) = x4 + x2 + 2x + 5; d (x) = x – 1
Solution:
a Polynomial division theorem Remainder theorem
x3 − x 2 + 8 x − 1
f ( − 2 ) = ( − 2 ) − ( − 2 ) + 8 ( − 2 ) − 1,
3 2
x+2
29
= x2 − 3x + 14 − = –8 – 4 – 16 – 1 = –29
x+2
Therefore, the remainder is –29.
b Polynomial division theorem Remainder theorem
x4 + x2 + 2x + 5
f (1) = (1)4 + (1)2 + 2(1) + 5
x −1
9
= x3 + x2 + 2x + 4 + =1+1+2+5=9
x − 1
Therefore, the remainder is 9.
Example 3 When x3 – 2x2 + 3bx + 10 is divided by x – 3 the remainder is 37. Find
the value of b.
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + 3bx + 10.
f (3) = 37. (By the remainder theorem)
⇒ (3)3 – 2 (3)2 + 3b(3) + 10 = 37
27 – 18 + 9b + 10 = 37 ⇒ 9b + 19 = 37 ⇒ b = 2.
Exercise 1.5
1 In each of the following, express the function in the form
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + r (x)
for the given number c, and show that f (c) = k is the remainder.
a f (x) = x3 – x2 + 7x + 11; c = 2
b f (x) = 1 – x5 + 2x3 + x; c = –1
2
c f (x) = x4 + 2x3 + 5x2 + 1; c = −
3
23
2 In each of the following, use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder k
when the polynomial f (x) is divided by x – c for the given number c.
1
a f (x) = x17 – 1; c = 1 b f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1; c = −
2
c f (x) = x23 + 1; c = –1
3 When f (x) = 3x7 – ax6 + 5x3 – x + 11 is divided by x + 1, the remainder is 15.
What is the value of a?
4 When the polynomial f (x) = ax3 + bx2 – 2x + 8 is divided by x – 1 and x + 1 the
remainders are 3 and 5 respectively. Find the values of a and b.
1.2.3 Factor Theorem

Recall that, factorizing a polynomial means writing it as a product of two or more
polynomials. You will discuss below an interesting theorem, known as the factor
theorem, which is helpful in checking whether a linear polynomial is a factor of a
given polynomial or not.
ACTIVITY 1.8
1 Let f (x) = x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 8.
a Find f (2).
b What is the remainder when f (x) is divided by x – 2?
c Is x – 2 a factor of f (x)?
d Find f (–1) and f (1).
e Express f (x) as f (x) = (x – c) q (x) where q (x) is the quotient.
2 Let f (x) = x3 – 3x2 – x + 3.
a What are the values of f (–1), f (1) and f (3)?
b What does this tell us about the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 1, x – 1
and x – 3?
c How can this help us in factorizing f (x)?
Theorem 1.3 Factor theorem

Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one, and let c
be any real number, then
i x – c is a factor of f(x), if f(c) = 0, and
ii f(c) = 0, if x – c is a factor of f(x).
Try to develop a proof of this theorem using the remainder theorem.

24
Group Work 1.2
Let f ( x) = 4x − 5x + 1 .
4 2
1
a Find f (–1) and show that x + 1 is a factor of f (x).
b Show that 2x – 1 is a factor of f (x).
c Try to completely factorize f (x) into linear factors.
2 Give the proof of the factor theorem.
Hint: You have to prove that

i if f (c) = 0, then x – c is a factor of f (x)
ii if x – c is a factor of f (x), then f (c) = 0
Use the polynomial division theorem with factor (x – c) to express f
(x) as
f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x), where d (x) = x – c.
Use the remainder theorem r (x) = k = f (c), giving you
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + f (c)
where q (x) is a polynomial of degree less than the degree of f (x).
If f (c) = 0, then what will f (x) be? Complete the proof.
Example 4 Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6. Use the factor theorem to determine

whether:
a x + 1 is a factor of f (x) b x + 2 is a factor of f (x).
Solution:
a Since x + 1 = x – (–1), it has the form x – c with c = –1.
f (–1) = (–1)3 + 2(–1)2 – 5(–1) – 6 = –1 + 2 + 5 – 6 = 0.
So, by the factor theorem, x + 1 is a factor of f (x).
b f (–2) = (–2)3 + 2 (–2)2 – 5 (–2) – 6 = –8 + 8 + 10 – 6 = 4 ≠ 0.

By the factor theorem, x + 2 is not a factor of f (x).
Example 5 Show that x + 3, x – 2 and x + 1 are factors and x + 2 is not a factor of
f (x) = x4 + x3 – 7x2 – x + 6.
Solution: f (–3) = (–3)4 + (–3)3 – 7(–3)2 – (–3) + 6 = 81 – 27 – 63 + 3 + 6 = 0.
Hence x + 3 is a factor of f (x).
f (2) = 24 + (2)3 – 7 (2)2 – 2 + 6 = 16 + 8 – 28 – 2 + 6 = 0.
25
Hence x – 2 is a factor of f (x).

f (–1) = (–1)4 + (–1)3 – 7 (–1)2 – (–1) + 6 = 1 – 1 – 7 + 1 + 6 = 0
Hence x + 1 is a factor of f (x).
f (–2) = (–2)4 + (–2)3 – 7 (–2)2 – (–2) + 6 = 16 – 8 – 28 + 2 + 6 = –12 ≠ 0
Hence x + 2 is not a factor of f (x).
Exercise 1.6
1 In each of the following, use the factor theorem to determine whether or not g (x)
is a factor of f (x).
a g (x) = x +1; f (x) = x15 +1

b g (x) = x −1; f (x) = x7 + x −1
3
c g ( x) = x − ; f ( x) = 6 x 2 + x − 1
2
d g ( x) = x + 2; f ( x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 4 x − 12
2 In each of the following, find a number k satisfying the given condition:
a x − 2 is a factor of 3 x 4 − 8 x 2 − kx + 6
b x + 3 is a factor of x5 − kx 4 − 6 x3 − x 2 + 4 x + 29
c 3x − 2 is a factor of 6 x3 − 4 x 2 + kx − k
3 Find numbers a and k so that x – 2 is a factor of f (x) = x4 – 2ax3 + ax2 – x + k and
f (–1) = 3.
4 Find a polynomial function of degree 3 such that f (2) = 24 and x – 1, x and x + 2
are factors of the polynomial.
5 Let a be a real number and n a positive integer. Show that x – a is a factor of xn – an.
6 Show that x – 1 and x + 1 are factors and x is not a factor of 2x3 – x2 – 2x + 1.
7 In each of the following, find the constant c such that the denominator will divide
the numerator exactly:
x3 + 3 x 2 − 3 x + c x3 − 2 x 2 + x + c
a b .
x −3 x+2
The area of a rectangle in square feet is x + 13x + 36. How much longer is the
2
8
length than the width of the rectangle?
26
1.3 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

In this section, you will discuss an interesting concept known as zeros of a polynomial.
Consider the polynomial function f (x) = x – 1.
What is f (1)? Note that f (1) = 1 – 1 = 0.
As f (1) = 0, we say that 1 is the zero of the polynomial function f (x).
To find the zero of a linear (first degree polynomial) function of the form f (x) = ax + b,
a ≠ 0, we find the number x for which ax + b = 0.
Note that every linear function has exactly one zero.
ax + b = 0 ⇒ ax = –b ........ Subtracting b from both sides
b
⇒ x= − ........ Dividing both sides by a, since a ≠ 0.
a
b
Therefore, x = − is the only zero of the linear function f, whenever a ≠ 0.
a
2x −1 x + 2
Example 1 Find the zeros of the polynomial f ( x ) = − −2.
3 3
2x −1 x + 2
Solution: f ( x) = 0 ⇒ − =2
3 3
2x − 1−(x + 2) = 6 ⇒ 2x − 1− x − 2 = 6 ⇒ x = 9.
So, 9 is the zero of f (x).
Similarly, to find the zeros of a quadratic function (second degree polynomial) of the
form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, we find the number x for which
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0.
ACTIVITY 1.9
1 Find the zeros of each of the following functions:
3
a h (x) = 1 – (x + 2) b k (x) = 2 – (x2 – 4) + x2 – 4x
5
c f (x) = 4x2 – 25 d f (x) = x2 + x – 12
e f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + x f g (x) = x3 + x2 – x –1
2 How many zeros can a quadratic function have?
3 State techniques for finding zeros of a quadratic function.
4 How many zeros can a polynomial function of degree 3 have? What about degree 4?
Example 2 Find the zeros of each of the following quadratic functions:
a f (x) = x2 – 16 b g (x) = x2 – x – 6 c h (x) = 4x2 – 7x + 3
27
Solution:
a f (x) = 0 ⇒ x2 – 16 = 0 ⇒ x2 – 42 = 0 ⇒ (x – 4) (x + 4) = 0
⇒ x – 4 = 0 or x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = 4 or x = – 4
Therefore, – 4 and 4 are the zeros of f.
b g (x) = 0 ⇒ x2 – x – 6 = 0
Find two numbers whose sum is – 1 and whose product is – 6. These are – 3 and 2.
x2 – 3x + 2x – 6 = 0 ⇒ x (x – 3) + 2 (x – 3) = 0 ⇒ (x + 2) (x – 3) = 0
⇒ x + 2 = 0 or x – 3 = 0 ⇒ x = –2 or x = 3
Therefore, –2 and 3 are the zeros of g.
c h (x) = 0 ⇒ 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0
Find two numbers whose sum is –7 and whose product is 12. These are –4 and –3.
Hence, 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 4x2 – 4x – 3x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 4x (x – 1) – 3 (x – 1) = 0
3
⇒ (4x – 3) (x – 1) = 0 ⇒ 4x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0 ⇒ x = or x = 1.
4
3
Therefore, and 1 are the zeros of h.
4
Definition 1.2
For a polynomial function f and a real number c, if
f(c) = 0, then c is a zero of f.
Note that if x – c is a factor of f (x), then c is a zero of f (x).

Example 3
a Use the factor theorem to show that x + 1 is a factor of f (x) = x25 + 1.
b What are the zeros of f (x) = 3 (x – 5) (x + 2) (x – 1)?
c What are the real zeros of x4 – 1 = 0?
d Determine the zeros of f (x) = 2x4 – 3x2 + 1.
Solution:
a Since x + 1 = x – (–1), we have c = –1 and
f (c) = f (–1) = (–1)25 + 1 = –1 + 1 = 0
Hence, –1 is a zero of f (x) = x25 + 1, by the factor theorem.
So, x – (–1) = x + 1 is a factor of x25 + 1.
b Since (x – 5), (x + 2) and (x – 1) are all factors of f (x), 5, –2 and 1 are the
zeros of f (x).
28
c Factorising the left side, we have

x4 – 1 = 0 ⇒ (x2 – 1) (x2 + 1) = 0 ⇒ (x – 1) (x + 1) (x2 + 1) = 0
So, the real zeros of f (x) = x4 – 1 are –1 and 1.
d f (x) = 0 ⇒ 2x4 – 3x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 2 (x2)2 – 3x2 + 1 = 0
Let y = x2. Then 2(y)2 – 3y + 1 = 0 ⇒ 2y2 – 3y + 1 = 0 ⇒ (2y – 1) (y – 1) = 0
⇒ 2y – 1 = 0 or y – 1 = 0
1
Hence y = or y = 1
2
1
Since y = x2, we have x2 = or x2 = 1.
2
1 1 2
Therefore x = ± or x = ± 1. (Note that = .)
2 2 2
2 2
Hence, − , , –1 and 1 are zeros of f.
2 2
A polynomial function cannot have more zeros than its degree.
1.3.1 Zeros and Their Multiplicities

If f (x) is a polynomial function of degree n, n ≥ 1, then a root of the equation
f (x) = 0 is called a zero of f.
By the factor theorem, each zero c of a polynomial function f (x) generates a first degree
factor (x – c) of f (x). When f (x) is factorized completely, the same factor (x – c) may
occur more than once, in which case c is called a repeated or a multiple zero of f (x). If
x – c occurs only once, then c is called a simple zero of f (x).
Definition 1.3
If (x – c)k is a factor of f (x), but (x – c)k+1 is not, then c is said to be a zero
of multiplicity k of f.
Example 4 Given that –1 and 2 are zeros of f (x) = x4 + x3 − 3x2 − 5x − 2, determine

their multiplicity.
Solution: By the factor theorem, (x + 1) and (x − 2) are factors of f (x)
Hence, f (x) can be divided by (x + 1) (x − 2) = x2 − x − 2, giving you
f (x) = (x2 − x − 2) (x2 + 2x + 1) = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1)2 = (x + 1)3 (x − 2)
Therefore, –1 is a zero of multiplicity 3 and 2 is a zero of multiplicity 1.
29
Exercise 1.7
1 Find the zeros of each of the following functions:
3 1
a f (x) = 1 – x b f (x) = (1 – 2x) – (x + 3)
5 4
2
c g (x) = (2 – 3x) (x – 2) (x + 1) d h (x) = x4 + 7x2 + 12
3
e g (x) = x3 + x2 – 2 f f (t) = t3 – 7t + 6
g f (y) = y5 – 2y3 + y h f (x) = 6x4 – 7x2 – 3
2 For each of the following, list the zeros of the given polynomial and state the
multiplicity of each zero.
 2
( ) ( x + 1)
2
a f (x) = x12  x −  b g (x) = 3 x − 2
 3
h (x) = 3 x 6 ( π − x ) ( x − ( π + 1) ) ( ) ( x + 5) (1 − 3x )
5
f ( x) = 2 x − 3
5 3 9
c d
f (x) = x − 3x + 3x −1
3 2
e
3 Find a polynomial function f of degree 3 such that f (10) = 17 and the zeros of f
are 0, 5 and 8.
4 In each of the following, the indicated number is a zero of the polynomial function
f (x). Determine the multiplicity of this zero.
a 1; f (x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 b –1; f (x) = x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x
1
c ; f ( x) = 4 x3 − 4 x2 + x .
2
4
5 Show that if 3x + 4 is a factor of some polynomial function f, then − is a zero of f.
3
6 In each of the following, find a polynomial function that has the given zeros
satisfying the given condition.
a 0, 3, 4 and f (1) = 5 b −1, 1 + 2, 1 − 2 and f (0) = 3.

1
7 A polynomial function f of degree 3 has zeros −2, and 3, and its leading
2
coefficient is negative. Write an expression for f. How many different polynomial
functions are possible for f ?
30
8 If p (x) is a polynomial of degree 3 with p (0) = p (1) = p (–1) = 0 and p (2) = 6, then
a show that p (–x) = –p (x).
b find the interval in which p (x) is less than zero.
9 Find the values of p and q if x – 1 is a common factor of
f ( x ) = x 4 − px 3 + 7 qx + 1, and g ( x ) = x 6 − 4 x 3 + px 2 + qx − 3.
10 The height above ground level in metres of a missile launched vertically, is given by
h(t ) = −16t 3 +100t.
At what time is the missile 72 m above ground level? [t is time in seconds].
1.3.2 Location Theorem

A polynomial function with rational coefficients may have no rational zeros. For
example, the zeros of the polynomial function:
f (x) = x2 – 4x – 2 are all irrational.
Can you work out what the zeros are? The polynomial function p (x) = x3 – x2 – 2x + 2
has rational and irrational zeros, − 2,1 and 2 . Can you check this?
ACTIVITY 1.10
1 In each of the following, determine whether the zeros of the
corresponding function are rational, irrational, or neither:
a f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2 b f (x) = x3+ x2 – 2x – 2
c f (x) = (x + 1)(2x2 + x – 3) d f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 6
2 For each of the following polynomials make a table of values, for – 4 ≤ x ≤ 4:
a f (x) = 3x3 + x2 + x – 2 b f (x) = x4 – 6x3 + x2 + 12x – 6
Most of the standard methods for finding the irrational zeros of a polynomial function
involve a technique of successive approximation. One of the methods is based on the
idea of change of sign of a function. Consequently, the following theorem is given.
Theorem 1.4 Location theorem

Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b. If f is a polynomial function
such that f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero
of f between a and b.
This theorem helps us to locate the real zeros of a polynomial function. It is sometimes
possible to estimate the zeros of a polynomial function from a table of values.
31
Example 5 Let f (x) = x4 – 6x3 + x2 + 12x – 6. Construct a table of values and use the
location theorem to locate the zeros of f between successive integers.
Solution: Construct a table and look for changes in sign as follows:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f (x) 210 38 –10 –6 2 –10 –42 –70 –44 102
Since f (–2) = 38 > 0 and f (–1) = –10 < 0, we see that the value of f (x) changes
from positive to negative between – 2 and –1. Hence, by the location theorem,
there is a zero of f (x) between x = –2 and x = –1.
Since f (0) = – 6 < 0 and f (1) = 2 > 0, there is also one zero between x = 0 and x = 1.
Similarly, there are zeros between x = 1 and x = 2 and between x = 5 and x = 6.
Example 6 Using the location theorem, show that the polynomial
f (x) = x5 – 2x2 – 1 has a zero between x = 1 and x = 2.
Solution: f (1) = (1)5 – 2(1)2 – 1 = 1 – 2 – 1 = – 2 < 0.
f (2) = (2)5 – 2 (2)2 – 1 = 32 – 8 – 1 = 23 > 0.
Here, f (1) is negative and f (2) is positive. Therefore, there is a zero between x = 1
and x = 2.
Exercise 1.8
1 In each of the following, use the table of values for the polynomial function f (x)
to locate zeros of y = f (x):
a
x –5 –3 –1 0 2 5
f (x) 7 4 2 –1 3 –6
b
x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
f (x) –21 –10 8 –1 –5 6 4 –3 18
2 Use the location theorem to verify that f (x) has a zero between a and b:
a f (x) = 3x3 + 7x2 + 3x + 7 ; a = –3 , b = –2
3
b f (x) = 4x4 + 7x3 – 11x2 + 7x – 15; a = 1, b =
2
c f (x) = –x4 + x3 + 1 ; a = –1 , b = 1
d f (x) = x5 – 2x3 – 1 ; a = 1, b = 2
32
3 In each of the following, use the Location Theorem to locate each real zero of f (x)
between successive integers:
a f (x) = x3 – 9x2 + 23x – 14; for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
b f (x) = x3 – 12x2 + x + 2; for 0 ≤ x ≤ 8
c f (x) = x4 – x2 + x – 1; for –3 ≤ x ≤ 3
d f (x) = x4 + x3 – x2 – 11x + 3; for –3 ≤ x ≤ 3
4 In each of the following, find all real zeros of the polynomial function, for
−4 ≤ x ≤ 4 :
15 2
a f (x) = x4 – 5x3 + x − 2x − 2 b f (x) = x5 – 2x4 – 3x3 + 6x2 + 2x – 4
2
c f (x) = x + x – 4x2 – 2x + 4
4 3
d f (x) = 2x4 + x3 – 10x2 – 5x
5 In Question 10 of Exercise 1.7, at what time is the missile 50 m above the ground
level?
6 Is it possible for a polynomial function of degree 3 with integer coefficient to
have no real zeros? Explain your answer.
[ 1.3.3 Rational Root Test

The rational root test relates the possible rational zeros of a polynomial with integer
coefficients to the leading coefficient and to the constant term of the polynomial.
Theorem 1.5 Rational root test

p
If the rational number , in its lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
q
f (x) = anxn + an–1 xn –1 + . . . . + a1x + ao
with integer coefficients, then p must be a factor of ao and q must be a factor of an.
ACTIVITY 1.11
1 What should you do first to use the rational root test?
2 What must the leading coefficient be for the possible rational
zeros to be factors of the constant term?
3 Suppose that all of the coefficients are rational numbers. What could be done to
change the polynomial into one with integer coefficients? Does the resulting
polynomial have the same zeros as the original?
4 There is at least one rational zero of a polynomial whose constant term is zero.
What is this number?
33
Example 7 In each of the following, find all the rational zeros of the polynomial:
a f (x) = x3 – x + 1 b g (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 + 7x – 6
1 1
c g ( x) = x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2 + 2 x
2 2
Solution:
a The leading coefficient is 1 and the constant term is 1. Hence, as these are
factors of the constant term, the possible rational zeros are ± 1.
Using the remainder theorem, test these possible zeros.
f (1) = (1)3 – 1 + 1 = 1 – 1 + 1 = 1
f (–1) = (–1)3 – (–1) + 1 = –1 + 1 + 1 = 1
So, we can conclude that the given polynomial has no rational zeros.
b an = a3 = 2 and ao = –6
Possible values of p are factors of –6. These are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6.
Possible values of q are factors of 2. These are ± 1, ± 2.
p 1 3
The possible rational zeros are ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6, ± , ± .
q 2 2
Of these 12 possible rational zeros, at most 3 can be the zeros of g (Why?).
1
Check that f (–3) = 0, f (– 2) = 0 and f   = 0.
2
Using the factor theorem, we can factorize g (x) as:
2x3 + 9x2 + 7x – 6 = (x + 3) (x + 2) (2x – 1). So, g (x) = 0 at
1
x = –3, x = –2 and at x = .
2
1
Therefore –3, –2 and are the only (rational) zeros of g.
2
c Let h (x) = 2g(x). Thus h (x) will have the same zeros, but has integer
coefficients.
h (x) = x4 – 4x3 – x2 + 4x
x is a factor, so h (x) = x(x3 – 4x2 – x + 4) = xk (x)
k (x) has a constant term of 4 and leading coefficient of 1. The possible rational
zeros are ±1, ±2, ±4.
34
Using the remainder theorem, k (1) = 0, k (–1) = 0 and k (4) = 0

So, by the factor theorem k (x) = (x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 4).
Hence, h (x) = x k (x) = x(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 4) and
1 1
g (x) = h( x) = x(x – 1)(x + 1)(x – 4).
2 2
Therefore, the zeros of g (x) are 0, ± 1 and 4.
Exercise 1.9
1 In each of the following, find the zeros and indicate the multiplicity of each zero.
What is the degree of the polynomial?
a f (x) = (x + 6) (x – 3)2 b f (x) = 3 (x + 2)3 (x – 1)2 (x + 3)
1
c f (x) = (x – 2)4 (x + 3)3 (1 – x) d f (x) = x4 – 5x3 + 9x2 – 7x + 2
2
e f (x) = x4 – 4x3 + 7x2 – 12x + 12
2 For each of the following polynomials, find all possible rational zeros:
a p (x) = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 b p (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 6x + 8
c p (x) = 3x3 – 11x2 + 8x + 4 d p (x) = 2x3 + x2 – 4x – 3
e p (x) = 12x3 – 16x2 – 5x + 3
3 In each of the following, find all the rational zeros of the polynomial, and express
the polynomial in factorized form:
a f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − x + 5 b g (x) = 3x3 + 3x2 − x −1
c p (t ) = t 4 − t 3 − t 2 − t − 2
4 In each of the following, find all rational zeros of the function:
11 2 1 1 25 2
p (y) = y + y − y− p (x) = x − x +9
3 4
a b
6 2 3 4
21 2 3 7 3 7 2 5
h (x) = x − x + x p (x) = x + x − x − x
4 4
c d
10 5 6 3 2
5 For each of the following, find all rational roots of the polynomial equation:
a 2x3 – 5x2 + 1 = 0 b 4x4 + 4x3 – 9x2 – x + 2 = 0
c 2x5 – 3x4 – 2x + 3 = 0
35
1.4 GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

In your previous grades, you have discussed how to draw graphs of functions of degree
zero, one and two. In the present section, you will learn about graphs of polynomial
functions of degree greater than two.
To understand properties of polynomial functions, try the following Activity.
ACTIVITY 1.12
1 Sketch the graph of each of the following polynomial functions:
a f (x) = 3 b f (x) = – 2.5
c g (x) = x – 2 d g (x) = –3x + 1
2 Let f (x) = x2 –4x +5
a Copy and complete the table of values given below.
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
2
f (x) = x – 4x + 5
b Plot the points with coordinates (x, y), where y = f (x) on the xy-coordinate
plane.
c Join the points in b above by a smooth curve to get the graph of f. What do
you call the graph of f ? Give the domain and range of f.
3 Construct a table of values for each of the following polynomial functions and
sketch the graph:
a f (x) = x2 − 3 b g (x) = −x2 − 2x +1
c h (x) = x3 d p (x) = 1− x4
We shall discuss sketching the graphs of higher degree polynomial functions through
the following examples.
Example 1 Let us consider the function p ( x) = x − 3x − 4 .
3
This function can be written as y = x − 3x − 4

3
Copy and complete the table of values below.

x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y –6 –2 –6 14
Other points between integers may help you to determine the shape of the graph
better.
36
1
For instance, for x =
2
1 43
y = p  = −
2 8
 1 43 
Therefore, the point  , −  is on the graph of p. Similarly, for
2 8 
5  5  33
x = , y= p  = .
2  2 8
 5 33 
So,  ,  is also on the graph of p.
2 8 
Plot the points with coordinates (x, y) from the table as shown in Figure 1.3a.
Now join these points by a smooth curve to get the graph of p (x), as shown in
Figure 1.3b.
y
y
10
10
5
5
x x
-5 5 -5 5
-5 -5
-10 -10
a b
Figure 1.3 Graph of p (x) = x3 − 3x − 4
Example 2 Sketch the graph of f ( x) = − x 4 + 2 x2 + 1
Solution: To sketch the graph of f, we find points on the graph using a table of values.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = −x4 + 2x2 + 1 –7 2 1 2 –7
Plot the points with coordinates (x, y) from this table and join them by a smooth
curve for increasing values of x, as shown in Figure 1.4.
37
From the graph, find the domain and the

y
range of f. Observe that the graph of f opens 3
downward. 2
As observed from the above two examples, 1

x
the graph of a polynomial function has no -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
jumps, gaps and holes. It has no sharp
-2
corners. The graph of a polynomial function -3
is a smooth and continuous curve which -4
means there is no break anywhere on the -5
graph. -6
-7
The graph also shows that for every value
of x in the domain ℝ of a polynomial Figure 1.4 Graph of f (x) = −x4 + 2x2 + 1
function p (x), there is exactly one value y
where y = p (x).
The following are not graphs of polynomial functions.
y y
Jump
hole
Gap
Gap
x Sharp x
Corner
Figure 1.5
Functions with graphs that are not continuous are not polynomial functions.
Look at the graph of the function f ( x) = x given in Figure 1.6. It has a sharp corner at
the point (0, 0) and hence f ( x) = x is not a polynomial function.
y
y
y = f (x)
y=|x| x
O x
Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7

38
Is the function f (x) = |x – 2| a polynomial function? Give reasons for your answer.
The graph of the function f in Figure 1.7 is a smooth curve. Hence it represents a
polynomial function. Observe that the range of f is R.
The points at which the graph of a function crosses (meets) the coordinate axes are
important to note.
If the graph of a function f crosses the x-axis at (x1, 0), then x1 is the x-intercept of the
graph. If the graph of f crosses the y axis at the point (0, y1), then y1 is the y-intercept of
the graph of f.
How do we determine the x-intercept and the y-intercept?
Since (x1, 0) lies on the graph of f, we must have f (x1) = 0. So x1 is a zero of f.
Similarly, (0, y1) lies on the graph of f, leads to f (0) = y1.
Consider the function
f (x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0
What is the x-intercept and the y-intercept?
b
f (x1) = ax1 + b = 0. Solving for x1 gives ax1 = – b ⟹ x1 = −
a
b
So, − is the x-intercept of the graph of f.
a
Again, f (0) = a.0 + b = b. The number b is the y-intercept.
Try to find the x-intercept and the y-intercept of f (x) = −3x + 5.
The above method can also be applied to a quadratic function. Consider the following
example.
Example 3 Find the x-intercepts and the y-intercept of the graph of
f ( x) = x2 − 4x + 3
Solution: f ( x1 ) = x12 − 4x1 + 3 = 0 ⇒ ( x1 −1)( x1 − 3) = 0 ∴ x1 = 1 or x1 = 3
Therefore, the graph of f has two x-intercepts, 1 and 3.
Next, f (0) = 02 – 4.0 + 3 = 3. Here y1 = 3 is the y-intercept.
The graph of f crosses the x-axis at (1, 0) and (3, 0). It crosses the y-axis at (0, 3).
The graph opens upward and turns at (2, −1). The point (2, −1) is the vertex or
turning point of the graph of f. It is the minimum value of the graph of f. The
range of f is { y : y ≥ −1} .
39
3 (0, 3)
2 f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3
1
(1, 0) (3, 0) x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(2, -1)
-2
Figure 1.8
Note that the graph of any quadratic function f ( x) = ax + bx + c has at most two
2
x-intercepts and exactly one y-intercept. Try to find the reason.

As seen from Figure 1.8, a = 1 is positive and the parabola opens upward.
What can be stated about the graph of g(x) = −2x2 + 4x?
Does the graph open upward?
The coefficient of x2 is negative. What is the range of g?
To study some properties of polynomials, we will now look at graphs of some
polynomial functions of higher degrees of the form f (x) = an x + b, n ≥ 3.
n
Example 4 By sketching the graphs of g (x) = x +1 and h ( x) = −2 x3 + 1, observe

3
their behaviours and generalize for odd n when | x | is large.

Solution: Plot the points of the graphs of g and h.
5 5
y y
4 4
3 3
2 2 h(x)=-2x3+1
g(x)=x3+1
1 1
x x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
a b
Figure 1.9
As shown in Figure 1.9a, when x becomes large in absolute value and x negative, g (x)
is negative but large in absolute value (The graph moves down). When x takes large
positive values, g (x) becomes large positive.
40
In Figure 1.9b, the coefficient of the leading term is –2 which is negative. As a result,
when x becomes large in absolute value for x negative, h (x) becomes large positive.
When x takes large positive values, h (x) becomes negative but large in absolute value.
The graph of f ( x) = an x + b shows the same behaviour when | x | is large as the graph
n
of g for an > 0 and as the graph of h for an < 0 and n odd.

Example 5 By sketching the graphs of g (x) = 2x4 and h (x) = –x4, observe their
behaviour and generalize for even n when | x | is large.
Solution: The sketches of the graphs of g and h are as follows.
y
y 2
5
1
4 4
x
f (x)= 2x 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
3
−1
2
−2
1 f (x)= −x4
x −3
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −4
−1 −5
a b
Figure 1.10
From Figure 1.10a, when | x | takes large values, g (x) becomes large positive.
On the other hand, from Figure 1.10b, when | x | takes large values, h (x) becomes
negative but large in absolute value and the graph opens downward.
When n is even, the graph of f opens upward for an > 0 and opens downward for an < 0.
Draw and observe the graphs of g (x) = 2 (x – 1)4 and h (x) = – (x – 1)4.
ACTIVITY 1.13
1 Consider the following graphs:
y y
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
x 1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1 -2 -1 1 3
-3 2
-1
-2
-2
-3
a Graph of g (x) = x3 + 2x2 – x – 2. b Graph of f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4.
Figure 1.11
41
a What are the domains of f and g?

b What can be said about the values of f (x) and g (x) when x is large and
positive, or large and negative?
c If x = 210, will the term x3 in g (x) and x4 in f (x) be positive or will they be
negative? What happens when x = –210?
2 a Do you think that the range of every polynomial function is the set of all
real numbers?
b Will the graph of every polynomial function cross the y-axis at exactly one
point? Why?
Group Work 1.3

1 On the graph of g (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4
a What are the values of x at the points where the
graph crosses the x-axis? At how many points
does the graph of g (x) cross the x-axis?
b What is the value of g (x) at each of these points obtained in a?
c What is the truth set of the equation g (x) = 0?
2 Consider the function h (x) = (x + 2) (x + 1) (x – 1) (x – 2)
a On the graph of the function h, what are the coordinates of the points where
the graph crosses the x-axis? The y-axis?
b Do you think that g (in question 1 above) and h are the same function?
3 As shown in Figure 1.11, the graph of the polynomial function defined by
f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4 crosses the x-axis four times and the graph of
g (x) = x3 + 2x2 – x – 2 crosses the x-axis three times.
In a similar way, how many times does the graph of each of the following
functions intersect the x-axis?
a p (x) = 2x + 1 b p (x) = x2 + 4
c p (x) = x2 – 8 d f (x) = (x – 2) (x – 1) (x2 + 4).
4 Do you think that the graph of every polynomial function of degree four crosses
the x – axis four times?
42
Note that the graph of a polynomial function of degree n meets the x-axis at most n
times. So (as stated previously), every polynomial function of degree n has at most n
zeros.
In general, the behaviour of the graph of a polynomial function as x decreases without
bound to the left or as x increases without bound to the right can be determined by its
degree (even or odd) and by its leading coefficient.
The graph of the polynomial function. f (x) = anxn + an –1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao eventually
rises or falls. Observe the examples given below.
Example 6 Describe the behaviour of the graph of f (x) = –x3 + x, as x decreases
to the left and increases to the right.
Solution: Because the degree of f is odd and the leading coefficient is negative, the
graph rises to the left and falls to the right as shown in Figure 1.12.
A and B are the turning points of the graph of f.
4
y
f(x)=-x3+x
2
1
A x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
B
-1
-2
-3
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13 shows an example of a polynomial function whose graph has peaks and
valleys. The term peak refers to a local maximum and the term valley refers to a local
minimum. Such points are often called turning points of the graph.
y
Turning points
Turning points
Figure1.13
43
A point of f that is either a maximum point or minimum point on its domain is called
local extremum point of f.
Note that the graph of a polynomial function of degree n has at most n – 1 turning points.
Example 7 Consider the polynomial y
2 4
f (x) = x (x – 2) (x + 2) . 2
y = f(x)
The function f has a simple zero at 0, a zero of
1
multiplicity 2 at 2 and a zero of multiplicity 4
x
at –2, as shown in Figure 1.14, It has a local -2 -1 1 2
maximum at x = –2 and does not change sign –1
at x = –2. Also, f has a relative (local)
-2
minimum at x = 2 and does not change sign
here. Both x = –2 and x = 2 are zeros of even
multiplicity. Figure 1.14
On the other hand, x = 0 is a zero of odd multiplicity, f (x) changes sign at x = 0,

and does not have a turning point at x = 0.
Example 8 Take the polynomial f (x) = 3x + 4x . It can be expressed as

4 3
f ( x) = x3 (3x + 4) .
The degree of f is even and the leading coefficient is positive. Hence, the graph
rises up as | x | becomes large.
y
3
f ( x ) = x 3 (3 x + 4)
2
1
x
-2 -1 1 2 3
-1
-2
Figure 1.15
44
4  4 
The function has a simple zero at − and changes sign at point  − , 0  .
3  3 
The graph of f has a local minimum at point (–1, –1).
Also f has a zero at x = 0 and changes sign here. So, 0 is of odd multiplicity.
There is no local minimum or maximum at (0, 0).
The above observations can be generalized as follows:
follows:
1 If c is a zero of odd multiplicity of a function f, then the graph of the function
crosses the x-axis at x = c and does not have a relative extremum at x = c.
2 If c is a zero of even multiplicity, then the graph of the function touches (but does
not cross) the x-axis at x = c and has a local extremum at x = c.
Group Work 1.4

1 Give some examples of polynomial functions and observe
the behaviour of their graphs as x increases without bound
to the left ( x is negative but large in absolute value) or as
x increases without bound to the right (x becomes large
positive).
Did you note that for p ( x) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , an ≠ 0 if an > 0 and n
is odd, p (x) becomes large positive as x takes large positive values and p (x)
becomes negative but large in absolute value as the absolute value of x becomes
large for x negative?
Discuss the cases where:
i an > 0 and n is even ii an < 0 and n is even
iii an < 0 and n is odd iv an > 0 and n is odd
2 Answer the following questions:
a What is the least number of turning points an odd degree polynomial
function can have? What about an even degree polynomial function?
b What is the maximum number of x-intercepts the graph of a polynomial
function of degree n can have?
c What is the maximum number of real zeros a polynomial function of degree
n can have?
d What is the least number of x-intercepts the graph of a polynomial function
of odd degree/even degree can have?
45
Exercise 1.10
1 Make a table of values and draw the graph of each of the following polynomial
functions:
a f (x) = 4x2 – 11x + 3 b f (x) = –1 – x2
c f (x) = 8 – x3 d f (x) = x3 + x2 – 6x – 10
1
( x − 2) ( x + 2) .
2 2
e f (x) = 2x2 – 2x4 f f (x) =
4
2 Without drawing the graphs of the following polynomial functions, state for each,
as much as you can, about:
i the behaviour of the graph as x takes values far to the right and far to the left.
ii the number of intersections of the graph with the x-axis.
iii the degree of the function and whether the degree is even or odd.
iv the leading coefficient and whether an > 0 or an < 0.
a f (x) = (x – 1) (x – 1) b f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2
c f (x) = 16 – 2x3 d f (x) = x3 – 2x2 – x + 1
e f (x) = 5x – x3 – 2 f f (x) = (x – 2) (x – 2) (x – 3)
g f (x) = 2x5 + 2x2 – 5x + 1
3 For the graphs of each of the functions given in Question 1(a – f) above:
i discuss the behaviour of the graph as x takes values far to the right and far to
the left.
ii give the number of times the graph intersects the x-axis.
iii find the value of the function where its graph cross the y-axis.
iv give the number of turning points.
4 In each of the following, decide whether the given graph could possibly be the
graph of a polynomial function:
46
y y
x x
a b
y y
x x
c d
y y
x x
e f
Figure 1.16
5 Graphs of some polynomial functions are given below. In each case:

i Identify the sign of the leading coefficient.
47
ii Identify the possible degree of each function, and state whether the degree is
even or odd.
iii Determine the number of turning points.
y y
y =f (x) y = g(x)
x x
a b
y y
x x
y = h(x) y = l(x)
c d
y y
y = k(x)
x x
y = m(x)
e f
48
y y
y = n(x) y = q (x)
x x
g h
y
y = p(x)
i
Figure 1.17
6 Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false. Justify your
answer:
a A polynomial function of degree 6 can have 5 turning points.
b It is possible for a polynomial function of degree two to intersect the x axis at
one point.
49
Key Terms
constant function linear function rational root
constant term local extremum remainder theorem
degree location theorem turning points
domain multiplicity x-intercept
factor theorem polynomial division theorem y-intercept
leading coefficient polynomial function zero(s) of a polynomial
leading term quadratic function
Summary
Summary
1 A linear function is given by f (x) = ax + b; a ≠ 0.
2 A quadratic function is given by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c ; a ≠ 0
3 Let n be a non-negative integer and let an, an – 1, . . . a1 , ao be real numbers with an ≠ 0.
The function p (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao is called a polynomial
function in x of degree n.
4 A polynomial function is over integers if its coefficients are all integers.
5 A polynomial function is over rational numbers if its coefficients are all rational
numbers.
6 A polynomial function is over real numbers if its coefficients are all real numbers.
7 Operations on polynomial functions:
i Sum: (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
ii Difference: (f – g) (x) = f (x) – g (x)
iii Product: (f⋅g) (x) = f (x)⋅g (x)
iv Quotient: (f ÷ g) (x) = f (x) ÷ g (x), if g (x) ≠ 0
8 If f (x) and d (x) are polynomials such that d (x) ≠ 0, and the degree of d (x) is less
than or equal to the degree of f (x), then there exist unique polynomials q (x) and
r (x) such that f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x), where r (x) = 0 or the degree of r (x) is
less than the degree of d(x).
9 If a polynomial f (x) is divided by a first degree polynomial of the form x – c, then
the remainder is the number f (c).
50
10 Given the polynomial function

p (x) = an xn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao.
If p (c) = 0, then c is a zero of the polynomial and a root of the equation p (x) = 0.
Furthermore, x – c is a factor of the polynomial.
11 For every polynomial function f and real number c, if f (c) = 0, then x = c is a zero
of the polynomial function f.
12 If (x–c)k is a factor of f (x), but (x – c)k+1 is not, we say that c is a zero of
multiplicity k of f.
p
13 If the rational number , in its lowest term, is a zero of the polynomial
q
f (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao with integer coefficients, then p must be
an integer factor of ao and q must be an integer factor of an.
14 Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b. If f (x) is a polynomial function such
that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero of f (x)
between a and b.
15 The graph of a polynomial function of degree n has at most n –1 turning points
and intersects the x-axis at most n times.
16 The graph of every polynomial function has no sharp corners; it is a smooth and
continuous curve.
Review Exercises on Unit 1

1 In each of the following, find the quotient and remainder when the first
polynomial is divided by the second:
a x3 + 7 x2 − 6x − 5; x + 1 b 3x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 4; x + 1
c 3x4 + 16x3 + 6x2 − 2x −13; x + 5 d 2x3 + 3x2 − 6x + 1; x −1
e 2x5 + 5x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 + 1; 2x2 − x + 1 f 6x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 2; 2x2 + 1
2 Prove that when a polynomial p (x) is divided by a first degree polynomial ax + b,
b
the remainder is p (− ) .
a
3 Prove that x + 1 is a factor of xn + 1 where n is an odd positive integer.
4 Show that 2 is an irrational number.
Hint: 2 is a root of x2 – 2. Does this polynomial have any rational roots?)
5 Find all the rational zeros of:
a f (x) = x5 + 8x4 + 20x3 + 9x2 – 27x – 27
b f (x) = (x – 1) ( x (x + 1) + 2x )
51
6 Find the value of k such that:

a 2x3 –3x2 – kx – 17 divided by x – 3 has a remainder of –2.
b x – 1 is a factor of x3 –6x2 + 2kx – 3.
c 5x –2 is a factor of x3 – 3x2 + kx +15.
7 Sketch the graph of each of the following:
a f ( x) = x3 − 7x + 6; − 4 ≤ x ≤ 3
b f ( x) = x4 − x3 − 4x2 + x +1; −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
c f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4
1
d f ( x) = (1 − x )(1 + x 2 )( x − 2)
4
8 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x4. Explain for each of the following cases
how the graphs of g differ from the graph of f. Determine whether g is odd, even
or neither.
a g (x) = f (x) + 3 b g (x) = f (–x)
c g (x) = –f (x) d g (x) = f (x + 3)
9 The polynomial f ( x ) = A ( x − 1) 2 + B ( x + 2) 2 is divided by x + 1 and x – 2. The
remainders are 3 and –15 respectively. Find the values of A and B.
If x + (c − 2) x − c − 3c + 5 is divided by x + c, the remainder is –1. Find the
2 2
10
value of c.
11 If x – 2 is a common factor of the
expressions x (m + n) x − n and 2x + (m −1) x + (m + 2n) , find the values of m and n.
2 2
12 Factorize fully:
a x3 − 4x2 − 7 x +10 b 2x5 + 6 x4 + 7 x3 + 21x2 + 5x + 15 .
13 A psychologist finds that the response to a certain stimulus varies with age group
according to
R = y 4 + 2 y3 − 4 y2 − 5 y +14,
where R is response in microseconds and y is age group in years. For what age
group is the response equal to 8 microseconds?
14 The profit of a football club after a takeover is modelled by
p (t ) = t 3 −14t 2 + 20t +120 ,
where t is the number of years after the takeover. In which years was the club
making a loss?
52
y=x
5 y = ex
y y = ex y=x
4
2 y = ln x
y = lnx
1
Unit -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4
x
5
-2
-3
EXPONENTIAL AND -4
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Unit Outcomes:
understand the laws of exponents for real exponents.
know specific facts about logarithms.
know basic concepts about exponential and logarithmic functions.
solve mathematical problems involving exponents and logarithms.
Main Contents
2.1 Exponents and logarithms
2.2 Exponential functions and their graphs
2.3 Logarithmic functions and their graphs
2.4 Equations involving exponents and logarithms
2.5 Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
Exponential and logarithmic functions come into play when a variable appears as an
exponent, for example, in an expression such as 2x. Such expressions arise in many
applications and are powerful mathematical tools for solving real life problems such as
analyzing growth of populations of people, animals, and bacteria; decay of radioactive
substances; growth of money at compound interest; absorption of light as it passes
through air, water or glass, etc.
In this unit, you will study the various properties of exponential and logarithmic
functions and learn how they can be used in solving real life problems.
2.1 EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

2.1.1 Exponents
While solving mathematical problems, there are occasions, you need to multiply a
number by itself. For example,
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 64.
Mathematicians use the idea of exponents to represent a product involving the same
factor. For example,
6
2×2×2×2×2×2=2 .
Exponents are frequently used in many areas of physics, engineering, finance, biology,
etc., to represent situations where quantities increase or decrease over time.
O
OPPEEN
NIIN
NGGP
PRRO
OBBLLE
EMM
Ethiopia has a population of around 80 million people and it is estimated that the
population grows every year at an average growth rate of 2.3%. If the population growth
continues at the same rate,
a What will be the population after
i 10 years? ii 20 years?
b How many years will it take for the population to double?
c What will the graph of the number of people plotted against time look like?
It is hoped that after studying the concepts discussed in this chapter, you will be able to
solve problems like the one given above.
54
Unit 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Exponent notation
6
The product 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 is written as 2 : (read “two to the power of six”).
4 5
Similarly, 3 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 and 4 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4.
If n is a positive integer, then an is the product of n factors of a.
i.e. an = a × a × a × … × a
n factors
n n
In a , a is called the base, n is called the exponent and a is the nth power of a.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1 Identify the base and the exponent and find the value of each of
the following powers:
4
3 8  2
a 4 b (–2) c   d – (–1)23 e (5t)4
 7
2 Find the values of the following powers:
a (–1)1 b (–1)2 c (–1)3 d (–1)4 e (–1)5
f (–1)6 g (–2)1 h (–2)2 i (–2)3 j (–2)4
k (–2)5 l (–2)6
3 Which ones give you a negative value: a negative base raised to an odd exponent or
a negative base raised to an even exponent?
Example 1 Evaluate:
a (–3)4 b –34 c (–3)5 d – (–3)5
Solution:
a (–3)4 = –3 × –3 × –3 × –3 = 81
b –34 = –1 × 34 = –1 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = – 81
c (–3)5 = –3 × –3 × –3 × –3 × –3 = – 243
d – (–3)5 = –1× (–3)5 = –1 × – 243 = 243
Remember that, in (–3)4 the base is –3 but in –34 only 3 is the base.
What is the base in (– 4t)3 ? The base is – 4t and (– 4t)3 = (– 4t) × (– 4t) × (–4t) = – 64t3
To what base does the exponent 3 refer in –4t3? – 4t3 = –4 × t × t × t. Therefore the
exponent 3 in –4t3 refers to the base t only.
55
Laws of exponents
The following Group Work will help you recall the laws of exponents discussed in
Grade 9:
Group Work 2.1

1 Simplify each of the following:
3 5 3 8
27
a 2 ×2 b 4 ×4 c
23
2 −5
d e (2 × 3)3 f 5–2 × 3–2
2 −9
3
2 5 2
g (3 ) h   i ac × ad
3
2 Which law of exponents did you apply to simplify each of the above expressions?
(Discuss with your friends).
If the bases a and b are non-zero real numbers and the exponents m and n are integers, then,
1 am × an = am+n To multiply powers of the same base, keep the base
and add the exponents.
2 a m
To divide powers of the same base, keep the base and
= a m−n
a n subtract the exponents.
m n m×n mn
3 (a ) = a =a To take a power of a power, keep the base and
multiply the exponents.
4 (a × b) = a × b
n n n
The power of a product is the product of the powers.
n
a an
5   = The power of a quotient is the quotient of the powers.
b bn
Example 2 Simplify each of the following:

103
a (4t)2 × (4t)7 b r8 × r −3 c
105
2
 2y 
d (x2)m e 16 × 43t f  
 25 
Solution:
a (4t)2 × (4t)7 = (4t)2 +7 = (4t)9 b r8 × r −3 = r8+(−3) = r5
103
c 5
= 103 − 5 = 10−2 d ( x2)m = x2 × m = x2m
10
22 × y 2 4 y 2
2
 2y 
e 16 × 4 3t
= 2 × (2 ) = 2 × 2
4 2 3t 4 6t 4 + 6t
=2 f   = =
 25  252 625
56
ACTIVITY 2.2
am
1 Evaluate each of the following using the law n
= a m−n :
a
23 0 105 0
a 3 ; Is 2 equal to 1? Why? b 5 ; Is 10 equal to 1? Why?
2 10
(−8)3
c ; Is (−8)0 equal to 1? Why?
(−8)3
2 From your answers, can you suggest what any non-zero number raised to zero is?
Any non-zero number raised to zero is one.
That is, a0 = 1, if a ≠ 0
Example 3
0
3
a 80 = 1 b (−100) 0 = 1 c   =1
5
( 23)
0
d =1 e (0.153)0 = 1
Group Work 2.2

Observe the following:
22 2×2 1 1
• = = = 3
2 2×2×2×2×2 2×2×2 2
5
am 22
• If we use the rule n
= a m−n 5
= 22−5 = 2−3
a 2
35
a Using the above two steps try to simplify 7 .
3
b Discuss the relationship between:
1 1
i and 2−3 ii and 3−2
23 32
1
c What can you conclude about a − n and ?
an
For a ≠ 0 and n > 0 Any non-zero number raised to a negative exponent is the
1 reciprocal of the same power with positive exponent.
a−n = n
a
Example 4 Simplify and write your answer as a non-negative exponent.
−3
−3 24 3
a 2 b c  
29 2
57
Solution:
24 1 1
a 2−3 =
1
3
=
1
9
= 2( 4−9) = 2−5 = 5 =
b
2 8 2 2 32
−3 3 3
3 1 1 2 2 8
c   = 3
= =1× 3 =   =
2 3 3 3
3 3 27
   3 
2 2 
−3 3
3 2
In Example 4c above you have seen that   =   . Use this technique to simplify
2 3
the following:
Example 5
−1 −4 −2
4 2  3 
a   b   c  
5 5  10 
Solution:
−1 −4 4 −2 2
4 5 2 5 625  3  10  100
a   = b   =  = c   =  =
5 4 5 2 16  10   3 9
1
Note: For a ≠ 0, a−1 =
a
The above examples lead you to the following fact:
If a and b are non-zero real numbers then it is always true that for n > 0,
−n n
a b
  = 
b a
Exercise 2.1
1 Use the laws of exponents to simplify each the following exponential
expressions:
a t2 × t b t3 × t × t5 c r × r4× r5× r d a3 × a × a−5
76 (−3 y)2 (2x)7
e f g h b2x ÷ b
74 (−3 y)5 (2x)8
i ( 55 )2n j ( by )x k ( 73 )−2 l ( a3x)2
2 Write each of the following with a prime number as their base:

162 x +3 49x
a 81 b c d 64a × 4a
162 x −3 7y
58
3 Remove the brackets from each of the following expressions:

2 6
9  2 
a (xyz)2 b (2ab2 )5 c   d − 
3  2n 
4 Simplify and give your answers in simplest rational form:
−2 −1
3
0
8  1 
a   b   c  −3  d (−2)−5 e (3x2)−3
2  3 4 
Rational exponents
So far we have considered expressions with integral exponents. You know what 35, 2−3
1 2
and 70 mean. But what do expressions such as 6 2 and 6 3 mean?
We now extend the laws of exponents to rational numbers.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Using the law a m × a n = a m + n , do the following:
1 a Simplify
1 1
i 6 × 62
2 ii 6× 6
b Compare the result in i with the result in ii . What do you notice?
2 a Simplify
1 1 1
i 63 × 63 × 63 ii 3
6× 3 6× 3 6
b Compare the result in i with the result in ii. What do you notice?
3 a Simplify
1 1 1 1
i 2 ×2 ×2 ×2
4 4 4 4
ii 4
2×42×42×42.
b Compare the result in i with the result in ii. What do you notice?
1
4 In general, what do you think is true about a n and n a ?
1
If a ≥ 0 and n is an integer with n > 1 , a n = n
a . This also holds when a < 0 and
n is odd. (Read n a as “the nth root of a”.)
1
Example 6 Express each of the following in the form a n :
( )
2
3
1 32
4 5
a 3 b 64 c d 5
9
43
59
Solution:
1 1
1 1 1 1
a 4
3= 34 b 5
64 = 64 5 c = = = = 3−1
(3 )
1 1
9 2 2 2 3
9
2
 13 
( )
2
 32 
( )
2 2 10
3 5 3  10 10 
32   32 3 2 23  − 
d 5
= 5
= 10 = 10 = 10 = 2 3 3  = 20 = 1
4 3
22 3( )
23 23 23
2 2 2
What is the result of 6 3 × 6 3 × 6 3 ?
2 2 2 2 2 2 6
+ +
6 ×6 ×6 =6
3 3 3 3 3 3
= 6 = 62 3
3
2 2
 2 2
Also 6 × 6 × 6 =  6 3  = 62
3 3 3
…. using the law (am)n = am × n
 
2
Therefore, 6 3 = (6 2 )3 = 3 62
1
( a)
m 1
In general, If a > 0 and m, n are integers with n > 1, a n = ( a m ) n = n a m =
m
n
.
m
Example 7 Express in the form a n , with a being a prime number.
5 3 8
a 64 b 16 c 27
Solution:
1 1 6 1 1 4
a 5
64 = 64 5 = ( 26 ) 5 = 2 5 b 3
16 = 163 = ( 24 ) 3 = 2 3
1 1 3
c 8
27 = 278 = ( 33 ) 8 = 38
Remember that n a is not a real number if a is negative and n is an even natural number.
However n
a is a real number if a is negative and n is an odd natural number.
For example, −4,

4
−5, 6
−9, 8
− 8 , etc, are not real numbers, whereas, 3
−27 ,
5
−32 , 3
−8 , 9
−81 , etc, are real numbers.
5
− 32
a 3
− 27 b 7
− 128 c 3
− 64
60
Solution:
a 3
− 27 = 3 (−3) × (−3) × (−3) = −3
1
b 7
−128 = 7
( −2 )
7
(
= −2 7 7
) = −2
5
− 32 5
( −2 5 ) −2 1
c = = =
3
− 64 3
( − 4) 3 −4 2
We conclude our discussion of rational exponents by the following remark:

All rules for integral exponents discussed earlier also hold true for rational exponents.
Irrational exponents
Now consider expressions with irrational exponents, such as 2 5
, 3π , 5 3 2 .
5
Example 9 Which number is the largest: 3, 2 or 4?
Solution: The answer will not be simple because we do not know the exact value of
2 5.
To approximate the number 2 5 , let us consider the following table for 2x.
x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
2x 1 2 4 8 16 32
16 8 4 2
From the table we see that for any values of x1 and x2, if x1 < x2, then 2 x1 < 2 x2 .
Therefore, since 2.2 < 5 < 2.3, we have 2 2 .2 < 2 5
< 2 2 .3 .
5
Let us now take closer approximations to 2 by using a calculator .
2 2.2 < 2 5
< 2 2.3
2 2.23 < 2 5
< 2 2.24
2 2.236 < 2 5
< 2 2.237
2 2.2360 < 2 5
< 2 2.2361
2 2.23606 < 2 5
< 2 2.23607
As we can see from the above list, the numbers 22.2 , 22.23 , 2 2.236 ,… approach to 2 5 .
Similarly, the numbers 22.3 , 22.24 , 2 2.237 ,… also approach to the same number 2 5 .
So 2 5 is bounded by terms of converging rational approximations. Using a calculator
we find that 2 5 ≈ 4.7111, to four decimal places; hence 2 5 is a number between 4.7
5
and 4.8. So the largest of the numbers 3, 2 and 4 must be 2 5 .
61
Example 10 Give an approximation to 3π .

Solution: Recall that π ≈ 3.1415926. A calculator gives the rounded values:
33.1 ≈ 30.1353
33.14 ≈ 31.4891
33.141 ≈ 31.5237
2 3.1415 ≈ 31.5411
33.14159 ≈ 31.5442
33.141592 ≈ 31.5443
33.1415926 ≈ 31.5443
Hence 3π ≈ 31.5443, rounded to four decimal places. A ten-place calculator actually
approximates 3π by 33⋅141592654 ≈ 31.5442807002 .
The above two examples suggest the following:
x x2
If x is an irrational number and a > 0 , then ax is the real number between a 1 and a
for all possible choices of rational numbers x1 and x2 such that x1 < x < x2.
The above statement about irrational exponents suggests that the expression ax is
defined not only for integral and rational exponents but also for irrational exponents.
2 5 ×2 20
3 2
× 3− 2
× 27 2
a 4 3
×4 12
b 5
c 8
.
8 3
Solution:
a 4 3
×4 12
= 4
3
× 42 3
=4
3+2 3
= 43 3
= (43) 3
= 64 3
(2 )
5
2 5 ×2 5+2 5
20 3
2 23 5
8 5
b 5
= 5
= 5
= 5
= 5
=1
8 8 8 8 8
3 2 × 3− 2
× 27 2
30 × 33 2
33 2
33 2
(3 2 −2 2 ) 2
c 8
= 8
= 8
= 2 2
=3 =3
3 3 3 3
The laws of exponents discussed earlier for integral and rational exponents continue to
hold true for irrational exponents.
In general, if a and b are positive numbers and r and s are real numbers, then
ar
1 a r × a s = a r+s 2 s
= a r −s 3 (a r) s = a r s
a
s
a as
4 (a × b) s = a s × b s 5   =
b bs
62
Group Work 2.3

Discuss in groups and answer each of the following:
1 a 24 > 23; Is 242 > 232 ?
1 1
b 81 > 16; Is 814 > 16 4 ?
c 20 > 10; Is 20−2 > 10−2 ?
2 2
1 1  1  1
d < ; Is   <   ?
100 10  100  10 
−2 −2
1 1  1  1
e < ; Is   <   ?
100 10  100   10 
2 a Let a > b > 1.
x x
Is a > b , for x > 0?
x x
Is a > b , for x < 0?
b Let 0 < a < b < 1.
x x
Is a < b , for x > 0?
x x
Is a < b , for x < 0?
Exercise 2.2
Simplify each of the following expressions using one or more of the laws of exponents:
( )
−2
a a2 × a × a3 b (2−3 + 3−2)−1 c 3
343
3
(3a) 4  a2 
d (2a × b )
−3 2 −2
e f  
(3a)3  b 
−2 −2
 a3  (n 2 ) 4 × (n 3 ) −2  m −3 m 3 
g  5  h i  −2

b  n −1  n 
−6 6
 −32   −31 12 
(3 )
2
m  a b  2
× 9− 3
j  −1  k  −1 1  l
 n2   a 4 b3  3− 12
   
(2 ) ÷ (4 )
2
2 −2 2 5
× 2− 5 
m 3 3
n  
 2 
× 2− × 32
2 2
2
2
o 8
p 6
64a 6b −2
4
63
2.1.2 Logarithms
Logarithms can be thought of as “the inverse” of exponents.
For example, we know that the following exponential equation is true: 32 = 9
In this case, the base is 3 and the exponent is 2. We write this equation in logarithm
form (with identical meaning) as log3 9 = 2
We read this as "the logarithm of 9 to the base 3 is 2".

H
HIISSTTO
ORRIIC
CAALL N
NO TEE::
OT
Logarithms were developed in the 17th century by the
Scottish mathematician, John Napier (1550-1617). They
were clever methods of reducing long multiplications into
much simpler additions and reducing divisions into
subtractions. While he was young, Napier had to help his
father, who was a tax collector. John got sick of
multiplying and dividing large numbers all day and devised
logarithms to make his life easier!
Since 24 = 16, we can say that 4 = lo g 2 1 6 .
As 103 = 1000, 3 = log10 1000 .

The following Activity will help you learn how to convert exponential statements to
logarithmic statements and vice versa.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Complete the following table:
Exponential statement Logarithmic statement
23 = 8 log 2 8 = 3
25 = 32
2 6 = 64
log10 100 = 2
2x = y
In general,
For a fixed positive number b ≠ 1, and for each a > 0
bc = a, if and only if c = logb a.
64
Observe from the above note that every logarithmic statement can be translated into an
exponential statement and vice versa.
Note: The value of logb a is the answer to the question: “ To what power must b be
raised to produce a?”.
Example 1 Write an equivalent logarithmic statement for:
1
4 3
a 3 = 81 b 4 = 64 c 8 =2
3
Solution:
a From 34 = 81, we deduce that log 3 81 = 4
b From 43 = 64, we have lo g 4 6 4 = 3
1
1
c Since 8 3 = 2, log 8 2 =
3
Example 2 Write an equivalent exponential statement for:
 1  1
a log 1 2 144 = 2 b log 4   = −3 c log10 10 =
 64  2
Solution:
a From log 1 2 144 = 2 , we deduce that 122 = 144.
1 1
= −3 is the same as saying 4 = .
−3
b log 4
64 64
1
c log10 10 =
1
can be written in exponential form as 10 2 = 10.
2
Example 3 Find:
1
a lo g 2 6 4 b log 3 c log 10 00 10
9
Solution:
a To find lo g 2 6 4 , you ask “to what power must 2 be raised to get 64?”
As 26 = 64, log2 64 = 6 or from the exponential equations discussed in

Grade 9, you can form the equation 2 x = 64 .
Solving this gives 2x = 26 ⇒ x = 6.
… remember that bx = by, if and only if x = y, for b > 0, b ≠1.
1 1
b , we ask “to what power must 3 be raised to get ?”
To find log 3
9 9
1 1 1
–2
As 3 = , log 3 = –2 o r 3 x = ⇒ 3 x = 3−2 ⇒ x = −2.
9 9 9
65
c To find log 10 00 10 , we ask “to what power must 1000 be raised to get 10?”
1
3 1
As 1000 = 10, log1000 10 = or 1000 x = 10 ⇒ 103 x = 101 ⇒ 3x =1
3
1
⇒x = .
3
Exercise 2.3
1 Write an equivalent logarithmic statement for:
1 −2
1 1
a 2
100 = 10000 b 2 = −5
c 125 = 5
3
d 8 3
=
32 4
2 Write an equivalent exponential statement for:
a log10 10000 = 4 b log 7 49 = 1
1
c log10 0.1 = −1 d log 2 = − 2
4
3 Find:
a log2 8 b log 9 81
c log 1 0 0 10 000 d log 49 7
Laws of logarithms
The following Group Work will help you observe different laws while using logarithms:
Group Work 2.4

1 Find:
a log 2 8 + log 2 2 ; compare the result with log 2 ( 8 × 2 )
b log10 100 + log10 1000 ; compare the result with log10 (100×1000)
 1  1
c lo g 3 9 + log 3   ; compare the result with log 3 (9 × )
 27  27
From your answers, can you suggest a possible simplification for logb x + log b y ?
2 Find:
8
a log 2 8 − log 2 2 ; compare the result with log 2   .
2
 100 
b log10 100 − log10 1000 ; compare the result with log10  .
 1000 
1  1 
c lo g 3 9 − log 3 ; compare the result with log 3  9 ÷ 
27  27 
From your answers, can you suggest a possible simplification for logb x − log b y ?
66
3 Find:
a 3 log2 2 ; compare the result with lo g 2 ( 2 3 ).
b 2 log10 100 ; compare the result with lo g 10 (1 0 0 2 ).
1
1  
c log 2 16 ; compare the result with log 2 16 2  .
2
From your answers, can you suggest a possible simplification for k logb x ?
4 Find:
1
a log3 3 b lo g 8 8 c log 100 100 d log 1
3 3
From your answers, can you suggest a possible simplification for logb b if b > 0
and b ≠ 1?
5 Find:
a log3 1 b log 4 1 c log 1 1 d log1000 1
3
From your answers, can you suggest a possible simplification for logb 1 if b > 0
and b ≠1?
The following are laws of logarithms:
If b, x and y are positive numbers and b ≠ 1, then
x
i logb xy = logb x + logb y ii logb   = logb x − logb y
 y
iii For any real number k, logb (xk) = k logb x
Note: If b > 0 and b ≠ 1,then
i logb b = 1 ii logb 1 = 0
Example 4 Use the laws of logarithms to find:
a lo g 2 1 6 + lo g 2 4 b log 4 16 − log 4 4
c 2 ( (log10 100) − 1) d log10 4 0.01
Solution:
a lo g 2 1 6 + log 2 4 = log 2 (16 × 4) = log2 64 = 6
… using the law logb xy = logb x + logb y
16 4
b log 4 16 − log 4 4 = log 4 = log 4 = log4 1 = 0
4 4
x
… using the law logb ( ) = logb x − logb y
y
67
 100 
c 2 ( (log10 100) − 1) = 2( log10 100 − log10 10 ) = 2 log10   = 2 log10 10 = 2
 10 
x
… using the law logb ( ) = logb x − logb y
y
1
1 −2
 1 4
( )
1
d log10 4 0.01 = log10 ( 0.01) = log10   = log10 10−2
4 4 = log10 10 4
 100 
−2 −2 −2 −1
= log10 10 = ×1 = =
4 4 4 2
… using the law ( k ) = k log b x
log b x
Two additional laws of logarithms

If a, b and c are positive real numbers, and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, then
logb c log c
i log a c = (“change of base law”) ii b b =c
logb a
Example 5 Using the above two laws find
a log16 64
b log3 2 (given that log10 2 = 0.3010 and log10 3 = 0.4771 )
log10 7
c 10
Solution
log 2 64 6 3
a log16 64 = = = or
log 216 4 2
log10 64 log10 43 3log10 4 3 3

log16 64 = = 2
= = ×1=
log1016 log10 4 2log10 4 2 2
… you can use any base b > 0, b ≠ 1
log10 2 0.3010 log10 7
b lo g 3 2 = = = 0.6309 c 10 = 7
log10 3 0.4771
Exercise 2.4
1 Find:
a log 11 121 b log6 6 c log10 100000 d log 5 125
e log 3 3 f log9 3 g log 100 5 100 h log 1 125

5
68
2 Simplify:
32
a log 2 ( 64 ×1024 ) b log 2 c log 2 5123
256
 128 × 64  1
d log 10 2 × 10 −3
e log 2  512  f log3 9 + log 3
27
g log 2 642 ÷ log 21287
logb c log c
3 Using the laws loga c = or b b = c find:
logb a
1
a log 81 b log 1 16
 
c log 1
1 27
3  2 3
   
d 5 log 5 3 e 6 log6 10
4 If log10 2 = 0.3010 and log10 3 = 0.4771, then find:
a log 2 3 b log 1 5 c log 1 0.002
2 3
Logarithms in base 10 (common logarithms)

Our decimal system is based on numbers of the form 10n. For example,
10000 = 104 0.0001 = 10−4
1000 = 103 0.001 = 10−3
100 = 102 0.01 = 10−2
10 = 101 0.1 = 10−1
1 = 100
1
Also numbers like 10 , 100 , 10 10 and 5
can be written as
10
1 1 1 3 −1
10 2 , 100 2 , 101 × 10 2 = 10 2 and 10 5 respectively.
In fact, all positive numbers can be written in the form 10n by introducing the concept of
logarithms. The logarithm of a positive number to base 10 is called a common logarithm.
The common logarithm is usually the most convenient one to use for computations
involving scientific notations because we use the base 10 number system.
One important usage of common logarithms is in their use in simplifying numerical
computations. Due to the extensive usage of various advanced calculators, the importance
of the usage of logarithms at present is not as it was in the past. However, there are certain
operations like 51.27 that you are able to perform using common logarithms.
This is due to the fact that any logarithm to base other than 10 can be expressed to a
common logarithm so that one can use the table of common logarithm found in most
standard books and mathematical tables.
69
A common logarithm is usually written without indicating its base. For example, log10 x
is simply denoted by log x.
So if a logarithm is given with no base, we take it to be base 10.
ACTIVITY 2.5
Find the following common logarithms:
10
a log 10 b log 0.0001 c log1 d log( )
10 n
Example 6 Find the following common logarithms:
a log100, 000 b log 3 100 c log 0.001
Solution
log100, 000 = 5 because 10 =100,000 or log100,000 = log10 = 5log10 = 5
5 5
a
2
2
b log 3 100 = because 3 100 = 3 10 2 = 10 3 or
3
1 1 2
log 100 = log100 = log (10 ) 2 2 2
3 3 2 3
= log10 = log10 = ×1 =
3
3 3 3
1 1
c log 0.001 = −3 because 0.001 = = 3 = 10 −3 or
1000 10
1 1
log 0.001 = log= log 3 = log10 −3 = −3 log10 = −3
1000 10
Example 7 Find the common logarithm of 526.
Solution: log 526 = log(5.26 ×102 ) = log5.26 + log102 … by logb xy = logb x + logb y
= log 5.26 + 2 = 2 + log 5.26 . Now we still need to find log 5.26.
Since log 1 = 0 and log 10 = 1 , we know that 0 < log 5.26 < 1 .
So, the common logarithm of a number between 1 and 10 is a number between 0
and 1. The specific common logarithmic values for numbers between 1 and 10 are
given in what is called a table of common logarithms.
A copy of the table is attached at the end of this book
From the common logarithm table, we read that log5.26 = 0.7210.

(It should be noted that this value is only an approximate value.)
Hence,
log 526 = log(5.26 × 10 2 ) = log 5.26 + log102 = log 5.26 + 2 = 0.7210 + 2 = 2.7210
Mantissa Characteristic M C
70
If we write a number x as x = m × 10c, 0 ≤ m < 10, then the logarithm of x can be read
from a common logarithm table. The logarithm of m is called the mantissa of the
logarithm of the number x and c is called the characteristic of the logarithm. Therefore,
the common logarithm of a number is equal to its characteristic plus its mantissa.
Example 8 Identify the characteristic and mantissa of each of the following
common logarithms:
a log 0.000415 b log 239 c log 0.001
Solution:
a 0.000415 = 4.15 × 10−4
Therefore, the characteristic is –4 and the mantissa is log 4.15.
b 239 = 2.39 × 102
Therefore, the characteristic is 2 and the mantissa is log 2.39.
c 0.001 = 1 ×10−3
Therefore, the characteristic is –3 and the mantissa is log 1 = 0.
Using the logarithm table

The logarithm of any two decimal place number between 1.00 and 9.99 can be read
directly from the common logarithm table (a part of the table is given below for your
reference).
x 0 1 2 . . . 9
1.0 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 . . . 0.0374
1.1 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 . . . 0.0755
1.2 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 . . . 0.1106
1.3 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 . . . 0.1430
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
1.9 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 . . . 0.2989
2.0 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 . . . 0.3201
2.1 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 . . . 0.3404
2.2 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 . . . 0.3598
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
9.9 0.9956 0.9961 0.9965 . . . 0.9996
71
Example 9 Use the table of logarithms to find:

a log 2.29 b log 1.21 c log 1.386 d log 21,200
Solution:
a Read the number at the intersection of row 2.2 and column 9
Reading the number in row 2.2 under column 9, we get 0.3598.
∴ log 2.29 = 0.3598 .
b Reading the number at the intersection of row 1.2 and column 1, we get
0.0828
∴ log1.21 = 0.0828 .
c 1.386 is between 1.38 and 1.39 .
So, round ( to 2 decimal places) log1.386 as log 1.39 . Reading in row 1.3 under
column 9, we get 0.1430 . ∴ log 1.386 ≅ 0.1430.
d First write 21,200 as 2.12 ×104
∴ log 21,200 = log (2.12 ×104) = log 2.12 + log 104 = log 2.12 + 4
= 0.3263 + 4 = 4.3263.
Note: Numbers greater than 10 have logarithms greater than 1.
Antilogarithms
Suppose log x = 0.6665. What is the value of x?
In such cases, we apply what is called the antilogarithm of the logarithm of x, written as
antilog (log x). Thus antilog (log x) = antilog (0.6665).
We have to search through the logarithm table, for the value 0.6665 .We find this
number located where the row with heading 4.6 meets the column with heading 4.
Therefore log 4.64 = 0.6665, and we have x = 4.64 .
In general, Antilog (log c) = c.
Example 10 Find:
a antilog 0.7348 b antilog 0.9335
c antilog 0.8175 d antilog 2.4771
Solution:
a The number 0.7348 is found in the table where row 5.4 and column 3 meet .
∴antilog 0.7348 = 5.43 .
b The number 0.9335 is found in the table where row 8.5 and column 8 meet.
∴antilog 0.9335 = 8.58 .
72
c The number 0.8175 does not appear in the table. The closest value is 0.8176
and 0.8176 = log 6.57.
∴antilog 0.8175 can be approximated by 6.57 .
d Antilog 2.4771 = antilog (0.4771 + 2) = 3 × 102 = 300
(The antilogarithm of the decimal part 0.4771 is found using the table of logarithms
and equals 3. The antilogarithm of 2 is 102 because log102 = 2.)
Example 11 Find:
a antilog 3.9058 b antilog 5.9586. c antilog (−1.0150)
Solution:
a antilog 3.9058 = antilog (0. 9058 + 3) = 8.05 × 103 = 8050.
b antilog 5.9586 = antilog (0.9586 + 5) = 9.09 × 105 = 909000.
c antilog(−1.0150) = antilog(2 − 1.0150 − 2) = antilog(0.9850 −2)
= 9.66 × 10−2 = 0.0966.
Note: Do not write −1.0150 as 0.0150 − 1. The arithmetic is not correct!
Computation with logarithms

In this section you will see how logarithms are used for computations.
For instance, to find the product of 32 and 128 using logarithm to the base 2, you can do
it as follows:
Let x = 32 × 128
log 2 x = log 2 ( 32 × 128 ) ……………………. why?
log2 x = log2 32 + log2 128 ……………………. why?

log2 x = 5 + 7 ⇒ log 2 x = 12 ……………………. why?
∴ x=2
12
In the next examples you will see how common logarithms are used in mathematical
computations:
Remember that antilog (log c) = c.
In order to compute c you can perform the following two steps:
Step1 Find log c, using the laws of logarithms.
Step 2 Find the antilogarithm of log c.
354 × 605
Example 12 Compute using logarithms.
8450
73
Solution:
354 × 605
Step 1 Let x =
8450
354 × 605
log x = log
8450
log x = log (354 × 605) − log 8450
log x = log 354 + log 605 − log 8450
log x = (0.5490 + 2 + 0.7818 + 2) − (0.9269 + 3)
log x = 0.4039 + 1
So x = antilog (0.4039 + 1) ⇒ x ≈ 2.53 ×10 ≈ 25.3
∴ 354 × 605 ≈ 25.3

8450
Example 13 Compute 35 using logarithms.
Solution: let x = 35
1
1
log x = log 35 ⇒ log x = log 35 2 ⇒ log x = [log3.5 ×10]
2
log x = [0.5441 + 1] ⇒ log x ≈ 0.77205 ; log x ≈ 0.7721
1
2
So x = antilog (0.7721) ⇒ x ≈ 5.92
∴ 35 ≈ 5.92
1
Example 14 Compute 3803 using logarithms.
1
Solution: let x = 3803
1
1 1
log x = log 380 3 ; log x = [log 3.80 × 10 2 ] ; log x = [0.5798 + 2] ;
3 3
1
log x = 0.8599 So x = antilog (0.8599) ⇒ x ≈ 7.24 ∴ 3803 ≈ 7.24
Group Work 2.5

Discuss
1 Which base is preferable for mathematical computations?
Why? Present your findings to your group.
2 Approximate 3 using logarithm.
3 Use your result in 2 to compute 10 3 . Compare your results. What differences do
you get?
74
Exercise 2.5
1 Find each of the following common logarithms:
100 1  10 m 
a log(10 × 4 10 ) b log c log d log  n 
10 4
10  10 
2 Identify the characteristic and mantissa of the logarithm of each of the following:
a 0.000402 b 203 c 5.5 d 2190
1
e f 8 g 23 h 35.902
4
3 Use the table of logarithms to find:
a log 3.12 b log 1.99 c log 7.2 d log 5.436
e log 0.12 f log 9.99 g log 0.00007 h log 300
4 Find:
a antilog 0.8998 b antilog 0.8 c antilog 1.3010
d antilog 0.9953 e antilog 5.721 f antilog 1.9999
g antilog (−6 ) h antilog(−0.2)
5 Compute using logarithms:
a 6.24 × 37.5 b 9
125 c 21.42
37.9 488
d (2.4) 1.3
× (0.12) 4.1 e f 5
0.0641
(1.28)
3
2.2 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND

THEIR GRAPHS
In this section you will draw graphs and investigate the major properties of functions of
−x
the form f (x) = 2 x , f (x) = 10 , f (x) = 3 , f (x) = ( 0.5 ) , etc.
x x
ACTIVITY 2.6
Suppose an Amoeba cell divides itself into two after every hour.
a Calculate the number of cells created by one cell after one,
two, three, four, five and t hours.
b Complete the following table.
Time in hour (t) 0 1 2 3 4 5 . . . t
Number of cells created (y) 1
c Write a formula to calculate the number of cells created after t hours.
75
The function f (x) = bx , b > 0 and b ≠ 1 defines an exponential function.

The following functions are all exponential:
x
3 x x
a f (x) = 2 x
b g (x) =   c h (x) = 3 d k (x) = 10
2
x x x x
1 1 1 2
e f (x) =   f g (x) =   g h (x) =   h k (x) =  
 10  3 2 3
2.2.1 Graphs of Exponential Functions

Let us now consider the graphs of some of the above exponential functions so that we
can explore some of their properties.
Example 1 Draw the graph of f (x) = 2 x .
Solution: Evaluate y = 2x for some integral values of x and prepare a table of values.
1 1 1
For example: f (−3) = 2−3 = ; f (−2) = 2−2 = ; f (−1) = 2−1 = ;
8 4 2
0 1
f (0) = 2 = 1; f (1) = 2 = 2; f (2) = 2 = 4; f (3) = 23= 8.
2
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
f (x) = 2 x 8 4 2 1 2 4 8
Now plot these points on the co-ordinate system and join them by a smooth curve to
x
obtain the graph of f (x) = 2
5
y
4
y = 2x
3
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
Graph of f (x) =2x

Figure 2.1
ACTIVITY 2.7
1 What is the domain of the function f (x) = 2x ?
2 For what values of x is 2x negative?
3 Can 2x ever be 0?
4 What is the range of the function f (x) = 2x?
5 What is the y-intercept of f (x) = 2x?
76
6 For which values of x is 2x greater than 1?

7 What can you say about the value of 2x if x < 0?
8 Does 2x increase as x increases?
9 What happens to the graph of f when we take larger and larger positive values of x?
10 What happens to the graph of f when x is negative and | x | very large?
11 Does the graph cross the x-axis?
12 What is the asymptote of the graph of f (x) = 2x?
x
3
Example 2 Draw the graph of g (x) =  
2
Solution:
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x 8 27
3 4 2 3 9
g(x) =   27 1 8
2 9 3 2 4
5
x
y
3
4 g(x) =  
2
3
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
x
3
Figure 2.2 Graph of g (x) =  
5
2
y
f (x) = 2x  3
g (x) =   x
4  2
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x
x 3
Figure 2.3 Graphs of f (x) = 2 and g (x) =   drawn using the same co-ordinate system
2
77
In general, the graph of f (x) = bx, for any b > 1 has similar shape as the graphs of y = 2 x
x
3
and y =   .
2
f (x) = bx
b >1
x
Figure 2.4 Graph of f (x) = b , for any b > 1
Basic properties
The graph of f (x) = bx , b > 1 has the following basic properties:
1 The domain is the set of all real numbers.
2 The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (0, 1), i.e. the y-intercept is 1.
4 The function is increasing.
5 The values of the function are greater than 1 for x > 0 and between 0 and 1 for x < 0.
6 The graph approaches the x − axis as an asymptote on the left and increases
without bound on the right.
We will next discuss how the graph of the function f (x) = bx looks like when 0 < b < 1.
Example 3 Draw the graph of each of the following using:
i different coordinate axes. ii the same coordinate axes.
x x
1 2
a h (x) =   b k (x) =  
2 3
Solution: As before, calculate the values of the given functions for some integral
values of x as shown in the tables below. Then plot the corresponding
points on the co-ordinate system. Join these points by smooth curves to
get the graphs as indicated below.
a
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x
1 8 4 2 1
1 1 1
h(x)=  
2 2 4 8
78
b
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x 27 8
2 9 3
1
2 4
k(x)=   8
3 4 2 3 9 27
5
h(x) =  
y 1 x x 5
k(x) =  
2 y
4 2   4
3
3
3
2 2
1 1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1 -1
x x
1 2
Figure 2.5 Graph of h( x) =   Figure 2.6 Graph of k ( x) =  
2 3
x 5
1 y
h(x) =   4
2
3
2
x
2
k(x) =   1
3
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1
x x
1 2
Figure 2.7 Graphs of h( x) =   and k ( x) =   drawn using the same coordinate axes
2 3
x
1
The graph of f (x) = bx, for any 0 < b < 1 has similar shape to the graphs of y =   and
2
x
2
y=   .
3
f (x) = bx
f(x) = ax
0 < b <1
0<a<1
x
Figure 2.8 Graph of f (x) = b , for any 0 < b < 1
79
Basic properties
The graph of f (x) = bx , 0 < b < 1 has the following basic properties:
1 The domain is the set of all real numbers.
2 The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (0, 1), i.e. the y - intercept is 1.
4 The function is decreasing.
5 The values of the function are greater than 1 for x < 0 and between 0 and 1 for x > 0.
6 The graph approaches the x-axis as an asymptote on the right and increases
without bound on the left.
Exercise 2.6
1 Give three examples of exponential functions.
2 Given the graph of y = 2x (see Figure2.9), we can find approximate values of 2x for
various values of x. For example,
21.8 ≈ 3.5 (see point A).
22.3 ≈ 5 (see point B).
Use the graph to determine approximate values of
1
a 2 2 (i.e. 2 ) b 20.8 c 21.5 d 2−1.6.
y
B
5 •
4
A
•
3
y = 2x
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Figure 2.9
80
3 Construct suitable tables of values and draw the graphs of:

x
x 1
a h (x) = 3 and g (x) =   using the same co-ordinate system.
3
x
x 1
b k (x) = 10 and f (x) =   using the same co-ordinate system.
 10 
x
x 1
c f (x) = 4 and g (x) =   using the same co-ordinate system.
4
4 Referring to the functions in Question 3.
a find the domain and the range of each function,
b what is the y-intercept of each function?
c which functions are increasing and which are decreasing?
d find the asymptote for each graph.
The exponential function with base e

Until now the number π has probably been the most important irrational number you
have encountered. Next, we will introduce another useful irrational number, e, which is
important in the field of mathematics and other sciences.
2.2.2 The Number e

Do you know that some banks calculate interest every month? This is called monthly
compounding. Other banks even advertise continuous compounding. To illustrate the
idea of continuous compounding, we will study how 1 Birr grows for 1 year at 100
percent annual interest, using various periods of compounding.
In this case, we use the amount formula A = P (1 + i)n, where the principal P = 1.
1
Taking the annual rate r = 100% = 1, i = if there are n periods of compounding per
n
year, then the amount after 1 year is given by the formula:
n
 1
A = 1 + 
 n
The following table gives the amounts (in Birr) after 1 year using various periods of
compounding.
81
Number of compounding
Amount after one year
periods per year
1
 1
yearly 1 +  =2
 1
2
 1
semi-annually 1 +  = 2.25
 2
4
 1
quarterly 1 +  = 2.44140625
 4
12
 1
monthly 1 +  ≈ 2.61303529022...
 12 
52
 1 
weekly 1 +  ≈ 2.69259695444...
 52 
365
 1 
daily 1 +  ≈ 2.71456748202...
 365 
8760
 1 
hourly 1 +  ≈ 2.71812669063...
 8760 
525600
 1 
every minute 1 +  ≈ 2.7182792154...
 525600 
31536000
 1 
every second 1 +  = 2.7182817853...
 31536000 
The last row of the above table shows the effect of compounding approximately every
second. The idea of continuous compounding is that the table is continued for larger and
larger values of n. As n continues to increase, the amount after 1 year tends toward the
number 2.718281828459…
This irrational number is represented by the letter e
e = 2.718281828459…
n
 1
e is the number that 1 +  approaches as n approaches ∞. Who first discovered e is
 n
still being debated. The number is named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler
n
 1
(1707 − 1783), who computed e to 23 decimal places using 1 +  .
 n
82
2.2.3 The Natural Exponential Function

For any real number x, the function, f (x) = ex defines the exponential function with base
e, usually called the natural exponential function.
5 5
4
y
y = ex y =e-x 4
y
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
x −x
Figure 2.10 The graph of y = e . Figure 2.11 The graph of y = e .
The domain of y = ex is R. The domain of y = e− x is R.
The range is (0, ∞) The range is (0, ∞)

y = ex is an increasing function. y = e− x is a decreasing function.
The graph of y = ex intersects the y-axis The graph of y = e−x intersects the y-axis at
at (0, 1). (0, 1).
ex > 1, if x > 0 e −x > 1, if x < 0
0 < ex < 1, if x < 0 0 < e− x < 1, if x > 0
Example 1 Sketch the graph of y = e2x.

Solution: We calculate and plot some points to obtain
y =e2x
the required graph, as shown in Figure 2.12.
x y = e2x
−3 ≈ 0.0025
−2 ≈ 0.0183
−1 ≈ 0.1353
0 =1
1 ≈ 7.7391 Graph of y = e2x
2 ≈ 54.5981 Figure 2.12
83
Exercise 2.7
1 Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions:
a f (x) = 2x−1 b g (x) = 3x−2 c k (x) = 32−x
2 Use the key ex on your calculator to evaluate each of the following expressions to
7 decimal places:
a e3 b e 3 c e−7.3011 d e 5
3 Construct tables of values for some integer values of x and then graph each of the
following functions:
a y = −ex b y = −e−x c y = 10e 0.2x
4 State the domain and range of each of the functions in Question 3.
2.3 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND

THEIR GRAPHS
From Section 2.1.2 you should remember that by = x, if and only if logb x = y
(b > 0 , b ≠ 1 and x > 0)
Hence, the function y = log b x , where x > 0, b > 0 and b ≠ 1 is called a logarithmic
function with base b.
The following functions are all logarithmic:
a f (x) = log 2 x b g (x) = log 3 x c h (x) = log 3 x
2
d k (x)= log10 x e f (x) = log 1 x f g (x) = log 1 x

10 3
g h (x) = log 1 x h k (x) = log 2 x

2 3
ACTIVITY 2.8
The concentration of hydrogen ions in a given solution is denoted by
[H+] and is measured in moles per liter.
For example, [H+] = 0.0000501 for beer and [H+] = 0.0004 for wine.
Chemists define the pH of the solution as the number pH = − log[H+ ] .The solution is
said to be an acid if pH < 7 and a base if pH > 7. Pure water has a pH of 7, which means
it is neutral.
a Is beer an acid or a base? What about wine?
b What is the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of eggs if the pH of eggs is 7.8?
84
2.3.1 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we consider the graphs of some logarithmic functions, so that we can
explore their properties.
i different coordinate systems ii the same coordinate system.
a f (x) = log 2 x b g (x) = log 3 x .
2
Solution: The tables below indicate some values for f (x) and g (x). Plot the
corresponding points on the co-ordinate system. Join these points by smooth
curves to get the required graphs as indicated in Figures 2.13 and 2.14.
1 1 4 2 3 9
x 1 2 4 x 1
4 2 9 3 2 4
f (x)= log2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 g (x) = log 3 x −2 −1 0 1 2
2
a b
5 5
y
y = log  3  x
y
4 4
 
2
3 3
y = log 2 x
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
Figure 2.13 Graph of f (x) = log2 x Figure 2.14 Graph of g ( x) = log  3  x

 
 2
5
y
4 y = log 3 x
2
3
2
y = log 2 x
1
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
Figure 2.15 Graphs of y = log 2 x and y = log  3  x drawn using the same coordinate axes
 
 2
85
ACTIVITY 2.9
Study the graphs of f ( x ) = log 2 x and g ( x) = log 3  x to answer the
 
2
following questions:
1 What are the domains of f and g?
2 For which values of x is log 2 x negative? positive?
3 For which values of x is log 3 x negative? positive?
2
4 What is the range of f and g?

5 What is the x-intercept?
6 Does log 2 x increase as x increases? What about log 3 x ?
2
7 Do the graphs cross the y-axis?

8 What is the asymptote of the graphs?
In general, the graph of f ( x) = log b x , for any b > 1 looks like the one given below .
y = logb x
y y = log b x,
bb >>11
Figure 2.16 Graph of y = log b x
Basic properties
The graph of y = logb x,(b > 1) has the following properties.
1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.
2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (1, 0) i.e. the x-intercept of the graph is 1.
4 The function increases, as x increases.
5 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are negative for 0 < x < 1 and they are positive for x > 1.
86
You will next discuss what the graph of the function y = logb x looks like when 0 < b < 1.
i different coordinate systems; ii the same coordinate system.
a h (x) = log 1 x b k (x) = log 2 x
2 3
Solution: Calculate the values of the given functions for some values of x as shown in
the tables below. Then plot the corresponding points on the co-ordinate
system. Join these points by smooth curves to get the required graphs as
indicated in Figure 2.17 and 2.18.
1 1 1
x 8 4 2 1 2 4 8
h ( x ) = log 1 x
2 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
27 9 3 2 4 8
x 8 4 2 1 3 9 27
k ( x ) = log 2 x
3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y y
3
3
2
2
1
1
x
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-1 y =y =log
log  1x
x y = log  2  x
1
 
  -2
2
 2
y = log  2 x 
-2  3
 
 3
-3
Figure 2.17 Graph of h( x) = log 1  x Figure 2.18 Graph of k ( x) = log 2  x
   
2  3
y
3
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 y = log  1  x
y = log
  1  x
 2 2 
-2
-3
-4 y = log
y = log xx
2
2
 
3
 
3
Figure 2.19 Graphs of y = log  1  x and y = log  2  x drawn using the same coordinate axes
   
 2  3
87
In general, the graph of f ( x) = log b x for 0 < b < 1 looks like the one given below .
y
y = log b x x
log b x ,
0 < b0 << b1< 1
y =
Figure 2.20
Basic properties
The graph of y = logb x,(0 < b < 1) has the following properties.
1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.

2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph has its x-intercept at (1, 0) i.e. its x-intercept is 1.
4 The function decreases as x increases.
5 The y-axis is an asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are positive when 0 < x < 1 and they are negative
when x > 1.
Exercise 2.8
1 Draw the graphs of:
a h(x) = log3 x and g ( x) = log 1  x using the same co-ordinate system.

 
 3
b k(x) = log 10 x and f ( x) = log  1  x using the same co-ordinate system.

 
 10 
2 Referring to the functions in Question 1,

a what are the domain and the range of each function?
b what is the x-intercept of each?
c which functions are increasing and which are decreasing?
d find the asymptotes of the graphs of the functions.
88
2.3.2 The Relationship Between the Functions

y = b x and y = logb x (b > 0 , b ≠1)
Consider the following tables of values that we constructed in the previous section for
y = 2x and y = log2 x .
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
f (x) = 2x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
f (x) = log2 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
ACTIVITY 2.10
Refer to the tables of values for y = 2x and y = log 2 x to answer the
following questions:
1 How are the values of x and y related in the functions y = 2x and y = log 2 x ?
2 Sketch the graphs of the two functions using the same co-ordinate system.
3 Find a relationship between the domain and the range of the two functions.
4 Draw the line y = x using the same co-ordinate system.
5 How are the graphs of y = 2x and y = log 2 x related?
6 What is the significance of the line y = x?
Example 1 Let us consider the functions y = 10x and y = log10 x.
The tables of values for y = 10x and y = log10 x for some integral values of x are
given below:
x −2 −1 0 1 2
1 1 1 10 100
y =10x
100 10
1 1
x 1 10 100
100 10
y = log10 x −2 −1 0 1 2
Observe that:
The values of x and y are interchanged in both functions. That is, the domain of y = 10x
is the range of y = log10 x and vice versa.
89
5
y
4 y = 10 x y=x
1
y = log10 x
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Figure 2.21
x
y = 10 is obtained by reflecting y = log10 x along the line y = x.
In such cases we say one of the functions is the inverse of the other.
In general, the relation between the functions y = bx and y = logb x (b > 1) is shown
below:
y= bx xx y=x
y y=a
=b
y= = log
y log a xb x
1
Figure 2.22
From the graphs above, we observe the following relationships:
1 The domain of y = bx is the set of all real numbers, which is the same as the range
of y = logb x.
2 The range of y = bx is the set of all positive real numbers, which is the same as the
domain of y = logb x.
3 The x-axis is the asymptote of y = bx, whereas the y-axis is the asymptote of
y = logb x.
4 y = bx has a y-intercept at (0, 1) whereas y = logb x has an x-intercept at (1, 0).
Domain of y = bx is equal to the range of y = logb x.
Range of y = bx is equal the domain of y = logb x.
The functions f (x) = bx and g (x) = logb x (b > 1) are inverses of each other.
90
2.3.3 The Natural Logarithm

If we start with natural exponential function y = ex and interchange x and y, we obtain
x = e y which is the same as y = loge x .
y = loge x is the mirror image of y = e x along the line y = x.
Notation: ln x is used to represent loge x.
ln x is called the natural logarithm of x.
The graphs of y = e x, y = ln x and the line y = x are shown below:
y=x
5 y = ex
y y = ex y=x
4
2 y = ln x
y = lnx
1
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
Figure 2.23
Example 1 Find:
1
a ln1 b ln e c ln e2 d ln e e ln
e
Solution:
a ln1= 0 because e0 = 1 b ln e = 1 because e1 = e
1
1 1
c ln e = 2ln e = 2 × 1 = 2
2
d ln e = ln e 2 = ln e =
2 2
1
e ln = ln e –1 = –1ln e = –1
e
Note: In general, ln ex = x.
Exercise 2.9
1 Sketch the graphs of:
a f (x) = 4x , g (x) = log4 x and y = x using the same coordinate system.
x
 1
b h (x) =   and k (x) = log  1  x using the same coordinate system.
 4  
4
91
c How do you compare the domain and the range of the functions f and g
given in Question 1a?
d How do you compare the domain and the range of the functions h and k
given in Question 1b?
2 Find:
1
a ln 3
e b ln c ln e3x d eln 3
e2
3 Simplify:
 ex 
a ln e a
b ln (e × e ) c ln (e × e )
x y
d ln  y 
e 
2.4 EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS

AND LOGARITHMS
An exponential equation is an equation with an unknown in the exponent.
Examples of exponential equations are:
4x = 8 4x − 2x+1 − 8 = 0
9 x + 4 x = 33 x+7
2
23x-2 = 5
A logarithmic equation is an equation that involves the logarithm of an unknown.
Examples of logarithmic equations are:
4log x = −5 log x ( x − 6 ) = 2
log (x +3) + log x = 1 log 2 x + log 4 ( x + 2 ) = 2
2.4.1 Solving Exponential Equations

Properties of exponents discussed in the previous sections play a major role in solving
exponential equations. Read carefully through the properties below, to refresh your
memory!
If a and b are positive numbers, a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, and m and n are real numbers, then
1 am × an = am+n 2 (am)n = amn
n
a an
3 (a × b)n = an × bn 4   =
b bn
am 1 1
5 = a m−n 6 a−n = n and −n = an
an a a
−k k
a b
7 It is always true that for k > 0,   = 
b a
92
Additional properties:
Property of equality for exponential equations
For b > 0, b ≠1, x and y real numbers,
1 bx = by, if and only if x = y
2 ax = bx, (x ≠ 0), if and only if a = b
Example 1 Solve for x.
2 x+1 x x −3
1  2  9 1
a x
3 = 81 b x
2 = c   =  d 4 = 
x
32  3  4 2
Solution:
a 3x = 81 = 34 … look for a common base
⇒ x=4 … property of equality of bases
1
b 2x = 5
= 2−5 … look for a common base
2
⇒ x = −5 … property of equality of bases
2 x+1 x x −3
 2  9 1
c   =  d 4 = 
x
 3  4 2
2 x +1 2x −2 x
2  3 2
⇒   =  =  ⇒ 4x = (2−1)x − 3 = 2 (−x + 3)
3  2 3
⇒ 2x + 1 = −2x ⇒ (22)x = 2 (−x + 3)
⇒ 2x +2x = −1 ⇒ 22x = 2 (−x + 3)
1
⇒ x =− ⇒ 2x = −x + 3 ⟹ x = 1
4
If you cannot easily write each side of an exponential equation using the same base, you
can solve the equation by taking logarithms of each side.
Example 2 Solve for x, by taking the logarithm of each side:
a 4x = 10 b 23x −2 = 5 c 22x = 11
Solution:
a 4x = 10
log 4 x = log10 … taking the logarithm of each side
x log 4 = 1 … since log10 =1, and log ak = k log a
1 1
x= = = 1.6609
log 4 0 .6021
93
b 23x −2 = 5 c 22x = 11
⇒ log 2(3x −2) = log 5 ⇒ log 22x = log 11
⇒ (3x−2)log 2 = log 5 ⇒ 2x log 2 = log 11
log5 log11
⇒ 3x−2 = ⇒ 2x =
log 2 log 2
log5 1  log11 
⇒ 3x = +2 ⇒x=   = 1.730
log 2 2  log 2 
1 log5
⇒ x= ( + 2) = 1.4408
3 log 2
Exercise 2.10
1 Solve for x:
x 3−x 3x − 8 3x + 9
a 5 = 625 b 2 = 16 c 4 =2
2x
1 1
3− = 81 2 x −2 = 4
2
x
d 27 =  9  e f
 
2
x −1 2x
x +x  27  3  32 
= 49
2 6(x+2) x+2
g 7 h 3 =9 i 3  = 2 
 8   243 
2 Solve for x by taking the logarithm of each side:
x x 3x + 1 x
a 2 = 15 b 10 = 14.3 c 10 = 92 d 1.05 = 2
3x 2x 5x − 2 x
e 6 =5 f 4 =61 g 10 = 348 h 2- = 0.238
2.4.2 Solving Logarithmic Equations

Properties of logarithms discussed in the previous sections play a major role in solving
logarithmic equations. Remember that
If a, b, c, x and y are positive numbers and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, then
1 logb xy = logb x + logb y
 x
2 logb   = logb x − logb y
 y
3 For any real number k, logb (xk) = klogb x
4 logb b = 1
5 logb 1 = 0
logb x
6 log a x = … change of base law
logb a
7 blogb x = x
94
Example 1 Solve each of the following for x, checking that your solutions are valid.
a log2 (x – 3) = 5 b log4 (5x – 1) = 3
c log (x + 3) + log x = 1 d log3 (x + 1) - log3 (x + 3) = 1
e log 8x + log ( x – 20 ) = 3
Solution:
a log 2 (x – 3) = 5 ⇒ 25 = x – 3 … changing to exponential form
Hence, 32 = x – 3
Therefore, x = 35
Check!
From the definition of logarithms, we know that log 2 (x – 3) is valid only when
x – 3 > 0, i.e. When x > 3. So {x | x > 3} = ( 3 , ∞) is known as the universe for
log2(x – 3). Since x = 35 is an element of the universe, x = 35 is the solution of the
given equation.
A universe is the largest set in ℝ for which the given expression is defined.
b log4 (5x – 1) is valid when 5x – 1 > 0
so x > . Therefore, the universe U =  , ∞ 

1 1
5 5 
log 4 (5x – 1) = 3
⇒ 5x −1 = 43
⇒ 5x = 64 + 1
= 13.Since 13∈  , ∞  , x = 13 is the solution.

65 1
⇒ x=
5 5 
c Remember that log (x + 3) is valid for x > -3 and log x is valid for x > 0.
Therefore log (x + 3) + log x is valid for x > 0. So U = ( 0 , ∞).
Now log (x + 3) + log x = 1
⇒ log x(x+3) = 1 … since log x + log y =log x y
⇒ x(x + 3) = 10 1
… changing to exponential form
⇒ 2
x + 3x – 10 = 0
⇒ (x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
Thus, x = –5 or x = 2
But –5 is NOT an element of the universe.
So, the only solution is x = 2.
95
d log3 (x + 1) – log3 (x + 3) is valid for x + 1 > 0 and x + 3 > 0,

i.e. for x > −1 and x > −3.
Therefore the U = (–1, ∞).
log3 (x + 1) – log3 (x + 3) = 1
 x +1  x
⇒ log 3  
 x+3 = 1 … since logb ( ) = logb x − logb y
y
x +1
⇒ x +3 = 3
1
⇒ x +1 = 3( x + 3) = 3x + 9
Therefore –2x = 8 and x = – 4.
However, – 4 is NOT in the universe. Hence, there is no x satisfying the given
equation and the solution set is the empty set.
e log 8x + log (x – 20) is valid for 8x > 0 and x – 20 > 0; i.e. for x > 0 and x > 20.
So U = ( 20 , ∞).
Now log 8x + log (x – 20) = 3
⇒ log 8x( x – 20 ) = 3 … logb xy = logb x + logb y
⇒ 8x(x – 20) =103 = 1000
⇒ 8x2 – 160x = 1000
⇒ 8x2 – 160x – 1000 = 0
⇒ 8(x2 – 20x – 125) = 0
⇒ x2 – 20x – 125 = 0
⇒ (x – 25)(x + 5) = 0
So x = 25 or x = –5. But –5∉( 20, ∞)
So the only solution is x = 25.
Property of equality for logarithmic equations
If b, x, and y are positive numbers with b ≠ 1, then
log b x = logb y, if and only if x = y.
For instance, if log2 x = log2 7, then x = 7. If x = 7, then log2 x = log2 7.
Example 2 Solve each of the following for x.
a log 3x – log(2 - x) = 0
b log5 (4x – 7) = log5 (x + 5)
c log( x – 5 ) + log ( 10 – x ) = log ( x – 6 ) + log ( x–1)
96
Solution:
a log 3x is valid when x > 0 and log(2 − x ) is valid when 2 − x > 0 i.e. x < 2.
So U = (0, 2).
Now log 3x – log(2 − x) = 0 gives
log 3x = log(2 - x)
Hence, 3x = 2 – x … property of equality
⇒ 3x + x = 2
1
So x = is the solution in (0, 2).
2
7
b log 5 (4 x − 7) is valid when x > and log 5 ( x + 5) is valid when x > –5.
4
So U =  , ∞  . Next log5 (4x – 7) = log5 (x + 5) gives

7
4 
4x – 7 = x + 5 ⇒ 3x = 12 . So x = 4 is the solution.
c The term log (x – 5) is valid when x > 5, the term log (10 – x) is valid when
x < 10, the term log (x – 6) is valid when x > 6, and the term log ( x – 1) is
valid when x > 1.
If we restrict the universe to the set of all real numbers x between 6 and 10
or 6 < x < 10, every term in the equation is valid.
Therefore (6 ,10) is the universe.
log(x – 5) + log(10 – x) = log(x – 6) + log(x – 1)
⇒ log((x – 5)(10 – x )) = log((x – 6)(x – 1))
⇒ (x – 5)(10 – x) = (x – 6)(x – 1)
⇒ –x2 + 15x – 50 = x2 – 7x + 6
⇒ 15x – 50 = 2x2 – 7x + 6 … adding x2 to both sides
⇒ –50 = 2x2 – 22x + 6
⇒ 0 = 2x2 – 22x + 56
⇒ 0 = x2 – 11x + 28 … dividing both sides by 2
⇒ (x – 7) (x – 4) = 0.
⇒ x = 7 or x = 4, but only 7 is in the universe.
Hence x = 7 is the solution.
97
Exercise 2.11
1 State the universe and solve each of the following for x:
a log3 (2x – 1) = 5 b log x = −6
2
c log3 (x2 – 2x) = 1 d log2 (x2 + 3x +2) = 1
1
e log2 (1+ ) = 3 f log2 (x – 1) + log2 3 = 3
x
2
g log (x – 121) – log (x + 11) = 1 h log3 (x + 4) – log3 (x – 1)
i log (6x + 5) – log 3 = log 2 – log x j log x – log 3 = log 4 – log (x + 4 )
k log3 (x + 1) + log3(x + 3) = 1 l log22 + log2(x + 2) – log2(3x – 5) = 3
m logx (x + 6) = 2
2 Apply the property of Equality for Logarithmic Equations to solve the following
equations (Check that your solutions are valid):
a log3 x + log3 5 = 0 b log3 25 − 2log3 x = 0
c log 5 x + log 5 ( x + 1) = log 5 2 d log 2x – log16 = 0
6(x + 2) x+2
e log4(3 ) – log4( 9 )= 0 f log2(x2 – 9) –log2(3 + x) = 2
2.5 APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL AND

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
As mentioned at the start of this unit, exponential and logarithmic functions are used in
describing and solving a wide variety of real-life problems. In this section we will
discuss some of their applications.
Example 1 Population Growth
a Suppose that you are observing the behaviour of cell duplication in a
laboratory. In an experiment, you started with one cell and the cells doubled
every minute.
i Write an equation to determine the number of cells after one hour.
ii Determine how long it would take for the number of cells to reach
100,000.
b Ethiopia has a population of around 80 million people, and it is estimated
that the population grows every year at an average growth rate of 2.3%. If
the population growth continues at the same rate;
i What will be the population after
• 10 years? • 20 years?
ii How many years will it take the population to double? (Refer back to
the opening problem)
98
Solution and Explanation:

a i First record your observations by making a table with two rows, one
for the time and the other for the number of cells. The number of cells
depends on the time.
For example, at t = 0, there is 1 cell, and the corresponding point is (0, 1).
At t = 1, there are 2 cells, and the corresponding point is (1, 2).
At t = 2, there are 4 cells, and the corresponding point is (2, 4).
At t = 3, there are 8 cells, and the corresponding point is (3, 8), etc.
This relationship is summarized in the following table:
Time (in min.) (t) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of cells (y) 1= 2 2=2 4=2 8=2 16 = 2 32 = 2 64 = 26
Therefore, the formula to estimate the number of cells after t minutes is given by
f (t) = 2t
Determine the number of cells after one hour:
Convert one hour to minutes. (1 hr = 60 min)
Substitute 60 for t in the equation, f (t) = 2t:
f (60) = 260 = 1.15 × 1018 = 1,150,000,000,000,000,000
So the number of cells after 1 hour will be 1,150,000,000,000,000,000 = 1.15 × 1018.
ii In this example, you know the number of cells at the beginning of the
experiment (1) and at the end of the experiment (100,000), but you do
not know the time. Substitute 100,000 for f (t) in the equation f (t) = 2t:
100, 000 = 2t
Take the natural logarithm of both sides:
ln(100, 000) = ln(2t) ⇒ ln(100, 000) = t ln(2)
Divide both sides by ln(2):
ln (100,000)
t= ⇒ t = 16.60964 minutes
ln ( 2)
It would take about 16.6 minutes, for the number of cells to reach 100,000.
b i Let p represent the current population which is 80 million = 8.0 ×107;
let r represent the annual growth rate which is 2.3%;
let t represent the time in years from now.
The total population after one year:
A1 = 80 million + 2.3% (80 million) = 8.0 ×107 + 2.3% (8.0 ×107)
= 8.0 ×107(1 + 2.3%)
99
The total population after two years:

A2 = A1 + 2.3% (A1) = A1(1 + 2.3%) = 8.0 ×107 (1 + 2.3% )(1 + 2.3%)
= 8.0 ×107 (1 + 2.3%)2
The total population after three years:
A3 = A2 + 2.3% (A2) = A2 (1 + 2.3%) = 8.0 ×107 (1 + 2.3%)2(1 + 2.3%)
= 8.0 ×107(1 + 2.3%)3
From the above pattern we can generalize:
The total population after t years is given by the formula:
t
At = p (1 + r)
So the total population after 10 years will be
A10 = 8.0 ×107 (1 + 2.3%)10 = 100,426,036.81
The total population after twenty years will be
A20 = 8.0 ×107 [1 + 2.3% ]20 = 126,067,360.86
ii When will the total population double (be 160 million)? Find the time t.
The total population after t years is:
8.0 ×107 [1 + 2.3% ]t = 160,000,000
160, 000, 000
⇒ [1 + 2.3% ]t = = 2 ⇒ log(1 + 2.3%)t = log2
80, 000, 000
⇒ t log(1 + 0.023) = 0.3010 ⇒ t log(1.023) = 0.3010
0.3010 0.3010
Therefore, t = ≈ ≈ 30.40
log (1.023) 0.0099
Therefore, the current population is expected to double in about 30 years.
Example 2 Compound Interest
If Birr 5000 is invested at a rate of 6% compounded quarterly (4 times a year),
then
a what is the amount at the end of 4 years and 10 years?.
b how long does it take to double the investment?
nt
 r
Solution: We use the formula A = p 1 + 
 n
Here, p = 5000, r = 6% = 0.06
n = 4 (compounded 4 times)
100
a To find the balance at the end of the 4th year.

nt 4×4
 r  0.06 
A = p 1+  = 50001+  = 5000 (1 + 0.015)16
 n  4 
= 5000 (1.015)16 ≅ 5000 (1.2690) = Birr 6345
The balance at the end of the10th year is
nt 4×10
 r  0.06 
A = p 1+  = 50001+  = 5000 (1 + 0.015)40 = 5000 (1. 015)40
 n  4 
≅ 5000 (1.8140) = Birr 9070
b If the investment is to be doubled, A = 2p = 2 × 5000 = 10,000
nt
 r
A = p 1+ 
 n
4t
 0.06 
⇒ 10,000 = 50001+  = 5000 (1 + 0.015)
4t
 4 
⇒ 10,000 = 5000 (1.015)4t
2 = (1.015)4t … dividing both sides by 5000
4t
log2 = log (1.015) = 4t log (1.015)
log2 0.3010 46.30769
4t = = = 46.30769 ⇒ t = ≈ 11.58 years
log(1.015) 0.0065 4
It takes about 12 years to double the investment.
Example 3 Chemistry (Refer back to Activity 2.8)
The concentration of hydrogen ions in a given solution is donated by [H+] and is
measured in moles per litre. For example, [H+] = 0.0000501 for beer and
[H+] = 0.0004 for wine. Chemists define the pH of the solution as the number
pH= − log[H+ ] . The solution is said to be an acid if pH < 7 and a base if pH > 7.
Pure water has a pH of 7, which means it is neutral.
a Is beer an acid or a base? What about wine?
b What is the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of eggs if the pH of eggs is 7.8?
Solution:
a (Test for beer)
pH = − log[H+ ]
pH = − log[0.0000501] = − log[5.01×10−5 ] = −[log 5.01 + (−5)] = −[0.6998 + (−5)] = 4.3
Since pH = 4.3 < 7 beer is an acid.
101
(Test for wine)

pH = −log[H+] = −log[0.0004] = − log[4 ×10−4 ] = − log[4 + ( − 4 )]
= −[0.6021+(−4)] ≈ 3.4 ⇒ pH = 3.4 < 7.
So wine is an acid.
b pH = − log[H+ ] ⇒ − log[H+ ] = 7.8
⇒ log[H+ ] = −7.8 ⇒ [H+ ] = 10−7.8
⇒ [H+ ] = 1.58 ×10−8
Group Work 2.6

Newton’s Law of Cooling states that an object cools at a rate
proportional to the difference between the temperature of the
object and the room temperature. The temperature of the object
at a time t is given by a function
f(t) = cert + a,
where a = room temperature
c = initial difference in temperature between the object and the room
r = constant determined by data in the problem
Problem: Suppose you make yourself a cup of tea. Initially the water has a
temperature of 95oC; 5 minutes later the tea has cooled to 65oC.
When will the tea reach a drinkable temperature of 40oC?
Hint: Assume that the room temperature a = 22 oC. First solve for r and then
find t applying the natural logarithm.
Exercise 2.12
1 Suppose you are observing the behaviour of cell duplication in a laboratory. In one
experiment, you start with one cell and the cell population is tripling every minute.
a Write a formula to determine the number of cells after t minutes.
b Use your formula to calculate the number of cells after an hour.
c Determine how long it would take the number of cells to reach 100,000.
2 Suppose in an experiment you started with 100,000 cells and observed that the
cell population decreased by one half every minute.
a Write a formula for the number of cells after t minutes.
b Determine the number of cells after 10 minutes.
c Determine how long it would take the cell population to reach 10.
102
3 A Birr 1,000 deposits is made at a bank that pays 12% interest compounded
monthly. How much will be in the account at the end of 10 years?
4 If you start a Biology experiment with 5,000,000 cells and 25% of the cells are
dying every minute, how long will it be before there are fewer than 1,000 cells?
5 Learning curve: In psychological tests, it is found that students can memorize a
list of words after t hours, according to the learning curve y = 50 – 50e – 0.3t, where
y is the number of words a student can learn during the t th hour of study. Find how
many words a student would be expected to learn in the ninth hour of study.
6 The energy released by the largest earthquake recorded, measured in joules, is
about 100 billion times the energy released by a small earthquake that is barely
felt. In 1935 the California seismologist Charles Richter devised a logarithmic
scale that bears his name and is still widely used. The magnitude M on the Richter
scale is given as follows:
2 E
M = log Richter scale
3 E0
where E is the energy released by the earthquake measured in joules, and E0 is the
energy released by a very small reference earth quake which has been
standardized to be E 0 = 10 4.40 joules.
Question:
An earth quake in a certain town X released approximately 5.96 × 1016 joules of
energy. What was its magnitude on the Richter scale? Give your answer to two
decimal places.
7 Physics: The basic unit of sound measurement is called a bell, named after the
inventor of telephone, Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922). The loudest sound a
healthy person can hear without damage to the eardrum has an intensity 1 trillion
(1012) times that of the softest of sound a person can hear. The relationship of
loudness of sound L and intensities I and I° is given by
I
L = 10 log ,
I°
where L is measured in decibels, I 0 is the intensity of the least audible sound that
an average healthy person can hear, which is given by 10–12 watt per square meter,
and I is the intensity of the sound in question.
Question: Find the number of decibels:
a from an ordinary conversation with sound intensity I = 3.2 × 10–6 watt per
square meter.
b from a rock music concert with sound intensity I = 5.2 × 103 watt per square
centimetre.
103
Key Terms
antilogarithm exponential expression logarithmic expression
base exponential function logarithmic function
characteristics logarithm mantissa
common logarithm logarithm of a number natural logarithm
exponent logarithmic equation power
exponential equation
Summary
1 If n is a positive integer, then an is the product of n factors of a.

i.e. an = a × a × a × … × a
n factors
n n
In a , a is called the base, n is called the exponent and a is the nth power of a.
2 Laws of Exponents
For a and b positive and r and s real numbers
r
a
a a × a =a
r s r+s
b s
=a r -s
a
c (a r) s = a r s d (a × b) s = a s × b s
s
a a
s
e   = s
b b
3 Any non – zero number raised to zero is 1. (i.e. a0 = 1, for a ≠ 0)
1
4 For a ≠ 0 and n > 0, a − n = .
an
−n n
a b
5 For a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 and n > 0,   =  
b a
1
6 For any real number a ≥ 0 and any integer n > 1, a n = n a .
n
a ∈ ℝ if a ∈ ℝ and n is odd ; n
a ∉ ℝ if a < 0 and n is even .
104
( a)
m
m
7 If a > 0 and m, n are integers with n > 1, a n = n a m = n
.
x1
8 If x is an irrational number and a > 0, then ax is a real number between a and
ax2 for all possible choices of rational numbers x1 and x2 such that x1 < x < x2.
9 For a fixed positive number b ≠ 1, and for each a > 0 , bc = a, if and only if
c = logb a. ( c = logb a is read as “c is the logarithm of a to the base b”)
10 Laws of logarithms
If b, x and y are positive numbers and b ≠ 1, then
x
a logb xy = logb x + logb y b logb   = logb x − logb y
 y
c For any real number k, log b x k = k log b x d log b b = 1
e logb 1 = 0
11 Logarithms to base 10 are called common logarithms.
12 The characteristic of a common logarithm usually comes before the decimal point.
The mantissa is a positive decimal less than 1.
13 If a, b, c are positive real numbers, a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, then
logb c log c
a log a c = (“change of base law”) b b b =c
logb a
14 loge x = ln x is called the natural logarithm of x.

15 The function f (x) = bx, b > 0 and b ≠ 1 defines an exponential function.
16 The function f (x) = ex is called the natural exponential function.
17 All members of the family f (x) = bx
(b > 0, b ≠ 1) have graphs which y = (0.2)5x y = 5x
y = (0.5) x y y = 2x
pass through the point ( 0 , 1) 4
are above the x-axis for all values of x

3
are asymptotic to the x-axis

2
have domain the set of all real numbers.

1
have range the set of all positive real x

numbers. -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2.24
105
18 The function f (x) = logb x, b > 0 and b ≠ 1 is called a logarithmic function with
base b.
19 The function f (x) = loge x = lnx is called the natural logarithm of x.
20 All members of the family y = logb x, (b > 0, b ≠ 1) have graphs which
pass through the point (1, 0 ) y
are asymptotic to the y-axis

y = log b x
have domain the set of all positive real numbers b>1
have range the set of real numbers. x
y = log b x
0<b<1
Figure 2.25

1 Write the simplified form of each of the following expressions:
a 25 b −25 c 2−5 d −2−5
2 −2 2
 2  2 2−2  2
e   f   g −2
h − 
 3  3 3  3
2 Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following expressions:
3
2
 1
 64 2
a 25 × 22 b 6

2 
 c 3 d a−3b−3
  8 2
2
 x  d −4
e (4n )5 2
f   g h (x −3 )2
 2y  d −2
3x −1 4 − x 3x 5x−3 x y z
i e e j k l (2 3 )
31− x 5x−4
3 Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form:
1
a log 3 81 = 4 b log 25 5 =
2
1
c log 2 1 = −2 d log 1 =2
4 2 4
106
4 Find x if:
a log 2 x = 5 b log 4 16 = x c log 7 7 = x
d log x 16 = 2 e log 8 x = 1 f log 1 9 = x

3 3
1 3
g log 49 =x h log x 1000 =
7 2
5 Use the properties of logarithms to write each of the following expressions as a
single logarithm:
a log 10 2 + log 10 25 b log 5 18 − log 5 3
c 3log 3 5 − 2 log 3 7 d 5log a x + 3 log a y
 b 
e log a x3 + log a   f ln x3 − ln x
3x
6 Use the table of common logarithms to find:
a log 4.21 b log 0.99 c log 8.2
d log 123 e log 0.34 f log 8.88
g log 0.00001 h log 500
7 Find:
a antilog 0.4183 b antilog 0.3507 c antilog 0.5428
d antilog 0.8831 e antilog 5.9736 f antilog 1.7559
g antilog (−10) h antilog (−0.3)
8 Study the following graph (Figure 2.26) and answer the questions that follow:
4
y
3
2 y = bx
b>1
1
x
-2 2
-1
Figure 2.26
107
a Give the domain and the range of the function.

b What is the asymptote of the graph?
c Is the function increasing or decreasing?
d What is the y-intercept?
e For which values of x is bx greater than 1?
f What can you say about the value of bx if x is negative?
g For which values of x is bx less than zero?
9 Study the following graph (Figure 2.27) and answer the questions given below.
4
y
3
2
y = bx
0<b<1 1
x
-2 2
-1
Figure 2.27

d What is the y-intercept?
x
e For which values of x is b >1?
x
f What is the value of b if x is positive?
x
g For which values of x is b < 0?
10 Sketch the following pairs of functions using the same coordinate system:
a f (x) = 2x - 3 and g (x) = 2x + 3
b f (x) = 3x and g (x) = 3x + 2
x x+1
 3  3
c f (x) =   and g (x) =  
 5 5
x
x  1
d f (x) = 5 and g (x) =  
 5
108
11 Study the following graph (Figure 2.28) and answer the questions that follow:
4
y
3
y = logb x
2 b>1
1
x
2 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
Figure 2.28

d What is the x-intercept?
e For which values of x is logb x > 0?
f When is logb x < 0?

12 Sketch the following pairs of functions using the same coordinate system:
a f (x) = log 3 x and g(x) = log3 (x−2)
b f (x) = ln x and g(x) = ln( x + 2)
c f (x) = log5 x and g(x) = log  1  x
 
5
x
d f (x) = 5 and g(x) = log5 x
13 State the universe for each of the following functions:
a f (x) = log3 x b g (x) = log 1  ( x + 3)
 
 3
c f (x) = log3 (3− x ) d g (x) = log 9 (7x−12)

e f (x) = log2 (3 – x) + log2 (3 + x) f (
f (x) = log2 x 2 − 2 x )
109
14 Solve each of the following exponential equations:

1
a 3x = 27 b 23 − x = 16 c 5(4x – 5) =
25
43x − 8 = 23x + 9 +x
2
d e 365x = 6 f 7x = 49
2 
2x  x − 1
 243   8  3 
 = 3 
6(x + 2) x+2
g 2 =4 h 2
 32   27 
15 Solve each of the following for x, checking validity of solutions:
3
a log3 x = 3 b log16 x =
2
c log x e5 = 5 d log3x 2 − log9x = 2
e log x − log 3 = log 4 − log(x +4 ) f ln(x + 3 ) − ln x = 2ln 2
g ln ( 2x + 1 ) −ln( x – 1 ) = ln x h log ( x2 −3 ) = 2log( x – 1 )
i log ( 4 + x )5 = 5 j log2 x + log2 x2 = 15
k log5 ( 3 + x ) − log5 x = 2
16 If 2000 Birr is invested at 4% interest, compounded every year for 5 years, what is
the amount realized at the end of 5 years?
17 Suppose that the number of bacteria in a certain laboratory colony grows at the
rate of 5% per day. If there are 1000 bacteria present initially, then what will be
the number of bacteria present after:
a 1 day? b 2 days? c 3 days? d 10 days? e n days?
18 The population of country A is 8.25 × 107 and that of country B is 1.11 × 108. If
the annual growth of population of countries A and B are 5.2% and 2.6%,
respectively, when will countries A and B have the same population?
19 A car purchased for 30,000 Birr depreciates at the rate of 5% per annum, the
depreciation being worked out on the value of the car at the beginning of each
year. Find its value after 10 years.
Hint: If Vo is the value of a certain object at a certain time, and r % is the rate
of depreciation per year, then the value Vt at the end of t years is given
t
 r 
by:Vt = Vo  1 −  , where Vo is the initial value.
 100 
110
y
4
Unit 3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
x
-1
-2
SOLVING INEQUALITIES
Unit Outcomes:
know and apply methods and procedures in solving problems on inequalities
involving absolute value.
know and apply methods for solving systems of linear inequalities.
apply different techniques for solving quadratic inequalities.
Main Contents
3.1 Inequalities involving absolute value
3.2 Systems of linear inequalities in two variables
3.3 Quadratic inequalities
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
Recall that open statements of the form ax +b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b < 0 and ax + b > 0
for a ≠ 0 are inequalities with solutions usually involving intervals.
In this unit, you will study methods of solving inequalities involving absolute values,
system of linear inequalities in two variables and quadratic inequalities. You will also
learn about the applications of these methods in solving practical problems involving
inequalities.
3.1 INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE

VALUE
The methods frequently used for describing sets are the complete listing method, the
partial listing method and the set-builder method. Sets of real numbers or subsets may
be described by using the set-builder method or intervals (sets of real numbers between
any two given real numbers).
Notation: For real numbers a and b where a < b,
(a, b) is an open interval;
(a, b] and [a, b) are half closed or half open intervals; and
[a, b ] is a closed interval.
For example, (5, 9) is the set of real numbers between 5 and 9 and [5, 9] is the set of real
numbers between 5 and 9 including 5 and 9.
That is, (5, 9) = {x : 5 < x < 9 and x∈ ℝ}
[5, 9] = {x : 5 ≤ x ≤ 9 and x∈ℝ}
In general, if a and b are fixed real numbers with a < b, then
[a, b] = {x: a ≤ x ≤ b and x∈ ℝ } (a, b) = { x: a < x < b and x ∈ ℝ}
( −∞, a ] = { x: x ≤ a and x ∈ ℝ} (a, ∞)= { x: x > a and x ∈ ℝ}
Note: The symbol "∞" is used to mean positive infinity and "−∞" is used to mean
negative infinity.
Graphically, [a, b] is Graphically, (a, b) is
a≤x≤b a<x<b
( )
a b
a b Figure 3.2
Figure 3.1
Graphically, ( − ∞ , a] is Graphically, (a, ∞) is
x ≤a x>a
] (
a a
112
Unit 3 Solving Inequalities
Intervals are commonly used to express the solution sets of inequalities. For instance, let
us find the solution set of 2x + 4 ≤ 3x – 5.
2x + 4 ≤ 3x – 5 is equivalent to 2x – 3x < – 5 – 4 which is – x ≤ – 9.
Multiplying both sides by –1 gives x ≥ 9. (Remember that, when you multiply or divide
by a negative number, the inequality sign is changed).
So, the solution set is [9, ∞).
ACTIVITY 3.1
1 Discuss the 3-methods of describing sets: the complete listing
method, the partial listing method and the set-builder method.
2 Give examples for each of the methods used for describing a set.
3 Describe each of the following sets using any one of the methods.
a The set of numbers − 3, − 2, 1, 0, 2, 3.
b The set of all negative multiples of 2.
c The set of natural numbers greater than 6 and less than 50.
4 Describe each of the following sets using set-builder method:
a { . . . , –3, − 2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } b { 0, 3, 6, 9, . . . }
c [ − 3, 5) d [ 2, ∞ )
5 Write each of the following using intervals:
a { x: x∈ℝ\ {0}} b { x: –1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and x∈ℝ}
c { x : 0.2 < x ≤ 0.8 and x∈ ℝ} d { x : x∈ ℝ and x ≠ –1}
6 Find all values of x satisfying the following inequalities:
a 2x – 1 < 7 b 4<1–x<5
Look at the number line given below.
A C B
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Number line
Figure 3.5
What are the coordinates of points A and B, on the number line?
What is the distance of point A from the origin? What about B?
The number that shows only the distance from the point corresponding to zero (and not
the direction) is called the absolute value. For example, the point C (with coordinate –2)
is 2 units from the point corresponding to zero. This is denoted by −2 = 2.
113
On the number line, x is the distance between the point corresponding to number x and
the point corresponding to zero, regardless of whether the point is to the right or left of
the point corresponding to zero as shown in Figure 3.6 below.
|x|
x 0
Figure 3.6
Definition 3.1
If x is a real number, then the absolute value of x, denoted by x , is
defined by
 x, if x ≥ 0
x =
− x, if x < 0
Example 1
4  4 4 4
a 25 = 25 because 25 > 0 b − = −−  = because − < 0
5  5 5 5
ACTIVITY 3.2
1 Why is it always true that for any real number x, x  ≥ 0?
2 Evaluate each of the following expressions:
a −3 b 0 c − 5
d −3 −2 e 1− 2 f 3− 5
3 If x = –2 and y = 3, then evaluate each of the following:
a 6x + y b 6x + y c 2 x − 3y
4 Verify each of the following using examples:
a x − y = y − x b 2 x − 3 y = 3y − 2x c x2 = x
x x
d x y = xy e =
y y
Geometrically, the equation x = 5 means that the point with coordinate x is 5 units
away from the point corresponding to zero, on the number line. Obviously, the number
line contains two points that are 5 units from the point corresponding to zero, along one
to the left and the other to the right. So, x = 5 has two solutions, x = 5 and x = –5.
114
Theorem 3.1 Solutions of the equation x = a

For any real number a, the equation |x|= a has
i two solutions x = a and x = –a, if a > 0;
ii one solution, x = 0, if a = 0; and
iii no solution, if a < 0.
Example 2 Solve each of the following absolute value equations:

2
a 3x + 5 = 2 b x+1 =0 c 2x − 1= –3
3
Solution:
a  3x + 5  = 2 is equivalent to 3x + 5 = –2 or 3x + 5 = 2
⇒ 3x + 5 – 5 = –2 – 5 or 3x + 5 – 5 = 2 – 5
⇒ 3x = –7 or 3x = –3
7
⇒ x= − or x = –1
3
7
Therefore, x = − and x = –1 are the two solutions.
3
2
b We know that x  = 0 if and only if x = 0. Therefore, x + 1 = 0 is
3
2 2
equivalent to x + 1 = 0. Hence, x = − 1
3 3
3
⇒ x = − is the solution.
2
c Since x  ≥ 0 for all x ∈ ℝ, the given equation 2x − 1 = − 3 has no solution.
As discussed above | x| = 4 means x = –4 or x = 4. Hence, on the number line, the point
corresponding to x is 4 units away from the point corresponding to 0. We see that in
|x| ≤ 4, the distance between the point corresponding to x and the point corresponding to
0 is less than 4 or equal to 4. It follows that |x| ≤ 4 is equivalent to –4 ≤ x ≤ 4.
We have the following generalization.
Theorem 3.2 Solution of x < a and x ≤ a
For any real number a > 0,

i the solution of the inequality x < a is – a < x < a.
ii the solution of the inequality x ≤ a is – a ≤ x ≤ a.
115
Example 3 Solve each of the following absolute value inequalities:

a 2x – 5 < 3 b 3 – 5x  ≤ 1
Solution:
a 2x – 5 < 3 is equivalent to –3 < 2x – 5 < 3,
⇒ − 3 < 2x – 5 and 2x – 5 < 3
⇒ − 3 + 5 < 2x – 5 + 5 and 2x – 5 + 5 < 3 + 5
⇒ 2 < 2x and 2x < 8
⇒ 1 < x and x < 4 that is, 1 < x < 4
Therefore, the solution set is {x: 1 < x < 4} = (1, 4)
We can represent the solution set on the number line as follows:
( )
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
b 3 – 5x  ≤ 1 is equivalent to –1 ≤ 3 – 5x ≤ 1
⇒ –1 ≤ 3 – 5x and 3 – 5x ≤ 1
⇒ –1 – 3 ≤ 3 – 3 – 5x and 3 – 3 – 5x ≤ 1 – 3
⇒ – 4 ≤ –5x and –5x ≤ – 2
⇒ 5x ≤ 4 and 2 ≤ 5x
4 2 2 4
⇒ x≤ and x ≥ that is, ≤ x ≤
5 5 5 5
 2 4 2 4
Therefore, the solution set is  x : ≤ x ≤ =  , 
 5 5 5 5
Note: In | x| < a, if a < 0 the inequality |x| < a has no solution.
Theorem 3.3 Solution of x > a and x ≥ a
For any real number a, if a > 0, then

i the solution of the inequality |x| > a is x < – a or x > a.
ii the solution of the inequality x  ≥ a is x ≤ – a or x ≥ a.
Example 4 Solve each of the following inequalities:

3
a 5 + 2x  > 6 b − 2x ≥ 1 c 3− x > − 2
5
116
Solution: According to Theorem 3.3,

a 5 + 2x  > 6 implies 5 + 2x < – 6 or 5 + 2x > 6
⇒ 5 – 5 + 2x < – 6 – 5 or 5 – 5 + 2x > 6 – 5
⇒ 2x < – 11 or 2x > 1
−11 1
⇒ x< or x >
2 2
 11 1
Therefore, the solution set is  x : x < − or x >  .
 2 2
(Try to represent this solution on the number line)
3 3 3
b − 2 x ≥ 1 implies − 2 x ≤ −1 or − 2 x ≥ 1
5 5 5
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Hence, − 2 x ≤ −1 or − 2 x ≥ 1 gives − − 2x ≤ −1− or − − 2x ≥ 1−
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
−8 2
⇒ –2x ≤ or − 2x ≥
5 5
8 2
⇒ ≤ 2 x or − ≥ 2 x
5 5
4 1
⇒ x≥ or x ≤ −
5 5
 1 4
Therefore, the solution set is  x : x ≤ − or x ≥  .
 5 5
c By definition, 3 − x = x − 3 ≥ 0. So, | 3–x| > –2 is true for all real numbers x.
Therefore, the solution set is ℝ .
Group Work 3.1

1 Given that a < 0 < b, express the following without absolute
value.
b
a a − b b ab − a c
a
2 For any real number a, show that
a a ≤ a
Hint: If a ≥ 0, then |a| = a. So, a ≤ |a|.
If a < 0, then |a| > 0. Compare a and |a|
b − a ≤ a ≤ a
117
3 For any real numbers x and y, show that

a x+y ≤ x + y
Hint: Start from |x + y|2 = (x + y)2 and expand. Then use 2b above.
b x − y ≥ x − y
4 Solve each of the following
3x − 1 1
a +x ≤ 7+ x b −2 ≥ 8 − 4 x + 6
2 2
1
c x − 2 >1 d 2x − 1 < x + 3
4
Exercise 3.1
1 Simplify and write each of the following using intervals:
a { x : x∈ ℝ and x ≠ –2 } b { x : –1 ≤ x – 2 ≤ 2 }
c { x: x + 3 > 2 } d { x : 5x − 9 ≤ 9 }
e { x: 2x + 3 ≥ –5x} f {x: 2x –1 < x < 3}
2 Solve each of the following inequalities:
8x − 3 1
a 2x – 5 ≥ 3x b 3x + 1 < c t + 2 > 3 (5 − t )
2 4
3 A number y is 15 larger than a positive number x. If their sum is not more than
85, what are the possible values of such number y?
2 1
4 If x = − and y = , then evaluate the following:
3 5
3x − 2y
a 6x + 5y  b 3x  – 10y  c  3x – 10y  d
x+y
5 Solve each of the following absolute value equations:
a 3x + 6  = 7 b 5x – 3  = 9 c x – 6 = –6
3 1 1
d 7 – 2x  = 0 e  6 – 3x  + 5 = 14 f x+ =
4 8 2
6 Solve each of the following absolute value inequalities and express their solution
sets in intervals:
2 1 1
a 3 – 5x  ≤ 1 b 5x  – 2 < 8 c x− ≥
3 9 3
d  6 – 2x  + 3 > 8 e  3x + 5  ≤ 0 f x–1>–2
7 For any real numbers a, b and c such that a ≠ 0 and c > 0, solve each of the
following inequalities:
a ax + b< c b ax + b≤ c c ax + b> c d ax + b≥ c
118
3.2 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN

TWO VARIABLES
Recall that a first degree (linear) equation in two variables has the form
ax + by = c
where a and b both are not 0.
When two or more linear equations involve the same variables, they are called a system
of linear equations. An ordered pair that satisfies all the linear equations of a system is
called a solution of the system. For instance
2 x − y = 7

 x + 5 y = −2
is a system of two linear equations. What is its solution?
ACTIVITY 3.3
1 What can you say about the solution set of two linear equations
if their graphs do not intersect?
2 Find the solutions of each of the following systems of equations, graphically:
 x − y = −2  x+ y = 2  x + 2y = 4
a  b  c 
x + y = 6 2 x + 2 y = 8 2 x + 4 y = 8
3 Find three different ordered pairs which belong to R where
R = {(x, y): y ≤ x + 1}.
4 Draw the graph of R given in Question 3 above.
5 Draw the graphs of each of the following relations:
a R = {(x , y): x ≥ y and y > x – 1} b R = {(x, y): y ≤ x + 1 and y >1 – x}.
6 Solve each of the following systems of inequalities and write your answer in
interval notation:
 x ≥ −1
 x − y < 3
a x ≤ 3 b 
y ≥ 0  x≥2

A system of two linear equations in two variables often involves a pair of straight lines
in the plane. The solution set of such a system of equations can be determined from the
graph and is the set of all ordered pairs of coordinates of points which lie on both lines.
x − y = 3
Example 1 Find the solution set of the system of equations  .
x + 2 y = 0
119
Solution: First draw the graphs of x – y = 3 and x + 2y = 0 as shown below.

y
5
4
3
x + 2y = 0 x–y=3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 •
-2 (2, -1)
-3
Figure 3.7
The two lines intersect at (2, –1).
Therefore, the solution set of the system is {(2, –1)}.
In a system of equations, if “=” is replaced by “<”, “>”, “≤” or “≥”, the system
becomes a system of linear inequalities.
Example 2 Find the solution of the following system of inequalities graphically:
 y ≥ −3 x + 2

y < x − 2
Solution: First draw the graph of one of the boundary lines, y = –3x + 2,
corresponding to the first inequality.
The graph of y ≥ –3x + 2 consists of points on or above the line y = –3x + 2 as
shown in Figure 3.8a. This is obtained by taking a test point say (2, 0), and
checking that 0 ≥ –3(2) +2 = –4 is true. Next, draw the graph of the other
boundary line, y = x – 2, corresponding to the second inequality. The graph of
y < x – 2 consists of points below the line y = x – 2. Points on the line are excluded
as shown in Figure 3.8b.
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
y ≥ -3x + 2
2 2
1 1
x x
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2 y<x-2
-3 -3
a b
Figure 3.8
120
These graphs have been drawn using different coordinate systems in order to see
them separately. Now, draw them using the same coordinate system. The part of the
coordinate system marked with both types of shading is the solution set for the system
as shown in Figure 3.9b.
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
y ≥ -3x + 2
2 2
1 1
x x
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2
y ≥ -3x + 2
-2
y<x-2
-3 -3
-4 -4
y<x-2
a b
Figure 3.9
 y ≥ −3x + 2
The solution set of  is shown by the cross-shaded region in the
y < x − 2
diagram.
 y = −3x + 2
Solving  , we get –3x + 2 = x – 2
y = x − 2
Therefore, x = 1 and y = –1
So, x > 1, –3x + 2 ≤ y < x – 2
Hence, the solution set of the system is expressed as
{( x, y ) : −3x + 2 ≤ y < x − 2 and 1 < x < ∞}
Example 3 Find the solution of each of the following systems of linear inequalities,
graphically:
x + y < 3 y + x > 0
 
a x ≥ 0 b y − x ≤1
y ≥ 0 x ≤ 2
 
Solution:
a Here, our objective is to determine the set of points whose coordinates (x, y)
satisfy all three of these conditions. To do so, let us draw each boundary line
as shown below. The points satisfying the conditions x > 0 are those lying to
the right of the y-axis as shown in Figure 3.10a.
121
4
y 4
y 4
y
3 3 3
2 2
x>0 y>0 x+y<32
1 1 1
x x x
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
a b c
Figure 3.10
The points (x, y) with y > 0 are the points that lie above the x-axis as shown in
Figure 3.10b. The points (x, y) with x + y < 3 is the set of points lying below the
line x + y = 3. Points on the line are excluded.
Now, draw the graph of the three inequalities x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and x + y < 3, using the
same coordinate system, taking only the intersection of the three regions.
y
4
1
x
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
Figure 3.11
The points satisfying the system of inequalities are the points that satisfy all the
three inequalities. The corresponding region is the triangular region shaded in
Figure 3.11. That is, the set of (x, y) such that x ∈ [0, 3) and y ∈ [0, 3 – x)
b First, draw the graph of the boundary line x + y = 0 (or y = − x) for the first
inequality. The graph of x + y > 0 consists of points above the line.
Points on the line are excluded as shown in Figure 3.12a.
4
y 4y
y 4
y
–x=1
3 3 3 x=2
2 2 2
y+x>0 x≤2
1 1 y-x≤1 x 1
x
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
a b c
Figure 3.12
122
Next, draw the graph of the boundary line y – x = 1 for the second inequality. The
graph of y – x ≤ 1 consists of points on and below the line y – x = 1 as shown in
Figure 3.12b.
Finally, draw the graph of the boundary line x = 2 for the third inequality. The
points (x, y) satisfying the condition x ≤ 2 are those lying on and to the left of the
line x = 2 as shown in Figure 3.12c.
Now, draw the graph of the three inequalities using the same coordinate
system as shown in Figure 3.13a.
y y−x=1
4 4
y
3 3 • (2, 3)
2
2 y-x≤1
 1 1 1
- 2, 2 
1   •
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
x -1
3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -2 • (2, -2)
-1
-3
-2 y+x>0
x≤2 x=2 y+x=0
-3 a b
Figure 3.13
Because there are infinite solutions to the system, the elements cannot be listed.
But the graph is easy to describe. The solution is the triangular region with
 1 1
vertices  − ,  , ( 2, 3) and ( 2, − 2 ) , except those points on the line y + x = 0, as
 2 2
shown in Figure 3.13b.
ACTIVITY 3.4
1 By observing the graph of the inequality given in Figure 3.13b,
name at least 10 ordered pairs that satisfy the inequality.
2 If R = {(x, y): y + x > 0, y – x ≤1 and x ≤ 2}, what is the domain and range of R?
We shall now consider an example involving an application of a system of linear
inequalities.
Example 4 A furniture company makes tables and chairs. To produce a table it
requires 2 hrs on machine A, and 4 hrs on machine B. To produce a chair
it requires 3 hrs on machine A and 2 hrs on machine B. Machine A can
operate at most 12 hrs a day and machine B can operate at most 16 hrs a
day. If the company makes a profit of Birr 12 on a table and Birr 10 on a
chair, how many of each should be produced to maximize its profit?
123
Solution: Let x be the number of tables to be produced and y be the number of

chairs to be produced.
Then, if a table is produced in 2 hrs on machine A, x tables require 2x hrs.
Similarly, y chairs require 3y hrs on machine A. On machine B, x tables require
4x hrs and y chairs require 2y hrs. Since machines A and B can operate at most
12 hrs and 16 hrs, respectively, you have the following system of linear inequalities.
From machine A: 2x + 3y ≤ 12
From machine B: 4x + 2y ≤ 16
Also, x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 since x and y are numbers of tables and chairs.
Hence, you obtain a system of linear inequalities given as follows:
 2 x + 3 y ≤ 12
 4 x + 2 y ≤ 16


x ≥ 0
 y ≥ 0
Since the inequalities involved in the system are all linear, the boundaries of the
graph of the system are straight lines. The region containing the solution to the
system is the quadrilateral shown below.
8 y
2x + 3y = 12 7
6
5
(0, 4)
4 •
3
(3, 2)
2 •
1
(4, 0)
• • x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
(0, 0)
-2
4x + 2y = 16
-3
-4
Figure 3.14
The profit made is Birr 12 on a table, so Birr 12x on x tables and Birr 10 on a
chair, so Birr 10y on y chairs. The profit function P is given by P = 12x + 10y.
The values of x and y which maximize or minimize the profit function on such a
system are usually found at vertices of the solution region.
Hence, from the graph, you have the coordinates of each vertex as shown in
Figure 3.14.
124
The profit: P = 12x + 10y at each vertex is found to be:

At (0, 0), P = 12 (0) + 10 (0) = 0
At (0, 4), P = 12 (0) + 10 (4) = 40
At (3, 2), P = 12 (3) + 10 (2) = 56
At (4, 0), P = 12 (4) + 10 (0) = 48
Therefore, the profit is maximum at the vertex (3, 2), so the company should
produce 3 tables and 2 chairs per day to get the maximum profit of Birr 56.
Group Work 3.2

1 Find the solutions of each of the following systems of linear
inequalities graphically:
y + x ≥ 0 x + y < 1
 
a y − x ≥ 0 b  2 x − y > −1
y ≤ 3  y − 3 x ≥ −3
 
2 Let R = {(x, y): y > x, y > – x and y ≤ 3} and
r = {(x, y): x + y < 1, 2x – y > – 1 and y – 3x > –3}
Using Question 1 above, find the domain and range of the relations R and r.
Exercise 3.2
1 Draw the graphs of each of the following relations:
a R = {( x , y) : x – y ≥ 1 and 2x + y < 3}
b R = {( x , y) : x ≤ y – 1 and y – 2x > 2}
c R = {( x, y) : x > y ; x > 0 and y – x < 1}
d R = {(x , y) : x + y ≥ 0 ; y ≥ 0 and x + y < 1}
2 Solve each of the following system of linear inequalities graphically:
 y ≤ 2x + 3 3x + y < 5  y ≤ 1− x
  
a y − x ≥ 0 b x > 0 c  y > x+2
y > 0 x + y < 6  y>0
  
 x ≥ −1 x > 0
 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 
d y ≤ 2 e  f y > 0
 y ≥ x −1 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 x + y < 4
 
125
3 Describe each of the following shaded regions with a system of linear inequalities:
2x – 3y + 6 = 0
y
4
y–x = 2
3 4
y
3
y=x
2
2
1
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-2
-3 -3
a b
4 y y
4
3
3
2
2
1
x 1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
y+x= 2 -2
-3 y–x=1
-3 x=3
c d
Figure 3.15
4 Give a pair of linear inequalities that describes the set of all points in the first
quadrant.
5 Give a system of linear inequalities whose solution set is all the points inside a
rectangle.
6 Suppose the sum of two positive numbers x and y is less than 10 and greater than 5.
Show all possible values for x and y graphically.
7 Suppose a shoe factory produces both low-grade and high-grade shoes. The
factory produces at least twice as many low-grade as high-grade shoes. The
maximum possible production is 500 pairs of shoes. A dealer calls for delivery of
at least 100 high-grade pairs of shoes per day. Suppose the operation makes a
profit of Birr 2.00 per a pair of shoes on high-grade shoes and Birr 1.00 per pairs
of shoes on low-grade shoes. How many pairs of shoes of each type should be
produced for maximum profit?
Hint: Let x denote the number of high-grade shoes.
Let y denote the number of low-grade shoes.
126
3.3 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

In Unit 2 of Grade 9 mathematics, you have learnt how to solve quadratic equations.
\
(Recall that equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 are quadratic equations.)

Can similar methods be used to solve quadratic inequalities?
Definition 3.2
An inequality that can be reduced to any one of the following forms:
ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 or ax2 + bx + c < 0,
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 or ax2 + bx + c > 0,
where a, b and c are constants and a ≠ 0, is called a quadratic inequality.
For example x2 – 3x + 2 < 0, x2 + 1 ≥ 0, x2 + x ≤ 0 and x2 − 4 > 0 are all quadratic

inequalities.
The following activity will help you to recall what you have learned about quadratic
equations in Grade 9.
ACTIVITY 3.5
1 Which of the following are quadratic equations?
a x – 2 = x2 + 2x b x2 – 2x = x2 + 3x + 6
c 2 (x – 4) – (x – 2) = (x + 2) (x – 4) d x3 – 3 = 1 + 4x + x2
e (x – 1) (x + 2) ≥ 0 f x(x –1) (x + 1 ) = 0.
2 Which of the following are quadratic inequalities?
a 2x2 ≤ 5x + x2 – 3 b 2x2 > 2x + x2 + 8
c x (1 – x) ≤ (x + 2) (1 – x) d 3x2 + 5x + 6 > 0
e 5 – 2 (x2 + x) < 6x – 2x2 f (x – 2) (x + 1) ≥ 2 – 2x
2
g – 1 > (x + 1) (x + 2).
3 If the product of two real numbers is zero, then what can you say about the two
numbers?
4 Factorize each of the following if possible:
1
a x2 + 6x b 35x – 28x2 c − 25 x 2 d 4x2 + 7x + 3
16
e x2 – x + 3 f x2 + 2x – 3 g 3x2 –11x – 4 h x2 + 4x + 4.
5 Given a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
a what is its discriminant?
b state what must be true about the discriminant so that the equation has one real
root, two distinct real roots, and no real root.
127
3.3.1 Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using

Product Properties
Suppose you want to solve the quadratic inequality
(x – 2) (x + 3) > 0.
Check that x = 3 makes the statement true while x = 1 makes it false. How do you find
the solution set of the given inequality? Observe that the left hand side of the inequality
is the product of x – 2 and x + 3. The product of two real numbers is positive, if and
only if either both are positive or both are negative. This fact can be used to solve the
given inequality.
Product properties:
1 m.n > 0, if and only if
i m > 0 and n > 0 or ii m < 0 and n < 0.
2 m.n < 0, if and only if
i m > 0 and n < 0 or ii m < 0 and n > 0.
Example 1 Solve each of the following inequalities:
a (x + 1) (x –3) > 0 b 3x2 – 2x ≥ 0
c − 2x2 + 9x + 5 < 0 d x2 – x – 2 ≤ 0
Solution:
a By Product property 1, (x +1) (x – 3) is positive if either both the factors are
positive or both are negative.
Now, consider case by case as follows:
Case i When both the factors are positive
x +1 > 0 and x – 3 > 0
x > – 1 and x > 3
The intersection of x > – 1 and x > 3 is x > 3. This can be illustrated on the
number line as shown in Figure 3.16 below.
x>3
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.16
The solution set for this first case is S1 = {x: x > 3} = (3, ∞).
128
Case ii When both the factors are negative

x + 1 < 0 and x – 3 < 0
x < –1 and x < 3
The intersection of x < –1 and x < 3 is x < – 1.
This can be illustrated on the number line as shown below in Figure 3.17.
x < –1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.17
The solution set for this second case is S2 = {x: x < – 1} = (–∞, –1).
Therefore, the solution set of (x + 1) (x – 3) > 0 is:
S1 ∪ S2 = {x: x < –1 or x > 3} = (–∞ , − 1) ∪ (3, ∞)
b First, factorize 3x2 – 2x as x (3x – 2)
So, 3x2 – 2x > 0 means x (3x – 2) > 0 equivalently.
i x > 0 and 3x – 2 > 0 or
ii x < 0 and 3x – 2 < 0
Case i When x ≥ 0 and 3x – 2 ≥ 0
2
x ≥ 0 and x ≥
3
2 2
The intersection of x ≥ 0 and x ≥ is x ≥ . Graphically,
3 3
2
x≥
3
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.18
2 2
So, S1 = { x : x ≥ }=[ ,∞)
3 3
2
Case ii When x ≤ 0 and 3x – 2 ≤ 0 that is x ≤ 0 and x ≤
3
2
The intersection of x ≤ 0 and x ≤ is x ≤ 0. Graphically,
3
x≤0
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 1 2 3 4
3
Figure 3.19
129
So, S2 = {x: x < 0} = (–∞ , 0]

Therefore, the solution set for 3x2 – 2x > 0 is
2 2
S1 ∪ S2 = { x: x < 0 or x > } = (– ∞, 0] ∪ [ , ∞ )
3 3
c − 2x2 + 9x + 5 = (–2x – 1) (x – 5) < 0
By Product property 2, (–2x – 1) (x – 5) is negative if one of the factors is negative
and the other is positive.
As before, consider case by case as follows:
Case i When –2x – 1 > 0 and x – 5 < 0
1
x< − and x < 5
2
1 1
The intersection of x < − and x < 5 is x < − . Graphically,
2 2
1
x<−
2
x
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 − 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
Figure 3.20
1 1
So, S1 = {x: x < − } = ( − ∞, − )
2 2
Case ii When – 2 x – 1 < 0 and x – 5 > 0
1
x >− and x > 5
2
1
The intersection of x > 5 and x > − is x > 5. Graphically,
2
x>5
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 − 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
Figure 3.21
So, S2 = {x: x > 5} = (5, ∞)
Therefore, the solution set for (–2 x–1) (x – 5) < 0 is
1 1
S1 ∪ S2 = {x: x < − or x > 5} = ( − ∞, − ) ∪ (5,∞ )
2 2
130
d x2 – x – 2 = (x + 1) (x – 2)
So, x2 – x – 2 ≤ 0 means (x + 1) (x – 2) ≤ 0
By Product property 2, (x + 1) (x – 2) is negative if one of the factors is negative and
the other is positive. To solve (x + 1) (x – 2) < 0, consider case by case as follows:
Case i x + 1 ≥ 0 and x – 2 ≤ 0
x ≥ –1 and x ≤ 2
The intersection of x ≥ –1 and x ≤ 2 is –1 ≤ x ≤ 2. Graphically,
–1 ≤ x ≤ 2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.22
So, S1 = {x: –1 ≤ x ≤ 2} = [–1, 2]
Case ii x + 1 ≤ 0 and x – 2 ≥ 0
x ≤ –1 and x ≥ 2
There is no intersection of x ≤ − 1 and x ≥ 2. Graphically,
x ≤ -1 x≥2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.23
So, S2 = ∅
Therefore, the solution set for x2 – x – 2 ≤ 0 is
S1 ∪ S2 = {x: − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2} ∪ ∅ = {x: –1 ≤ x ≤ 2} = [–1, 2]
Exercise 3.3
1 Solve each of the following inequalities using product properties:
a x (x + 5 ) > 0 b ( x – 1 )2 ≤ 0
c (4+ x) (x – 4) > 0 d (5x – 3)( x + 7) < 0
1
e (1 + x )(3 – 2x) ≥ 0 f x) ≤ 0
(5 – x)(1 –
3
2 Factorize and solve each of the following inequalities using product properties:
a x2 + 5x + 4 < 0 b x2 – 4 > 0 c x2 + 5x + 6 ≥ 0
d x2 – 2x + 1 ≤ 0 e 3x2 + 4x + 1 >0 f 2x2 – 7x + 3 < 0
1
g 25x2 – <0 h x2 + 4x + 4 > 0.
16
131
3 a Find the solution set of the inequality x2 < 25.

b Why is {x : x < 5} not the solution set of x2 < 25?
4 If x < y, does it follow that x2 < y2 ?
5 If a ball is thrown upward from ground level with an initial velocity of 24 m/s, its
height h in metres after t seconds is given by h (t) = 24t – 16t2. When will the ball
be at a height of more than 8 metres?
3.3.2 Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the

Sign Chart Method
Suppose you need to solve the quadratic inequality
x2 + 3x – 4 < 0.
Consider how the sign of x2 + 3x – 4 changes as you vary the values of the unknown.
As x is moved along the number line, the quantity x2 + 3x – 4 is sometimes positive,
sometimes zero, and sometimes negative. To solve the inequality, you must find the
values of x for which x2 + 3x – 4 is negative. Intervals where x2 + 3x – 4 is positive are
separated from intervals where it is negative by values of x for which it is zero. To
locate these values, solve the equation x2 + 3x – 4 = 0.
Factorize x2 + 3x – 4 and find the two roots (–4 and 1). Divide the number line into
three open intervals. The expression x2 + 3x – 4 will have the same sign in each of these
intervals ( − ∞, − 4), ( − 4, 1) and (1, ∞).
The “sign chart” method allows you to find the sign of x2 + 3x – 4 in each interval.
Step 1 Factorize x2 + 3x – 4 = (x + 4) ( x – 1)
Step 2 Draw a sign chart, noting the sign of each factor and hence the whole
expression as shown below.
-4 1
x+4 – – – – 0 + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + +
x–1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –0+ + + +
(x + 4)(x – 1) + + + + 0 – – – – – – – – – – – 0 + + + + +
Figure 3.24
Step 3 Read the solution from the last line of the sign chart
x 2+ 3x – 4 < 0 for x ∈ (–4, 1)
Therefore, the solution set is the interval (–4, 1)
132
Example 2 Solve each of the following inequalities using the sign chart method:
a 6 + x – x2 ≤ 0 b 2x2 + 3x – 2 ≥ 0.
Solution:
a Factorize 6 + x – x2 so that 6 + x – x2 = (x + 2) (3 – x) ≤ 0.
We may identify the sign of x + 2 and 3 – x as follows.
x + 2 < 0 for each x < –2, x + 2 = 0 at x = –2 and x + 2 > 0 for each x > –2.
Similarly, 3 – x < 0 for each x > 3, 3 − x = 0 at x = 3 and 3 – x > 0 for each x < 3.
Therefore, the above results are shown in the sign chart given below in Figure 3.25.
-2 3
x+2 – – – – 0 + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + +
3–x + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + 0– – – –
(x + 2)(3 – x) – – – – 0 + + + + + + + + + + + 0 – – – –
Figure 3.25
From the sign chart, you can immediately read the following
i The solution set of (3 – x)(x + 2) < 0 is {x: x < − 2 or x > 3}= ( − ∞, − 2)∪(3, ∞).
ii The solution set of (3 – x) (x + 2) > 0 is {x : – 2 < x < 3} = (– 2 , 3).
iii The solution set of (3 – x) (x + 2) = 0 is {– 2 , 3}.
iv The solution set of (3 – x) ( x + 2) ≤0 is (– ∞ , − 2] ∪ [3, ∞)
Therefore, the solution set of 6 + x – x2 ≤ 0 is (–∞, − 2] ∪ [3, ∞).
b 2x2 + 3x – 2 = (2x – 1)(x + 2) ≥ 0.
1 1 1
2x – 1< 0 for each x < , 2x – 1 = 0 at x = , and 2x – 1 > 0 for each x > .
2 2 2
Similarly, x + 2 < 0 for each x < – 2 , x + 2 = 0 at x = − 2 and x + 2 > 0 for each
x > − 2.
The above results are shown in the sign chart given below:
1
-2 2
2x – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0+ + + + + + +
x+2 – – – – – – 0 + + + + ++ + + + + + + +
(2x – 1)(x + 2) + + + + + + 0– – – – – 0+++++++++
Figure 3.26
133
From the sign chart, you can conclude that

1 
(2x – 1) (x + 2) ≥ 0 for each x ∈ (– ∞, – 2] ∪  , ∞  and
2 
 1
(2x – 1) (x + 2) < 0 for each x ∈  −2 ,  .
 2
1 
Therefore, the solution set of 2x2 + 3x – 2 ≥ 0 is ( − ∞ , − 2] ∪  , ∞ 
2 
2
Example 3 For what value(s) of k does the quadratic equation kx – 2x + k = 0 has
i only one real root? ii two distinct real roots?
iii no real roots?
Solution: The quadratic equation kx2 – 2x + k = 0 is equivalent to the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a = k, b = − 2 and c = k
The given quadratic equation has
i one real root when b2 – 4ac = 0
So, ( − 2)2 – 4 (k) (k) = 0
4 – 4k2 = 0 equivalently (2 – 2k) (2 + 2k) = 0
2 – 2k = 0 or 2 + 2k = 0
k = 1 or k = − 1
Therefore, kx2 – 2x + k = 0 has only one real root if either k = 1 or k = –1.
ii two distinct real roots when b2 – 4ac > 0
It follows that, 4 – 4k2 > 0
(2 – 2k) (2 + 2k) > 0 ⇒ 4 (1 – k) (1 + k) > 0
Now, use the sign chart shown below:
-1 1
2 + 2k – – – – – – 0+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
2 – 2k + + + + ++ + + + + + 0– – – – – – – –
(2 + 2k)(2 − 2k) – – – – – – 0 + ++ + 0– – – – – – – –
Figure 3.27
Therefore, for each k∈ ( − 1, 1), the given quadratic equation has two distinct real
roots.
iii kx2 – 2x + k = 0 has no real root for each k∈ ( − ∞ , − 1) ∪ (1 , ∞) where
b2 – 4ac < 0
134
What do you do if ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 is not factorizable into linear factors?

That is, there are no real numbers x1 and x2 such that ax2 + bx + c = a(x – x1)(x – x2).
In this case, either ax2 + bx + c > 0 for all values of x or ax2 + bx + c < 0 for all values of x.
As a result, the solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 or ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 is either ( − ∞, ∞) or { }.
Take a test point and substitute, in order to decide which is the case.
Example 4 Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities:
a x2 – 2x + 5 ≥ 0 b − 3x2 + x – 1 ≥ 0.
Solution:
a For x2 – 2x + 5 ≥ 0
a = 1, b = − 2, c = 5 and b2 – 4ac = ( − 2)2 – 4 (1) (5) = − 16 < 0.
Hence, x2 – 2x + 5 cannot be factorized.
Take a test point, say x = 0. Then, 02 – 2(0) + 5 = 5 > 0
So, x2 – 2x + 5 > 0 for all x∈ ( − ∞, ∞)
Therefore, the solution set S = ( − ∞, ∞)
b For −3x2 + x −1 ≥ 0
b2 – 4ac = (1)2 – 4 ( − 3) (– 1) = 1 – 12 = − 11 < 0
Hence, − 3x2 + x – 1 cannot be factorized. Take a test point, say x = 0.
− 3(0)2 + 0 – 1 = − 1< 0. Hence, − 3x2 + x – 1 ≥ 0 is false.
Therefore, S = { }
Group Work 3.3

1 Solve each of the following inequalities using
i product properties ii sign charts:
2
a x2 − x<0 b 2 x 2 + 5x > 3
3
c ( x − 1) 2 ≥ 2 x 2 − 2 x d (2 x − 1)( x + 1) ≤ x( x − 3) + 4
2 What must be the value (s) of k so that (3k – 4) x2 +2k x – 1 = 0 has
i two distinct real roots? ii one real root? iii no real roots?
3 A manufacturer determines that the profit obtained from selling x units of a certain
item in Birr is P(x) = 10x – 0.002x2
a How many units must be produced to secure profit?
b In the process of production, at how many units level will there be no profit
and no loss?
135
Exercise 3.4
1 Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities using sign charts:
a x (x + 5) > 0 b (x – 3)2 ≥ 0
 x
c (4 + x) (4 – x) < 0 d  1 +  (5 − x ) < 0
 3
e 3 – x – 2x2 > 0 f − 6x2 + 2 < x
g 2x2 ≥ – 3 – 5x h 4x2 – x – 8 < 3x2 – 4x + 2
i − x2 + 3x < 4.
2 Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities using either product properties
or sign charts:
a x2 + x – 12 > 0 b x2 – 6x + 9 > 0 c x2 – 3x – 4 ≤ 0
d 5x – x2 < 6 e x2 + 2x < – 1 f x – 1 ≤ x2 + 2
3 For what value(s) of k does each of the following quadratic equations have
i one real root? ii two distinct real roots? iii no real root?
a (k + 2) x2 – (k + 2)x – 1 = 0
b x2 + (5– k) x + 9 = 0
4 For what value (s) of k is
a kx2 + 6x + 1 > 0 for each real number x?
b x2 – 9x + k < 0 only for x ∈ (– 2, 11)?
5 A rocket is fired straight upward from ground level with an initial velocity of
480 km/hr. After t seconds, its distance above the ground level is given by
480t – 16t2.
For what time interval is the rocket more than 3200km above ground level?
6 A farmer has 8m by 10m plot of land. He needs to construct a water reservoir at
one corner of the plot with equal length and width as shown below.
10 m
x
8m
For what values of x is the area of the remaining part less than the area needed for
the reservoir?
136
3.3.3 Solving Quadratic Inequalities Graphically

In order to use graphs to solve quadratic inequalities, it is necessary to understand the
nature of quadratic functions and their graphs.
i If a > 0, then the graph of the quadratic function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is an upward parabola.
ii If a < 0, then the graph of the quadratic function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a downward parabola.
ACTIVITY 3.6
1 For a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, find the point at
which the graph turns upward or downward. What do you call
this turning point?
2 Sketch the graph and find the turning point of:
a f (x) = x2 – 1 b f (x) = 4 – x2
3 What is the condition for the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c to have a
maximum value? When will it have a minimum value?
4 What is the value of x at which the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c attains
its maximum or minimum value?
The graph of a quadratic function has both its ends going upward or downward
depending on whether a is positive or negative. From different graphs you can observe
that the graph of a quadratic function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
i crosses the x-axis twice, if b2 – 4ac > 0.
ii touches the x-axis at a point, if b2 – 4ac = 0.
iii does not touch the x-axis at all, if b2 – 4ac < 0.
To solve a quadratic inequality graphically, find the values of x for which the part of the
graph of the corresponding quadratic function is above the x-axis, below the x-axis or on
the x-axis. Consider the following examples.
Example 5 Solve the quadratic inequality x2 – 3x + 2 < 0, graphically.
Solution: Begin by drawing the graph of f (x) = x2 – 3x + 2. Some values for x
and f (x) are given in the table below and the corresponding graph is
given in Figure 3.28. Complete the table first.
137
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 12 2 0
4
y
3
2
1
•2 x
3 -2 -1 1 3 4
-1 3 1
 ,− 
2 4
-2
-3
Figure 3.28 Graph of f (x) = x2 – 3x + 2
From the graph, f (x) = 0 when x = 1 and when x = 2. On the other hand, f (x) > 0
when x < 1 and when x > 2 and f (x) < 0 when x lies between 1 and 2.
3 3 1 3
This inequality could be tested by setting x = , giving f   = − . So f   < 0.
2 2 4 2
It follows that the solution set of x2 – 3x + 2 < 0 consists of all real numbers
greater than 1 and less than 2. That is, S.S = {x : 1 < x < 2} = (1 , 2).
Example 6 Solve the inequality x2 + 4x + 5 > 0, graphically.
Solution: Make a table of values and complete the table for some selected values of
x and f (x) as in the table below and sketch the corresponding graph.
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 2 2 10
y
6
5
4
3
2
• 1
(-2, 1) x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
-2
Figure 3.29 Graph of f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5

138
As shown in the Figure 3.29 above, the graph of f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5 does not cross
the x-axis but lies above the x-axis. Thus, the solution set of this inequality
consists of all real numbers. So, S.S = ( − ∞, ∞).
Note that, if you use the process of completing the square, you obtain
x2 + 4x + 5 > 0 ⇒ x2 + 4x > – 5
x2 + 4x + 4 > – 5 + 4
(x + 2)2 > – 1
Since the square of any real numbers is non-negative, (x + 2)2 > −1 is true for all
real numbers x.
Based on the above information, could you show that the solution set of the
inequality x2 + 4x + 5 < 0 is the empty set? Why?
Example 7 Solve the inequality – x2 + 2x + 3 < 0, graphically.
Solution: Make a table of selected values for x and f (x). The graph passes through
(0, 3) and (–1, 0) as shown in Figure 3.30.
y (1, 4)
4 •
3
2
1
x
- 2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
Figure 3.30 Graph of f (x) = –x2 + 2x + 3

The graph of f (x) = 2x – x2 + 3 crosses the x-axis at x = –1 and x = 3. So, the
solution set of this inequality is
S.S = {x| x < – 1 or x > 3}.
If the quadratic equation ax2 +bx +c = 0, a ≠ 0 has discriminant b2 – 4ac < 0, then the
equation has no real roots. Moreover,
i the solution set of ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 is the set of all real numbers if
a > 0 and is empty set if a < 0.
ii the solution set of ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 is the set of all real numbers if
a < 0 and is empty set if a > 0.
139
Exercise 3.5
1 Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities, graphically:
a x2 + 6x + 5 ≥ 0 b x2 + 6x + 5 < 0
c x2 + 8x + 16 < 0 d x2 + 2x + 3 ≥ 0
e 3x – x2 + 2 < 0 f 4x2 – x ≤ 3x2 + 2
g x (x – 2) < 0 h (x + 1) (x – 2) > 0
i 3x2 + 4x + 1 > 0 j x2 + 3x + 3 < 0
k 3x2 + 22x + 35 ≥ 0 l 6x2 + 1 ≥ 5x.
2 Suppose the solution set of 2x2 + kx + 1 > 0 consists of the set of all real
numbers. Find all possible values of k.
Key Terms
absolute value linear inequality quadratic equation
closed intervals open downward quadratic function
complete listing open intervals quadratic inequality
discriminant open upward sign chart
infinity partial listing solution set
linear equation product property
Summary
1 The open interval (a, b) with end-points a and b is the set of all real numbers x
such that a < x < b.
2 The closed interval [a, b] with end-points a and b is the set of all real numbers x
such that a ≤ x ≤ b.
3 The half-open interval or half-closed interval [a, b) with end points a and b is the
set of all real numbers x such that a ≤ x < b.
4 If x is a real number, then x  is the absolute value of x defined by
 x, if x ≥ 0
x =
− x, if x < 0
140
5 For any positive real number a, the solution set of:

i the equation x  = a is x = a or x = − a;
ii the inequality x  < a is – a < x < a and
iii the inequality x  > a is x < – a or x > a.
6 When two or more linear equations involve the same variables, they are called a
system of linear equations.
7 An inequality that can be reduced to either ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0,

ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 or ax2 + bx + c > 0, where a, b and c are constants and a ≠ 0, is
called a quadratic inequality.
8 Given any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
i if b2 – 4ac > 0, it has two distinct real roots.
ii if b2 – 4ac = 0, it has only one real root.
iii if b2 – 4ac < 0, it has no real root.
9 When the discriminant b2 – 4ac < 0, then
i the solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is the set of all real numbers, if a > 0 and
empty set if a < 0.
ii the solution set of ax2 + bx + c < 0 is the set of all real numbers, if a < 0 and
empty set if a > 0.
10 Product property:
i mn > 0, if and only if m > 0 and n > 0 or m < 0 and n < 0.
ii mn < 0, if and only if m > 0 and n < 0 or m < 0 and n > 0.

1 Solve each of the following inequalities using product properties:
2 
a (x + 1) (x – 3) < 0 b  x + 3  ( x − 1) < 0
3 
c (x – 3 ) ( x + 2) > 0 d x2 > x
e x2 + 5x + 4 ≥ 0 f (x – 2)2 ≤ 2 – x
g 1 – 2x > (1+ x)2 h 3x2 – 6x + 5 < x2 – 2x + 3.
141
2 Solve each of the following inequalities using sign charts:

a (1 – x) (5 – x) > 0 b x2 ≤ 9 c (x + 2)2 < 25
d 1 – x ≥ 2x2 e 6t2 + 1 < 5t f 2t2 + 3t ≤ 5.
3 Solve each of the following inequalities graphically:
a x2 – x + 1 > 0 b x2 > x + 6 c x2 – 4x – 1 > 0
d x2 + 25 ≥ 10x e x2 + 32 ≥ 12x + 6 f x (6x – 13) > – 6
g x (10 – 3x) < 8 h (x – 3)2 ≤ 1
4 Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities using any convenient method:
a 2x2 < x + 2 b −2x2 + 6x + 15 ≤ 0
1 2 25
c x + ≥ 5x d 6x2 – x + 3 < 5x2 + 5x – 5
2 2
e x (10x + 19) ≤ 15 f (x + 2)2 > (3x + 1)2.
5 What must the value(s) of k be so that:
a kx2 – 10x – 5 ≤ 0 for all x?
b 2x2 + (k – 3) x + k –5 = 0 has one real root? two real roots? no real root?
6 The sum of a non–negative number and its square is less than 12. What could the
number be?
7 The sum of a number x and twice another is 20. If the product of these numbers is
not more than 48, what are all possible values of x?
1 2
8 The profit of a certain company is given by p ( x) = 10, 000 + 350 x − x
2
where x is the amount (Birr in tens) spent on advertising. What amount gives a
profit of more than Birr 40,000?
142
Q(x2, y2)
y
ℓ
θ
Unit θ
P(x1, y1) R(x2, y1)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Unit Outcomes:
apply the distance formula to find the distance between any two given points
in the coordinate plane.
formulate and apply the section formula to find a point that divides a given
line segment in a given ratio.
write different forms of equations of a line and understand related terms.
describe parallel or perpendicular lines in terms of their slopes.
Main Contents
4.1 Distance between two points
4.2 Division of a line segment
4.3 Equation of a line
4.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 3, you have seen an important connection between algebra and geometry. One of
the great discoveries of 17th century mathematics was the subject of analytic
geometry. It is often referred to as Cartesian Geometry, which is essentially a method
of studying geometry by means of a coordinate system and associated algebra.
In Analytic Geometry, we describe properties of geometric figures such as points, lines,
circles, etc., in terms of ordered pairs and equations.
4.1 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

In Grade 9, you have discussed the number line and you have seen that there is a one-
to-one correspondence between the set of real numbers and the set of points on the
number line. You have also seen how to locate a point in the coordinate plane. Do you
remember the fact that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of points in
the plane and the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers?
The following Activity will help you to review the facts you discussed in Grade 9.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1 Consider the number line given in Figure 4.1.
P A Q B
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 4.1
a Find the coordinates of points P, A, Q and B.
b Find the distance between points
i P and Q ii Q and B iii P and B
2 On a number line, the two points P and Q have coordinates x1 and x2.
a Find the distance between P and Q (or PQ).
b Find the distance between Q and P.
c Discuss the relationship between your answers in a and b above
d Discuss the relationship between x2 − x1 and x1 − x2 .
3 How do you plot the coordinates of points in the coordinate plane?
4 What are the coordinates of the origin of the xy-plane?
5 Draw a coordinate plane and plot the following points.
P (3,–4), Q (–3,–2), R (–2, 0), S (4, 0), T (2, 3), U (–4, 5) and V (0, 0).
144
Unit 4 Coordinate Geometry
6 The position of each point on the coordinate plane is determined by its ordered
pair of numbers.
a What is the x-coordinate of a point on the y-axis?
b What is the y-coordinate of a point on the x-axis?
7 Let P (2, 3) and Q (2, 8) be points on the coordinate plane.
a Plot the points P and Q.
b Is the line through points P and Q vertical or horizontal?
c What is the distance between P and Q?
8 Let R (–2, 4) and T (5, 4) be points on the coordinate plane.
a Plot the points R and T.
b Is the line through R and T vertical or horizontal?
c What is the distance between points R and T?
Distance between points in a plane

Suppose P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) are two distinct points on the xy-coordinate plane. We
can find the distance between the two points P and Q by considering three cases.
Case i When P and Q are on a line y
parallel to the x-axis (that is,

PQ is a horizontal segment) P(x1, y1)
y1 Q (x2, y1)
as in Figure 4.2. x
x1 x2
Since the two points P and Q have the
same y-coordinate (ordinate), the
distance between P and Q is
PQ = x2 – x1  Figure 4.2
Case ii When P and Q are on a line y
parallel to the y-axis (that is, Q (x1, y2)
y2 •
PQ is a vertical segment) as
in Figure 4.3.
Since the two points have the same x
x1
x-coordinate (abscissa), the distance
between P and Q is y1 •P (x1, y1)
PQ = y2 – y1  Figure 4.3
145
Case iii When PQ is neither vertical nor

horizontal (the general case). y Q(x2, y 2)
To find the distance between the points
P and Q, draw a line passing through P
parallel to the x-axis and draw a line
passing through Q parallel to the y-axis. x
•
R(x2, y1)
P (x1, y 1)
The horizontal line and the vertical line
intersect at R (x2, y1).
Using case i and case ii, we have Figure 4.4
PR = x2 – x1  and RQ = y2 – y1 

Since ∆ PRQ is a right angled triangle at R, you can use Pythagoras' Theorem to
find the distance between points P and Q as follows:
PQ2 = PR2 + RQ2 = x2 – x12 + y2 – y12 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Therefore, PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
The radical has positive sign (why?).

In general, the distance d between any two points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
d=
This is called the distance formula.

Example 1 Find the distance between the given points.
 17  1 
a A (1, 2 ) and B (1, – 2 ) b P  , −2  and Q  , −2 
4  4 
c ( )
R − 2, −1 and S ( 2, − 2 ) d A (a, − b) and B (− b, a)
Solution:
a AB = d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 Or, more simply

AB = y2 − y1 = − 2 − 2
= (1 − 1) 2 + ( − 2 − 2) 2
= 2 2 units
= (0) 2 + ( −2 2) 2 = 2 2.
146
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2 Or, more simply
b PQ = d =
1 17
2 PQ = x2 − x1 = −
 1 17  4 4
 −  + ( − 2 − ( − 2))
2
=
4 4  = 4 units
 −16 
2
 + ( 0) = ( −4 )
2 2
=  = 16 = 4 units
 4 
( ( )) + ( − )
2
2 − ( −1)
2
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) 2− − 2
2 2
c RS = d = =
( 2 2 ) + (1 − 2 )
2 2
= = 11 − 2 2
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) (−b − a)2 + (a − (−b))2

2 2
d AB = d = =
= (b + a )2 + (a + b) 2 = 2(a + b) 2 = 2 a + b units.
Exercise 4.1
1 In each of the following, find the distance between the two given points.
 1 1 
a A (1, –5) and B (7, 3) b C  −2,  and D  , 2 
 2 2 
c E( 2, 1 ) and F ( − 6 , 3 ) d G (a, –b) and H (–a, b)
 2 − 2
e the origin and K  , 
2 
f L( ) (
2, 1 and M 1, 2 )
 2
g P ( ) (
2, 3 and Q 2 2, 2 3 ) h R( 2a , c ) and T ( 2b, c )
2 Using the distance formula, show that the distance between P and Q is:
a  x2 – x1, when PQ is horizontal b  y2 – y1 , when PQ is vertical.
3 Let A (3, –7) and B (–1, 4) be two adjacent vertices of a square. Calculate the area
of the square.
4 P (3, 5) and Q (1, –3) are two opposite vertices of a square. Find its area.
5 Show that the plane figure with vertices:
a A (5, –1), B (2, 3) and C (1, 1) is a right angled triangle.
b A (–4, 3), B (4, –3) and C (3 3, 4 3 ) is an equilateral triangle.
c A (2, 3), B (6, 8) , C (7, –1) is an isosceles triangle.
6 An equilateral triangle has two vertices at A (–4, 0) and B (4, 0). What could the
coordinates of the third vertex be?
7 What are the possible values of b if the point A (b, 4) is 10 units away from
B (0, –2)?
147
4.2 DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT

y
Recall that, a line segment passing through
two points A and B is horizontal if the two
points have the same y-coordinate. i.e., a line A (x1, y) B (x2, y)
segment whose end-points are A (x1, y) and
B (x2, y) is a horizontal line segment as shown x1 x2 x
in Figure 4.5.
What is the mid-point of AB ? Figure 4.5
ACTIVITY 4.2
1 Define the ratio of two quantities.
2 What is meant by the ratio of the length of two line segments?
3 In Figure 4.6, find the ratio of the length of AP to PB .
A P B
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 4.6
4 What is meant by a point P that divides a line segment AB internally?
5 Plot the following points on the coordinate plane and find the mid-point of the line
segment joining the points.
a A (2, –1) and B (2, 5) b C (–3, 3) and D (3, −3) c E (2, 0) and F (–2, 4).
Consider the horizontal line segment with end-points A (x1, y) and B (x2, y) as shown in
Figure 4.7. In terms of the coordinates of A and B, determine the coordinates of the
point P (xo, yo) that divides AB internally in the ratio m:n.
AP
Clearly, the ratio of the line segment AP to the line segment PB is given by
PB
y
The distance between A and P is AP = xo – x1.
The distance between P and B is PB = x2 – xo.
AP m x −x m A (x1, y) P (xo, yo) B (x2, y)
Therefore, = i.e., o 1 = . • • •
PB n x2 − xo n
Solving this equation for xo:
⇒ n (xo – x1) = m (x2 – xo) x
⇒ nxo – nx1 = mx2 – mxo
⇒ nxo + mxo = nx1 + mx2
Figure 4.7
148
⇒ xo (n + m) = nx1 + mx2
nx1 + mx2
⇒ xo =
n+m
Since AB is parallel to the x-axis ( AB is a horizontal line segment) and obviously,
 nx + mx2 
yo = y, therefore, the point P (xo, yo) is  1 , y.
 n+m 
Given a line segment PQ with end point coordinates P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2), let us find
the coordinates of the point R dividing the line segment PQ internally in the ratio m : n.
PR m
i.e., = , Where m and n are given positive real numbers.
RQ n
y
Q (x2, y2)
n
R (xo, yo)
T (x2, yo)
S (xo, y1)
P (x1, y1)
Figure 4.8
Let the coordinates of R be (xo, yo). Assume that x1 ≠ x2 and y1 ≠ y2.
If you draw lines through the points P, Q and R parallel to the axes as shown in
Figure 4.8, the points S and T have the coordinates (xo, y1) and (x2, yo), respectively.
PS = xo – x1, RT = x2 – xo, SR = yo – y1 and TQ = y2 – yo
Since triangles PSR and RTQ are similar (Why?),
PS PR SR PR
= and =
RT RQ TQ RQ
xo − x1 m y −y m
= and o 1 =
x2 − xo n y2 − yo n
Solving for xo and yo,
⇒ n (xo – x1) = m (x2 – xo) and n (yo – y1) = m (y2 – yo)
⇒ nxo – nx1 = mx2 – mxo and nyo – ny1 = my2 – myo
⇒ nxo + mxo = nx1 + mx2 and nyo + myo = ny1 + my2
⇒ xo (n + m) = nx1 + mx2 and yo (n + m) = ny1 + my2
nx1 + mx2 ny + my2
⇒ xo = and yo = 1
n+m n+m
149
The point R (xo, yo) dividing the line segment PQ internally in the ratio m: n is given by
 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2 
R (xo, yo) =  1 , 
 n+m n+m 
This is called the section formula.
Example 1 Find the coordinates of the point R that divides the line segment with
end- points A (6, 2) and B (1, – 4) in the ratio 2:3.
Solution: Put (x1, y1) = (6, 2), (x2, y2) = (1, –4), m = 2 and n = 3. Using the section
formula, you have
 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2   3 × 6 + 2 × 1 3 × 2 + 2 × (−4) 
R (xo, yo) =  1 ,  = , 
 n+m n+ m   3+ 2 3+ 2 
 18 + 2 6 − 8   2
=  ,  = 4 , − 
 5 5   5
 2
Therefore, R is  4, −  .
 5
Example 2 A line segment has end-points (–2, –3) and (7, 12) and it is divided into
three equal parts. Find the coordinates of the points that trisect the
segment.
Solution: The first point divides the line segment in the ratio 1:2, and hence
nx1 + mx2 ny + my2
xo = and yo = 1
n+m n+m
2 × ( −2) + 1× 7 2 × ( − 3) +1×12
So, xo = and yo =
1+ 2 1+ 2
−4 + 7 −6 + 12
⇒ xo = and yo = ⇒ xo = 1 and yo = 2
3 3
Therefore, the first point is (1, 2).
The second point divides the line segment in the ratio 2:1. Thus,
nx1 + mx2 ny + my2
xo = and yo = 1
n+m n+m
1× ( −2) + 2 × 7 1× ( −3) + 2 × 12
So, xo = and yo =
1+ 2 1+ 2
−2 + 14 −3 + 24
⇒ xo = and yo =
3 3
⇒ xo = 4 and yo = 7.
Therefore, the second point is (4, 7).
150
The mid-point formula

A point that divides a line segment into two equal parts is the mid-point of the segment.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1 Consider the points P (2, 1) and Q (12, 1).
a Find the distance between P and Q.
b If R is a point with coordinates (7, 1),
i find PR. ii find RQ.
iii Is PR equal to RQ? iv What is the mid-point of PQ?
c Divide PQ in the ratio 1:1.
2 Find the coordinates of the mid-point of each of the following line segments with
end-points:
i P (x1, y1) and Q (x1, y2). ii R (x1, y1) and S (x2, y1).
Which of the above segments are horizontal?
Let P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) be the end-points of PQ .

If PR = RQ (the case where m = n), then R is the mid-point of the line segment PQ.
Now let us derive the mid-point formula.
 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2 
R (xo, yo) =  1 , 
 n+m n+m 
 nx + nx2 ny1 + ny2   n (x1 + x2 ) n (y1 + y2 ) 
=  1 , =  ,  ( as m = n )
 n+n n+n   2n 2n 
x +x y +y 
=  1 2 , 1 2
 2 2 
This is the formula used to find the mid-point of the line segment PQ whose end
points are P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2).
The mid-point of the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
 x + x y + y2 
M (xo, yo) =  1 2 , 1 
 2 2 
Example 3 Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segments with end-points:
a P (–3, 2) and Q (5, –4)
b P (3 – 2 , 3+ 2 ) and Q (1+ 2 , 3 – 2 ).
151
Solution:
x +x y +y 
a M (xo , yo) =  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 
x1 + x2 y + y2
xo = and yo = 1
2 2
−3 + 5 2−4
xo = =1 and yo = = −1
2 2
Therefore M (xo, yo) = (1, –1).
x +x y + y2 
b M (xo , yo) =  1 2 , 1 
 2 2 
x1 + x2 y + y2
xo = and yo = 1
2 2
3 − 2 +1+ 2 3+ 2 +3− 2
xo = and yo =
2 2
4 6
xo = =2 and yo = = 3
2 2
Therefore M (xo, yo) = (2, 3).
Group Work 4.1

1 A line segment has end-points P (–3, 1) and Q (5, 7).
a What is the length of the line segment?
b Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the segment.
2 A line segment has one end-point at A (4, 3). If its mid-point is at M (1, –1),
where is the other end-point?
3 Find the points that divide the line segment with end-points at P (4, –3) and
Q (–6, 7) into three equal parts.
4 Let A (–2, –1), B (6, –1), C (6, 3) and D (–2, 3) be vertices of a rectangle. Suppose
P, Q, R and S are mid-points of the sides of the rectangle.
i What is the area of rectangle ABCD?
ii What is the area of quadrilateral PQRS?
iii Give the ratio of the areas in i and ii.
152
Exercise 4.2
1 Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segments joining the points:
a A (1, 4) and B ( − 2, 2) b (a, b) and the origin
 1   5 
c M ( p, q) and N (q, p) d 1 , −1 and  − , 1
 2   2 
e E(1 + 2, 2) and F(2 − 2, 8) f G ( ) (
5, 1 − 3 and H 3 5, 1 + 3 )
2 The mid-point of a line segment is M ( − 3, 2). One end-point of the segment is
P (1, − 3). Find the coordinates of the other end-point.
3 Find the coordinates of the point R that divides the line segment joining the points
A (1, 3) and B ( − 4, − 3) in the ratio 2:3.
4 A line segment has end-points P ( − 1, 5) and Q (5, 2). Find the coordinates of the
points that trisect the segment.
5 Find the mid-points of the sides of the triangle with vertices A ( − 1, 3), B (4, 6)
and C (3, − 1).
4.3 EQUATION OF A LINE

4.3.1 Gradient (slope) of a Line
From your everyday experience, you might
be familiar with the idea of gradient (slope).
Vertical rise
A hill may be steep or may rise very slowly.
The number that describes the steepness of
a hill is called the gradient (slope) of the
hill.
We measure the gradient of a hill by the ratio Horizontal run
of the vertical rise to the horizontal run. Figure 4.9
ACTIVITY 4.4
Given points P (1, 2), Q (−1, −4), R (0,−1) and S (3, 8)
y2 − y1
a find the value of taking
x2 − x1
i P and Q ii P and R iii Q and R iv R and S
b are the values obtained in i − iv above equal? What do you call these values?
153
In coordinate geometry, the gradient of a non-

y
vertical straight line is the ratio of "change in Q ( x2, y2)
y-coordinates" to the corresponding "change in
x-coordinates". That is, the slope of a line
through P and Q is the ratio of the vertical
distance from P to Q to the horizontal distance
from P to Q. x
If we denote the gradient of a line by the letter P(x1, y1) R ( x2, y1)
m, then
changein y-coordinates y2 − y1
m= = ; x1 ≠ x2 Figure 4.10
changein x-coordinates x2 − x1
Definition 4.1
If (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are points on a line with x1 ≠ x2, then the gradient of
the line, denoted by m, is given by
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
ACTIVITY 4.5
1 If A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are distinct points on a line with
x1 = x2, then what can be said about the gradient of the line?
Is the line vertical or horizontal?
2 What is the gradient of any horizontal line?
3 Consider the line with equation f (x) = 3x – 1. Take three distinct points P1, P2 and
P3 on the line.
a Find the gradient using P1 and P2. b Find the gradient using P1 and P3.
c What do you observe from a and b?
4 Let P1, P2, P3 and P4 be points on a non-vertical straight line y = ax + b with
coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) and (x4, y4) respectively. Find:
a the gradient of the line taking P1 and P2.
b the gradient of the line taking P3 and P4.
y2 − y1 y − y3
c Are the ratios and 4 equal?
x2 − x1 x4 − x3
d Could you conclude that the gradient of a line does not depend on the choice
of points on the line?
154
Example 1 Find the gradient of the line passing through each of the following pairs
of points:
a P (−7, 2) and Q (4, 3) b A ( ) (
2, 1 and B − 2, − 3 )
 1   1 
c P (2, −3) and Q (5, − 3) d A  − , − 2  and B  − , 2  .
 2   2 
Solution:
y2 − y1 3− 2 1
a m= = =
x2 − x1 4 − (−7) 11
y −y −3 − 1 −4 2
b m= 2 1 = = = = 2
x2 − x1 − 2 − 2 −2 2 2
y − y −3 − (−3) −3 + 3 0
c m= 2 1 = = = =0
x2 − x1 5−2 3 3
So, m = 0. Is the line horizontal? What is its equation?
1 1
d x1 = − and x2 = −
2 2
The line is vertical. So it has no measurable gradient.
1 1
The equation of the line is x = x1 = x2 = − or simply x = −
2 2
Note: Gradient for a vertical line is not defined.
Example 2 Check that the lines ℓ1, through P (0, 1) and Q (–1, 4) and ℓ2 through
2 
R  , 0  and T (1, –1) have same gradients. Are the lines parallel?
3 
4 −1 3 −1 − 0 −1
Solution: For ℓ1, m1 = = = −3 . For ℓ2, m2 = = = −3 .
−1 − 0 −1 1−
2 1
3 3
Here, m1 = m2. Draw the lines and see that ℓ1 is parallel to ℓ2.
Exercise 4.3
1 Find the gradients of the lines passing through the following points:
a A (4 , 3) and B (8, 11) b P (3, 7) and Q (1, 9)
c C ( 2 , − 9) and D (2 2 , − 7) d R ( − 5, –2) and S (7, − 8)
e E (5, 8) and F ( − 2, 8) f H (1, 7) and K (1, − 6)
g R (1, b) and S (b, a) , b ≠ 1.
155
2 A (2, − 3), B (7, 5) and C ( − 2, 9) are the vertices of triangle ABC. Find the
gradient of each of the sides of the triangle.
3 Given three points P ( − 1, − 5), Q (1, − 2) and R (5, 4), find the gradient of PQ
and QR . What do you conclude from your result?
4 Use gradients to show that the points P1( − 4, 6), P2( − 1, 12) and P3( − 7, 0) are
collinear, i.e., all lie on the same straight line.
 3
5 Show that the line passing through the points A (0, − 2) and B  3,  also passes
 2
through the point C ( − 6, − 9).
4.3.2 Slope of a Line in Terms of Angle of

Inclination
The angle measured from the positive x-axis to a line, in anticlockwise direction, is
called the inclination of the line or the angle of inclination of the line.
This angle is always less than 180o.
y ℓ
θ
x
Figure 4.11
Group Work 4.2

Consider the right angled triangle OAB in Figure 4.12.
1 How long is the hypotenuse OB ? ℓ
2 What is tangent of angle BOA? y B
3 What is measure of angle BOA?
4 What is the angle of inclination of line ℓ? 3
5 What is the tangent of the angle of inclination?

O 3 3 A x
6 By finding the coordinates of O and B, calculate the
slope of line ℓ. Figure 4.12
7 What relationship do you see between your answers for Questions 5 and 6 above?
156
The above Group Work will help you to understand the relationship between slope and
angle of inclination.
For a non-vertical line, the tangent of this angle is the slope of the line. Observe the
following.
Q(x2, y2) y
•
Q(x2, y2) ℓ
y
ℓ
θ
180o − θ
θ • •
R(x2, y1) P(x1, y1)
P(x1, y1) R(x2, y1)
θ x
x
a b
Figure 4.13
In Figure 4.13a above, as y2 – y1 represents the distance RQ and x2 – x1 represents the
distance PR, the slope of the straight line PQ is actually represented by the ratio
RQ y2 − y1
m= = = tan(m∠RPQ)
PR x2 − x1
∴ m = tan θ
A line making an acute angle of inclination θ with the positive direction of the x-axis
has positive slope.
Similarly, a line with obtuse angle of inclination θ, (see Figure 4.13b), has negative slope.
RQ y2 − y1 y −y
Slope of ℓ = = = − 2 1 = − tan(180o − θ ) = −(− tan θ ) = tan θ
PR x1 − x2 x2 − x1
(In Unit 5, this will be clarified)
ACTIVITY 4.6
1 How would you describe the line passing through the points
with coordinates (x1, y1) and (x1, y2)? Is it perpendicular to the
x-axis or the y-axis? What is the tangent of the angle between
this line and the x-axis?
2 Suppose a line passes through the points with coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y1).
Find the tangent of the angle formed by the line and the x-axis. What is the slope
of this line?
3 What is the angle of inclination of the line y = x, and the line y = –x?
157
In general, the slope of a line may be expressed in terms of the coordinates of two points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the line as follows:
y2 − y1
m= = tan θ, x2 ≠ x1
x2 − x1
where θ is the anticlockwise angle between the positive x-axis and the line.
Example 3 Find the slope of a line, if its inclination is:
a 60o b 135o
Solution:
a slope : m = tan θ = tan 60o = 3
b slope : m = tan θ = tan 135o = tan (180o – 45o) = –tan 45o = – 1
Note: If θ is an obtuse angle, then, tan θ = –tan (180° – θ).
Example 4 Find the angle of inclination of the line
a containing the points A(3, –3) and B(–1, 1)
b containing the points C(0, 5) and D(4, 5).
Solution:
y2 − y1 1 − (−3)
a m= = = −1. So tanθ = −1, and hence θ = 135o.
x2 − x1 −1 − 3
y2 − y1 5 − 5
b m= = = 0 , tan θ = 0. So, θ = 0o .
x2 − x1 4 − 0
Note: Let m be the slope of a non-vertical line.
i If m > 0, then the line rises from left to right as shown in Figure 4.14a.
ii If m < 0, then the line falls from left to right as shown in Figure 4.14b.
iii If m = 0, then the line is horizontal as in Figure 4.14c.
y ℓ y y
ℓ
ℓ
x x x
a b c
Figure 4.14
158
Exercise 4.4
1 Find the slope of the line whose angle of inclination is:
a 30o b 75o c 150o d 90o e 0o.
2 Find the angle of inclination of the line if its slope is:
− 3 1
a – 3 b c 1 d e 0.
3 3
3 The points A (−2, 0), B (0, 2) and C (2, 0) are vertices of a triangle. Find the
measure of the three angles of triangle ABC. What type of triangle is it?
4.3.3 Different Forms of Equations of a Line

From Euclidean Geometry, you may recall that there is a unique line passing through
two distinct points. The equation of a line ℓ is an equation in x and y which is satisfied
by the coordinates of every point on the line ℓ and is not satisfied by the coordinates of
any point not on the line.
The equation of a straight line can be expressed in different forms. Some of these are:
the point-slope form, the slope-intercept form and the two-point form.
ACTIVITY 4.7
1 Show that the graph of the equation x = 2 contains points
 1
A (2, 0), B (2, –1), C (2, 2) and D  2,  .
 3
2 Consider the graph of the straight line y – x = 1. Determine which of the following
points lie on the line.
 −1 3   −1 
A (3, − 1), B (–1, 0), C  ,  , D (0, 1), E  ,1 , F(−2, −1) and G (−1, −2).
 2 2  2 
3 Which of the following points lie on the line y = –5x + 4?
2 
A (–1, 9), B (–2, 12), C(0, 4), D  , 2  , E (3, –10).
5 
4 What do you call the number b if a line intersects the y-axis at point P (0, b)?
5 Consider the graph of the straight line y = mx + b. Find its y-intercept and
x-intercept.
6 Give the equations of the lines through the points:
a P (–1, 3) and Q (4, 3) b R (–1, 1) and S (1, –1).
159
The point-slope form of equation of a line

We normally use this form of the equation of a line if the slope m of the line and the
coordinates of a point on it are given.
y ℓ
•
slope is 3 Q (x, y)
•
P (2, 3)
Figure 4.15
Suppose you are asked to find the equation of the straight line with slope 3 and passing
through the point with coordinate (2, 3).
Take P to be the point (2, 3) and let Q (x, y) be any other point on the line as shown in
Figure 4.15. What is the slope of the straight line joining the points with coordinates
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2)?

What is the slope of PQ ? You are given that the slope of this line is 3. If you have
answered correctly, you should obtain
y = 3x – 3;
which is the required equation of the straight line.
In general, suppose you want to find the equation of the straight line which passes
through the point with coordinates (x1, y1) and which has slope m. Again, let the point
with given coordinates be A (x1, y1). Take any other point on the line, say B, with
coordinates (x, y) as shown in Figure 4.16.
y
slope =m•
B(x, y)
•
A (x1, y1)
Figure 4.16
160
y − y1
Then the slope of AB is
x − x1
⇒ y – y1 = m (x – x1) which is the same as y = y1 + m (x – x1).

This equation is called the point-slope form of the equation of a line.
−3
Example 5 Find the equation of the straight line with slope and which passes
2
through the point ( − 3, 2).
Solution: Assume that the point (x, y) is any point on the line other than (–3, 2).
Thus, using the equation y – y1 = m (x – x1)
−3
⇒ y–2= (x + 3)
2
3 5
⇒ y =− x− or 2y + 3x + 5 = 0.
2 2
The slope-intercept form of equation of a line

Consider the equation y = mx + b. When x = 0,
y = b. Also, when x = 1, y = m + b as shown in •
y Q (1, m + b)
Figure 4.17.
You can see that P (0, b) is the point where the P• R (1, b)
line with equation y = mx + b crosses the (0 , b)
y-axis. (b is called the y-intercept of the line). x
O
Let Q be (1, m + b).
Using the coordinates of points P and Q, show
that the slope of the straight line passing
through P and Q is m. Figure 4.17
Writing the equation of this line through the
point (0, b) with slope m, using the point-slope
form, gives
y – b = m (x – 0) ⇒ y = mx + b
where m is slope of the line and b is y-intercept of the line.
This equation is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line.
Note: The slope-intercept form of equation of a line enables us to find the slope and
the y-intercept, once the equation is given.
161
2
Example 6 Find the equation of the line with slope − and y-intercept 3.
3
−2
Solution: Here, m = and the y-intercept is 3.
3
2
Therefore, the equation of the line is y = − x + 3.
3
The two-point form of equation of a line

Finally, let us look at the situation where the slope of a non-vertical line is not given but
two points on the line are given.
Consider a straight line which passes through the points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2). If

R (x, y) is any point on the line other than P (x1, y1) or Q (x2, y2), then the slope of PR is
y − y1
m= , x ≠ x1 y
x − x1
R (x , y)
and the slope of PQ is
y2 − y1
m= , x1 ≠ x2
x2 − x 1 Q (x 2, y 2)
P (x 1, y 1)
But the slope of PR = the slope of PQ
y − y1 y2 − y1 x
∴ =
x − x1 x2 − x1
Figure 4.18
This equation is called the two-point form of the equation of a line.

Example 7 Find the equation of the line passing through the points P (–1, 5) and
Q (3, 13).
Solution: Taking (–1, 5) as (x1, y1) and (3, 13) as (x2, y2), use the two-point form to
get the equation of the line to be
13 − 5
y–5= ( x + 1) = 2x + 2 which implies y = 2x + 7
3 +1
The general equation of a line

A first degree (linear) equation in x and y is an equation of the form;
Ax + By + C = 0
where A, B and C are fixed real numbers such that A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0
All the different forms of equations of lines discussed above can be expressed in the form
Ax + By + C = 0
162
Conversely, one can show that any linear equation in x and y is the equation of a line.
Suppose a linear equation in x and y is given as
Ax + By + C = 0.
If B ≠ 0, then the equation may be solved for y as follows:
Ax + By + C = 0
By = –Ax – C
−A C
y= x−
B B
This equation is of the form y = mx + b, and therefore represents a straight line with
A C
slope m = − and y-intercept b = − .
B B
What will be the equation Ax + By + C = 0, if B = 0 and A ≠ 0?
Example 8 Find the slope and y-intercept of the line whose general equation is
3x – 6y – 4 = 0.
Solution: Solving for y the equation 3x – 6y – 4 = 0 gives,
−3 x 4 1 2
–6y = –3x + 4 ⇒ y = + = x−
− 6 −6 2 3
1 −2
So, the slope is m = and the y-intercept is b =
2 3
Example 9 What is the equation of the line passing through (–2, 0) and (0, 5).
Solution: Using two-point form:
5−0
y−0 = ( x + 2)
0 − ( −2)
which gives us, 5 x − 2 y + 10 = 0 as the equation of the line.
Exercise 4.5
1 Find the equation of the line passing through the given points.
a A ( − 2, − 4) and B ( − 1, 5) b C (2, − 4) and D ( − 1, 5)
c E (3, 7) and F (8, 7) d G (1, 1) and H (1 + 2,1– 2)
e P ( − 1, 0) and the origin f Q (4 , − 1) and R (4 , − 4)
 1 5  3 
g M (π, π) and N (3π, − 5π) h T  1 , −  and S  − , 1 .
 2 2  2 
163
2 Find the equation of the line with slope m, passing through the given point P.
3  π −π 
a m= ; P (0 , − 6) b m = 0; P  , 
2 2 4 
2
c m=1 ; P (1, 1) d m = −π ; P ( 0 , 0)
3
e m= 2; P ( 2, − 2 ) f
1 3
m = − 1; P  ,  .
3 2
3 Find the equation of the line with slope m and y-intercept b.
a m = 0.1 ; b = 0 b m = − 2 ; b = −1 c m=π;b=2
1 −5 −1 2
d m=1 ;b= e m= ;b=5 f m= ; b = 1.5
3 3 4 3
4 Suppose a line has x-intercept a and y-intercept b, for a, b ≠ 0; show that the
x y
equation of the line is + = 1.
a b
5 For each of the following equations, find the slope and y-intercept:
3 4
a x − y +8=0 b −y + 2 = 0 c 2x – 3y + 5 = 0
5 5
1
d x+ y − 2=0 e y + 2 = 2 ( x − 3 y + 1) .
2
6 A line passes through the points A (5, –1) and B (–3, 3). Find:
a the point-slope form of the equation of the line.
b the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line.
c the two-point form of the equation of the line. What is its general form?
7 Find the slope and y-intercept, if the equation of the line is:
1 2 1
a x − y +1 = y + x b 3( y − 2 x) = y + (1 − 2 x) .
3 3 2
8 A triangle has vertices at A (–1, 1), B (1, 3) and C (3, 1).
a Find the equations of the lines containing the sides of the triangle.
b Is the triangle a right-angled triangle?
c What are the intercepts of the line passing through B and C?
164
4.4 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Slopes can be used to see whether two non-vertical lines in a plane are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.
For instance, the lines y = x and y = x + 3 are parallel and the lines y = x and y = –x are
perpendicular. How are the slopes related?
ACTIVITY 4.8
1 What is meant by two lines being parallel? Perpendicular?
2 In Figure 4.19, ℓ1 and ℓ2 are parallel.
a Calculate the slope of each line. b Find the equation of each line.
c Discuss how their slopes are related.
y
ℓ1 y
ℓ1
l ℓ2 l
x
-l l x
-l 1
-l
ℓ2
3 In Figure 4.20 above, ℓ1 and ℓ2 are perpendicular.

a Calculate the slope of each line. b Find the equation of each line.
c Discuss how their slopes are related.
Theorem 4.1
If two non-vertical lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 are parallel to each other, then they
have the same slope.
Suppose you have two non-vertical lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 with slopes m1 and m2, and
inclination θ and β, respectively as shown in Figure 4.21.
165
If ℓ1 is parallel to ℓ2, then θ = β (why?)

Consequently, m1 = tan θ = tan β = m2
State and prove the converse of the above theorem.
What can be stated for two vertical lines? Are they parallel?
y
ℓ1
ℓ2
1
θ β
1 x
Figure 4.21
Example 1 Show that the line passing through A ( − 1, − 1) and B (2, − 3) is parallel
to the line passing through P ( − 3, − 2) and Q (3, − 6).
y − y −3 − (−1) −3 + 1 2
Solution: Slope of AB = 2 1 = = =−
x2 − x1 2 − (−1) 2 +1 3
y − y −6 − (−2) −6 + 2 2
Slope PQ = 2 1 = = =−
x2 − x1 3 − (−3) 3+3 3

Since AB and PQ have the same slope, AB is parallel to PQ i.e. AB // PQ
Recall that two lines are perpendicular, if they form a right-angle at their point of
intersection.
Theorem 4.2
Two non-vertical lines having slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular, if
and only if m1 ⋅ m2 = − 1.
Proof: Suppose ℓ1 is perpendicular to ℓ2.
Note: If one of the lines is a vertical line, then the other line must be a horizontal line
which has slope zero. So, assume that neither line is vertical.
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of ℓ1 and ℓ2, respectively.
Let R (xo, yo) be the point of intersection and choose P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) on ℓ1 and ℓ2,
respectively.
166
Draw triangles QSR and RTP as shown in Figure 4.22.

y
∆QSR and ∆RTP are similar, (why?) ℓ2 ℓ1
Q (x 2, y2) P (x 1 , y 1 )
PT RS
= (why?)
RT QS
y1 − yo x −x  x −x 
= o 2 = − 2 o  • T( x1, y o)
x1 − xo y2 − yo  y2 − yo  S (x2 , yo) R ( x o, y o )
y1 − yo −1
=
x1 − xo y2 − yo
x
x2 − xo ℓ2
1
m1 = − or m1.m2 = −1
m2 Figure 4.22
QS RT 1
As an exercise, start with = and conclude that m2 = −
RS PT m1
Conversely, you could show that if two lines have slopes m1 and m2 with m1⋅m2 = –1,
then the lines are perpendicular. This can be done by reversing the above steps and
concluding that the two triangles are similar. Complete the proof.
Example 2 Suppose ℓ1 passes through P (–1, –3) and Q (2, 6). Find the slope m2 of
any line ℓ2 that is:
a parallel to ℓ1 b perpendicular to ℓ1.
Solution: The slope of ℓ1 is

y2 − y1 6 − (−3) 9
m1 = = = = 3. So,
x2 − x1 2 − (−1) 3
a the slope of line ℓ2 parallel to ℓ1 is m1 = 3
1 1
b the slope of line ℓ2 perpendicular to ℓ1 is m2 = – = −
m1 3
Example 3 Find the equation of the line passing through P (5, –1) and perpendicular
to the line ℓ : x – 3y = –7.
1 7 1
Solution: From x – 3y = –7, y = x + So, m1 =
3 3 3
−1
Let the slope of the required line be m2. Then, m1.m2 = –1 gives m2 = = −3
m1
Therefore, the required equation of the line is y + 1 = –3 (x – 5) i.e. y = –3x + 14.
167
Exercise 4.6
1 In each of the following, determine whether the line through A and B is parallel to
or perpendicular to the line through P and Q:
a A ( − 1, 3) and B (2, − 2) b A ( − 3, 5) and B (2, − 5)
P (1, 4) and Q ( − 2, 9) P ( − 1, 4) and Q (1, 5).
2 Find the slope of the line that is perpendicular to the line joining P (2, −3) and
Q (–3, –2).
3 Use slope to show that the quadrilateral ABCD with vertices A ( − 5, − 2),
B ( − 3, 1), C (3, 0) and D (1, − 3) is a parallelogram.
4 Let ℓ be the line with equation 2x – 3y = 6. Find the slope-intercept form of the
equation of the line that passes through the point P (2, − 1) and is:
a parallel to ℓ b perpendicular to ℓ.
5 Find the equation of a line passing through the point P and parallel to the line ℓ for:
a ℓ: 2x – 5y – 4 = 0 ; P (–1, 2) b ℓ : 3x + 6 = 0 ; P (4, –6).
6 Determine which of the following pairs of lines whose equations are given are
perpendicular or parallel or neither:
a 3x – y + 5 = 0 and x + 3y – 1 = 0
b 3x – 4y + 1 = 0 and 4x – 3y + 1 = 0
c 4x – 10y + 8 = 0 and 10x + 6y – 3 = 0
d 2x + 2y = 4 and x + y = 10.
7 Find the equation of the line passing through the point P (2, 5) and:
a parallel to the line passing through the points A (3, 1) and B ( − 1, 3)
b parallel to the line ℓ: x + y = 2
c perpendicular to the line joining the points A ( − 1, 2) and B (4, − 2)
d perpendicular to the line ℓ: y = x + 1.
8 Determine k so that the line with equation 4x + ky = 12 will be:
a parallel to the line with equation x = 3y
b perpendicular to the line with equation x – 3y = 5.
9 Show that the plane figure with vertices:
a A (6, 1), B (5, 6), C ( − 4, 3) and D ( − 3, − 2) is a parallelogram
b A (2, 4), B(1, 5), C ( − 2, 2) and D ( − 1, 1) is a rectangle.
10 The vertices of a triangle are A ( − 2, 5), B (3, 8) and C (6, − 4). Show that the line
joining the mid-points of sides A B to B C is parallel to and one-half the length
of side AC .
168
Key Terms
analytic geometry general equation of a line point-slope form
angle of inclination horizontal line slope (gradient)
coordinate geometry inclination of a line slope-intercept form
coordinates mid-point steepness
equation of a line non-vertical line two-point form
Summary
1 If a point P has coordinates (a, b), then the number a is called the x-coordinate or
abscissa of P and b is called the y-coordinate or ordinate of P.
2 The distance d between points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by the formula
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
d=
3 The point R (xo, yo) dividing the line segment PQ, internally, in the ratio m:n is
given by
 nx + mx2 ny1 + my2 
R (xo, yo) =  1 , ,
 n+m n+m 
where P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) are the end-points.
4 The mid-point of a line segment whose end-points are P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is
given by
x +x y +y 
M (xo, yo) =  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 
5 If P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) are points on a line with x1 ≠ x2, then the slope
(gradient) of the line is given by
y −y
m= 2 1
x2 − x1
6 If θ is the angle between the positive x-axis and the line passing through the points
P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2), x1 ≠ x2, then the slope of the line is given by
y −y
m = 2 1 = tan θ
x2 − x1
7 The graph of the equation x = c is the vertical line through P (c, 0) and has no
slope.
8 The equation of the line with slope m and passing through the point P (x1, y1) is
given by
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
169
9 The equation of the line with slope m and y-intercept b is given by

y = mx + b
10 The equation of the line passing through points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by
y −y
y – y1 = 2 1 ( x – x1), x1 ≠ x2
x2 − x1
11 The graph of every first degree (linear) equation Ax + By + C = 0, A, B ≠ 0 is a
straight line and every straight line is a graph of a first degree equation.
12 Two non-vertical lines are parallel, if and only if they have the same slope.
13 Let ℓ1 be a line with slope m1 and ℓ2 be a line with slope m2. Then ℓ1 and ℓ2 are
perpendicular lines if and only if m1 ⋅ m2 = − 1.

1 Show that the points A (1, − 1), B ( − 1, 1) and C ( )
3, 3 are the vertices of an
equilateral triangle.
2 Find the coordinates of the three points that divide the line segment joining
P (−4, 7) and Q (10, − 9) into four parts of equal length.
3 Find the equation of the line which passes through the points P (−4, −2) and Q (3, 6).
4 Find the equation of the line:
a with slope –3 that passes through P (8, 3).
1
b with slope that passes through Q ( − 2, 5).
2
5 In each of the following, show that the three points are vertices of a right angled
triangle:
a A (0, 0), B (1, 1), C (2, 0) b P (3, 1), Q (−3, 4), R ( − 3, 1).
6 Find the slope and y-intercept of the line with the following equations:
a 2x – 3y = 4 b 2y – 5x – 2 = 0
c 5y + 6x – 4 = 0 d 3y = 7x + 1.
7 Find the equation of the straight line passing through P (–2, 1) and:
a parallel to the line with equation 2x – 3y = 1
b perpendicular to the line with equation 5y + 6x = 10.
8 Let ℓ be the line through A ( − 4, 5) and B (3, t) that is perpendicular to the line
through P (1, 3) and Q ( − 4, 2). Find the value of t.
9 Let ℓ be the line through A (4, − 3) and B (t, − 2) that is parallel to the line through
P ( − 2, 4) and Q (4, − 1). Find the value of t.
10 Prove that the condition for lines Ax + By + C = 0 and ax + by + c = 0 to be
perpendicular may be written in the form
Aa + Bb = 0, where B, b ≠ 0.
170
f (x) = sin x
y f (x) = cos x
1
0.5
x
0
Unit 0.5
-1 3π π 3π 2π
−2π − 2 −π π 0 π
−
2 2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Unit Outcomes:
know principles and methods for sketching graphs of basic trigonometric
functions.
understand important facts about reciprocals of basic trigonometric
functions.
identify trigonometric identities.
solve real life problems involving trigonometric functions.
Main Contents
5.1 Basic trigonometric functions
5.2 The reciprocals of the basic trigonometric functions
5.3 Simple trigonometric identities
5.4 Real life application problems
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
In Mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions) are
functions of angles. They were originally used to relate the angles of a triangle to the
lengths of the sides of a triangle. Loosely translated, trigonometry means triangle
measure. Trigonometric functions are highly useful in the study of triangles and also in
many different phenomena in real life.
The most familiar trigonometric functions are sine, cosine and tangent. In this unit,
you will be studying the properties of these functions in detail, including their graphs
and some practical applications. Also, you will extend your study with an introduction
to three more trigonometric functions.
5.1 BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

H
HIISSTTO
ORRIIC
CAALL N
NO TEE::
OT
Astronomy led to the development of trigonometry. The
Greek astronomer Hipparchus (140 BC) is credited for being
the originator of trigonometry. To aid his calculations
regarding astronomy, he produced a table of numbers in
which the lengths of chords of a circle were related to the
length of the radius.
Ptolomy, another great Greek astronomer of the time,
extended this table in his major published work Hipparchus (190-120 BC)
Almagest which was used by astronomers for the next 1000 years. In fact much
of Hipparchus’ work is known through the writings of Ptolomy. These writings
found their way to Hindu and Arab scholars.
Aryabhata, a Hindu mathematician in the 6th century AD, drew up a table of
the lengths of half–chords of a circle with radius one unit. Aryabhata actually
drew up the first table of sine values.
In the late 16th century, Rhaeticus produced a comprehensive and remarkably
accurate table of all the six trigonometric functions. These involved a tremendous
number of tedious calculations, all without the aid of calculators or computers.
OPENING PROBLEM
C
From an observer O, the angles of
elevation of the bottom and the top B
of a flagpole are 36° and 38°

respectively. Find the height of the
flagpole. o
38
36o
O
Figure 5.1 20 m A
172
Unit 5 Trigonometric Functions
5.1.1 The Sine, Cosine and Tangent Functions

Basic terminologies

If a given ray OA (written as OA ) rotates around a point O from its initial position to a
new position, it forms an angle θ as shown below.
y
terminal position
terminal position B B
θ θ
x
O initial position A O A
initial position
a b
Figure 5.2

OA (initial position) is called the initial side of θ .

OB (terminal position) is called the terminal side of θ.
The angle formed by a ray rotating anticlockwise is taken to be a positive angle.
An angle formed by a ray rotating clockwise is taken to be a negative angle.
Example 1
A P M
Q δ N
β
O O O
B γ
a b c
Figure 5.3

Angle β in Figure 5.3a is a negative angle with initial side OA and terminal

side OB

Angle γ in Figure 5.3b is a positive angle with initial side OP and terminal

side OQ

Angle δ in Figure 5.3c is a positive angle with initial side ON and terminal

side OM
Angles in standard position

An angle in the coordinate plane is said to be in standard position, if
1 its vertex is at the origin, and
2 its initial side lies on the positive x-axis.
Example 2 The following angles are all in standard position:
173
y y y y
x x O x O x
O O
a b c d
Figure 5.4
First, second, third and fourth quadrant angles

• If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the first quadrant,
then it is called a first quadrant angle.
• If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the second
quadrant, then it is called a second quadrant angle.
• If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the third quadrant,
then it is called a third quadrant angle.
• If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the fourth
quadrant, then it is called a fourth quadrant angle.
Example 3 The following are angles in different quadrants:
y y y y
θ θ θ
θ x o x
o x o x o
θ is a 1st quadrant θ is a 2nd quadrant θ is a 3rd quadrant θ is a 4th quadrant

angle angle angle angle
a b c d
Figure 5.5
Quadrantal angles
If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies along the x-axis or the y-axis,
then the angle is called a quadrantal angle.
Example 4 The following are all quadrantal angles.
y y y y
90° 180° 270°

°
0
o x o x o x o x
a b c d
174
y y y y
360 0 –270 0 –360 0
o x o x o x o x
−180 o
e f g h
Figure 5.6
Angles with measures of –360o, –270o, –180o, –90o, 0o, 90o, 180o, 270o, 360o are examples
of quadrantal angles because their terminal sides lie along the x-axis or the y-axis.
Example 5 The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard
position and indicate to which quadrant they belong:
a 200o b 1125o c – 900o
Solution:
a 200o = 180o + 20o
∴an angle with measure of 200o is a third quadrant angle.
b 1125o = 3(360)o + 45o
1125o is a measure of a first quadrant angle.
c – 900o = 2(– 360)o +(– 180o )
– 900o is a measure of a quadrantal angle.
y y y
2000 11250
x x x
–9000
Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9
Exercise 5.1
The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard position and
indicate to which quadrant they belong:
a 240o b 350o c 620o d 666o
e –350o f – 480o g 550o h –1080o
Radian measure of angles

So far we have measured angles in degrees. However, angles can also be measured in
radians. Scientists, engineers, and mathematicians usually work with angles in radians.
175
Group Work 5.1

1 Draw a circle of radius 5 cm on a sheet of paper.
2 Using a thread measure the circumference of the circle and
record your result in centimetres.
3 Divide the result obtained in 2 by 10 (length of diameter of the circle) and give
your answer in centimetres. A
4 Compare the answer you obtained in 3 with the value of π. 5 cm
5 Using a thread, measure an arc length of 5 cm on the O r =5 cm B

circumference of the circle and name the end points A and
B as shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10
6 Using your protractor measure angle AOB.
7 If you represent the measure of the central angle AOB, which is subtended by an
arc equal in length to the radius as 1 radian, what will be the approximate value of
1 radian in degrees?
8 Can you approximate 180o and 360o in radians?
9 Discuss your findings and find a formula that converts degree measure to radian
measure.
The angle θ subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius is
r
1 radian. That is θ = = 1 radian. (See Figure 5.11a.)
r
r r r s
θ θ
O r O r
a b
Figure 5.11
s
In general, if the length of the arc is s units and the radius is r units, then θ = radians.
r
(See Figure 5.11b.) This indicates that the size of the angle is the ratio of the arc length
to the length of the radius. 3
2
Example 6 If s = 3 cm and r = 2 cm, calculate θ in radians. θ
O 2
s 3
Solution: θ = = = 1.5 radians
r 2
Figure 5.12
176
Example 7 Convert 360o to radians.

Solution: A circle with radius r units has circumference 2π r. θ 2πr
s 2π r O r
In this case θ = becomes θ = ⇒ θ = 2π
r r
i.e., 3600 = 2π radians. Figure 5.13
Example 8 Can you convert 180o to radian measure?

0
Solution: Since 360° = 2π radians, 180° = π rad … because 180° = 360
2
180
It follows that 1 rad = ≅ 57.3
π
Rule 1
π
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by
180o
π
i.e., radians = degrees × .
180o
Example 9
a Convert 30o to radians. b Convert 240o to radians.
Solution:
π π
a 30o = 30°× = radians . b 240o = 240 ο × π ο = 4 π radians.
180° 6 180 3
Rule 2
180o
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by .
π
180o
i.e., degrees = radians × .
π
Example 10
π π 180 o 180o
a rad = × = 90 o b −4π rad = −4π × = −720o
2 2 π π
Exercise 5.2
1 Convert each of the following degrees to radians:
a 60 b 45 c –150 d 90 e –270 f 135
2 Convert each of the following radians to degrees:
π π 2π 5π 10π
a b – c d e – f 3
12 6 3 6 3
177
Definition of the sine, cosine and tangent functions

The Sine, Cosine and Tangent Functions are the three basic trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric functions were originally used to relate the angles of a triangle to the
lengths of the sides of a triangle. It is from this practice of measuring the sides of a
triangle with the help of its angles (or vice versa) that the name trigonometry was coined.
B B
φ
∅
HYP HYP
OPP ADJ
θ
A C A C
ADJ OPP

Let us consider the right angled triangles in Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15.
You already know that, for a given right angled triangle, the hypotenuse (HYP) is the
side which is opposite the right angle and is the longest side of the triangle.
For the angle marked byθ (See Figure 5.14)
B C is the side opposite (OPP) angle θ .
AC is the side adjacent (ADJ) angle θ .
Similarly, for the angle marked by φ (See Figure 5.15)
AC is the side opposite (OPP) angle φ .
B C is the side adjacent (ADJ) angle φ .
Definition 5.1
If θ is an angle in standard position and P(a,b) is a point on the
terminal side of θ, other than the origin O(0, 0), and r is the distance of
point P from the origin O, then y
OPP b
sinθ = = P (a,b)
HYP r
b
ADJ a
cosθ = = r b
HYP r
θ
OPP b
tanθ = = O a Q x
ADJ a
Remember that ∆OPQ is a right angle triangle. Figure 5.16
(by the Pythagoras Theorem, r = a2 + b2 )
(sinθ, cosθ and tanθ are abbreviations of Sineθ, Cosineθ and Tangentθ, respectively.)
178
Trigonometric functions can be considered in the same way as any general function,
linear, quadratic, exponential or logarithmic.
The input value for a trigonometric function is an angle. That angle could be measured
in degrees or radians. The output value for a trigonometric function is a pure number
with no unit.
Example 11 If θ is an angle in standard position and y
4 P( 3, 4 )
P (3, 4) is a point on the terminal side ofθ,
then evaluate the sine, cosine and tangent of θ. r
Solution: The distance r = 32 + 42 = 5 units θ
OPP 4 ADJ 3
So sinθ = = cosθ = = and O 3 x
HYP 5 HYP 5
Figure 5.17
OPP 4
tanθ = = .
ADJ 3
Exercise 5.3
Evaluate the sine, cosine and tangent functions of θ, ifθ is in standard position and its
terminal side contains the given point P (x , y):
a P (3, – 4 ) b P (– 6, – 8 ) c P (1, –1 )
 2 2
d P  −
2
, 
2 
e (
P 4 5, − 2 5 ) f P (1, 0)

The unit circle

y
The circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius 1 unit is called P (x,y)
the unit circle. r
Consider a point P (x, y) on the circle. [ (See Figure 5.18) O(0,0) x
Since OP = r, then ( x − 0) 2 + ( y − 0) 2 = r … by distance formula

Figure 5.18
∴ x2 + y2 = r2 … squaring both sides
y
We say that x2 + y2 = r2 is the equation of a circle with (0,1)
P (x,y)
centre (0, 0) and radius r. Accordingly, the equation of the
1 y
unit circle is x2 + y2 = 1. ( As r = 1) θ
O x Q (1,0) x
Let the terminal side of θ intersect the unit circle at point P
(x, y). Since r = x2 + y2 = 1, the sine, cosine and tangent Figure 5.19
functions of θ are given as follows:
179
OPP y y
sinθ = = = =y ... the y-coordinate of P
HYP r 1
ADJ x x
cosθ = = = =x … the x-coordinate of P
HYP r 1
OPP y
tanθ = =
ADJ x
Example 12 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent of θ ;
if θ = 90o, 180o, 270o.
Solution: As shown in the Figure 5.20, the terminal side of the 90o angle intersects
the unit circle at (0, 1). So (x, y) = (0, 1).
y 1
Hence, sin 90o = y = 1, cos 90o = x = 0 and tan 90o is undefined since =
x 0
The terminal side of the 180o angle intersects the unit circle at (–1, 0).
(See Figure 5.21.) So, (x, y) = (–1, 0).
y 0
Hence, sin 180o = y = 0, cos 180o = x = –1 and tan 180o = = =0.
x −1
y y y
(0,1)
900 1800 2700
x (–1,0) x x
(0,–1)

o
The terminal side of the 270 angle intersects the unit circle at (0, –1). (See Figure 5.22.)
So (x, y) = (0, –1). Hence, sin 270 o = y = –1, cos 270o = x = 0 and tan 270o is undefined
y −1
since = .
x 0
Exercise 5.4
1 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of
the following quadrantal angles:
a 0o b 360o c 450o
d 540o e 630o
180
Trigonometric values of 30o, 45o and 60o

The following Group Work will help you to find the trigonometric values of the special
angle 45o.
Group Work 5.2

Consider the isosceles right angle triangle in Figure 5.23.
a Calculate the length of the hypotenuse AB
b From the properties of an isosceles right angle B
triangle what is the measure of angle A?
c Are the angles A and B congruent?
1
d Which side is opposite to angle A?
Which side is adjacent to angle A?
A C
e Find sin A, cos A and tan A. 1
Figure 5.23
From Group Work 5.2 you have found the values of sin 45o, cos 45o and tan 45o.
Another way of finding the trigonometric values of 45o is to place the 45o angle in
standard position as shown in Figure 5.24.
When we place the 45o angle in standard position, its terminal side intersects the unit
circle at P(x, y).
To calculate the coordinates of P, draw PD parallel to the y-axis.
∆OPD is an isosceles right angle triangle.
y
(0,1)
By Pythagoras rule, (OD)2 + (PD)2 = (OP)2 1

P (x,y)
Since OD = PD, (PD)2 + (PD)2 = (OP)2 . 450

(–1,0) O D (1,0) x
1
2 2
That is y + y = 1 2
⇒ 2y = 1 ⇒ y =
2 2
2
(0,–1)
1 2 .
⇒ y= = Figure 5.24
2 2
Since the triangle is isosceles both the x and y-coordinates of P are the same.
 2 2
Therefore the terminal side of the 45o angle intersects the unit circle at P  ,  .
 2 2 
 2
 
2
=   =1
o 2 o 2 o y
Hence, sin 45 = y = ; cos 45 = x = and tan 45 =
2 2 x  2
 
 2 
181
Trigonometric values for 30o and 60o

Consider the equilateral triangle in Figure 5.25, with side length 2 units. The altitude
BD bisects ∠B as well as side AC . Hence ∠ABD = 30o and AD = 1 (half of the length
of AC).
By Pythagoras Theorem, the length of the altitude is h where B
h 2 + 12 = 2
2
⇒ h2 = 4 – 1 = 3 ⇒ h = 3
Now in the right-angled triangle ABD, 300
1 3 2 h 2
sin 30o = = 0.5 sin 60o =
2 2
3 1
cos 30o = cos 60o = = 0.5 600
2 2 600
A C
1 3 3 1 D 1
tan 30o = = tan 60o = = 3
3 3 1 Figure 5.25
Trigonometric values of negative angles

Remember that an angle is positive, if measured anticlockwise and negative, if
clockwise.
y y
θ
θ
o β x o x
β
a b
Figure 5.26
θ is a positive angle whereas β is a negative angle.
Example 13 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions
of θ when θ = –180o. y
The terminal side of –1800 intersects the unit
circle at (–1, 0). So (x, y) = (–1, 0).
x
Hence, sin (–180o) = y = 0, (–1,0)
–1800
cos (–180o) = x = –1
y 0
and tan (–180o) = = = 0. Figure 5.27
x −1
Example 14 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent
functions of θ when θ = – 45o.
182
Solution: Place the –45o angle in standard position. Its y (0,1)

terminal side intersects the unit circle at Q (x, y).
To determine the coordinates of Q, draw QL
0
L
parallel to the y-axis. (–1,0) O –45 (1,0) x
1
∆OQL is an isosceles right triangle. Q (x,y)
2 2 2 (0,–1)
By Pythagoras Theorem, (OL) + (QL) = (OQ)
Since OL = QL, (QL)2 + (QL)2 = (OQ)2. Figure 5.28
1 1
That is y2 + y2 = 12 ⇒ 2y2 = 1 ⇒ y2 = ⇒ y=±
2 2
∴y = – 1 = – 2 . … Remember that y is negative in the fourth quadrant
2 2
Since the triangle is isosceles OL = QL= 2 .

2
Therefore, the x coordinate of Q is 2 … Note that x is positive in the fourth quadrant
2
So, the terminal side of the – 45 angle intersects the unit circle at P( 2 , – 2 )
o
2 2
 2 2
i.e., (x, y) =  ,− 
 2 2 
 2
− 
2 
and tan (– 45o) = = 
2 2 y
Hence, sin (– 45o) = y = ; cos (–45o) = x = = –1.
2 2 x  2
 
 2 
o
Observe that from the trigonometric values of 45 and –45°,
sin (–45o ) = –sin 45°, cos (–45° ) = cos 45° and tan(–45° ) = –tan45°.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1 Find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of θ and
complete the following two tables:
(Use a dash “–” if it is undefined).
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o 180o 270o 360o

sin θ 0 1 –1
cos θ –1
tan θ −
183
θ
–30o –45o –60o –90o –180o –270o –360o
1 3
sin θ − −
2 2
3 1
cos θ 0
2 2
3
tan θ − − 3 −
3
2 Which of the following pairs of values are equal?
a sin(–30o) and sin(30o) b cos(–30o) and cos(30o)
c tan(–30o) and tan(30o) d sin(– 45o) and sin(45o)
e cos(– 45o) and cos(45o) f tan(– 45o) and tan(45o)
g sin(– 60o) and sin(60o) h cos(– 60o) and cos(60o)
i tan(– 60o) and tan(60o)
3 How do you compare the values of:
a sin (–θ ) and sinθ ? b cos (–θ ) and cosθ ?
c tan (–θ ) and – tanθ ?
From Activity 5.1 you conclude the following:
If θ is any angle, then sin(–θ) = –sinθ, cos(–θ) = cosθ and tan(–θ) = –tanθ .
Let us refer to Figure 5.29 to justify the above. y
y −y y P(x,y)
sinθ = , sin(–θ ) = = –( ) ∴ sin(– θ ) = – sinθ r
r r r θ
x x x
cosθ = , cos(–θ ) = ∴ cos(– θ ) = cosθ o –θ
x
r r r
y −y y P(x,–y)
tanθ = , tan(–θ ) = = –( ) ∴ tan(– θ ) = – tanθ
x x x Figure 5.29
5.1.2 Values of Trigonometric Functions for

Related Angles
The signs of sine, cosine and tangent functions
In this sub-section you will consider whether the sign for each of the trigonometric
functions of an angle is positive or negative.
The sign (whether sinθ, cosθ and tanθ are positive or negative) depends on the quadrant
to which θ belongs.
184
Example 1 Consider an angle θ in the first and second quadrants.

If θ is a first quadrant angle, then the sign of y
y P(+,+)
sinθ = opp = is positive r
hyp r θ
x o x
cosθ = adj = is positive
hyp r
y
tanθ = opp = is positive Figure 5.30
adj x
If θ is a second quadrant angle then, the sign of y
y
sinθ = opp = is positive P(–,+)
hyp r θ
r
x
cosθ = adj = is negative since x is negative o x
hyp r
y
tanθ = opp = is negative
adj x Figure 5.31
ACTIVITY 5.2
1 Determine whether the signs of sinθ, cos θ and tanθ are positive
or negative:
a if θ is a third quadrant angle b if θ is a fourth quadrant angle
2 Decide whether the three trigonometric functions are positive or negative and
complete the following table:
θ has terminal side in quadrant
I II III IV
sin θ + –
cos θ –
tan θ +
In general, the signs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions in all of the four quadrants
can be summarized as below:
y
900
(x, y): (–,+) (x,y):(+,+)
1 sin is + sin is +
2
cos is – cos is +
sin all 00 tan is – tan is +
1800
x
tan cos sin is – o sin is –
cos is – cos is +
3 4 tan is + tan is –
2700 (x, y):(–,– ) (x, y):(+,–)
185
• In the first quadrant all the three trigonometric functions are positive.
• In the second quadrant only sine is positive.
• In the third quadrant only tangent is positive.
• In the fourth quadrant only cosine is positive.
Do you want an easy way to remember this? Keep in mind the following statement:
All S tudents T ake C hemistry
Taking the first letter of each word we have
All All are positive

S tudents Sine is positive
T ake Tangent is positive
C hemistry Cosine is positive
Example 2 Determine the sign of:

a sin 195o b tan 336o c cos 895o
Solution:
a Observe that 180o < 195o < 270o. So angle 195o is a third quadrant angle. In
the third quadrant the sine function is negative.
∴ sin 195o is negative
b Since 270o< 336o < 360o, the angle whose measure is 336o is a fourth
quadrant angle. In the fourth quadrant the tangent function is negative.
Hence tan 336o is negative.
c Since 2(360)o < 895o < 2(360)o + 180o, the angle whose measure is 895o is a
second quadrant angle. In the second quadrant the cosine function is
negative.
Hence, cos 895o is negative.
Group Work 5.3

1 Discuss and answer each of the following:
a If tanθ > 0 and cosθ < 0, thenθ is in quadrant______.
b If sinθ > 0 and cosθ < 0, thenθ is in quadrant______.
c If cosθ > 0 and tanθ < 0, thenθ is in quadrant______.
d If sinθ < 0 and tanθ > 0, thenθ is in quadrant______.
2 Determine the sign of:
a cos 267o b tan (– 280o) c sin (– 815o)
3 Determine the signs of sinθ ,cosθ and tanθ, if θ is an angle in standard position
and P (2, −5) is a point on its terminal side.
186
Complementary angles
Any two angles are said to be complementary, if the sum of their measures is equal
to 90o.
Example 3 Angle with measures of 30o and 60o, 20o and 70o, 40o and 50o, 45o and
45o, 10o and 80o are examples of complementary angles.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1 Referring to Figure 5.32,
a Find sin 30o , cos 30o , tan 30o , sin 60o , cos 60o , tan 60o
b i Compare the results of sin 30o and cos 60o. 300
ii Compare the results of sin 60o and cos 30o. 2 3 2
iii Compare the results of tan 30o and tan 60o.

600
2 Refer to Figure 5.33 on the right and find 1
Figure 5.32
1
a sin α, cos α, tan α, sin β, cos β and tan β.

b i Compare the results of sin α and cos β. β
5
ii Compare the results of sin β and cos α. 3
α
iii Compare the results of tan α and tan β.
4
c What do you conclude from your findings? Figure 5.33
From Activity 5.3, the following relationships can be concluded:

If α and β are complementary angles, that is, α
(α + β = 90 ) (See Figure 5.34), then we have,

0
b c
a a b
sinα = cos β = tanβ = 900
c c a β
a
b b a 1
sinβ = cos α = tanα = = Figure 5.34
c c b b
 
a
Hence, for complementary angles α and β ,
1
sinα = cosβ , cos α = sinβ and tan α = .
tan β
187
Exercise 5.5
Answer each of the following questions:
a If sin 31o = 0.5150, then what is cos 59o?
3
b If sinθ = , then what is cos (90° – θ )?
5
4
c If cos δ = , then what is sin (90° – δ )?
5
d If sin θ = k, then what is cos (90° –θ )?
e If cos δ = r, then what is sin (90° – δ )?
m 1
f If tan β = , then what is ?
n tan ( 90 − β )
Reference angle(θ R)
If θ is an angle in standard position whose terminal side does not lie on either
coordinate axis, then a reference angle θR for θ is the acute angle formed by the
terminal side of θ and the x-axis as shown in the following figures:
y y y y
θ θ θ
θ =θ R θR
o θR
o x o x θR o x x
a b c d
Figure 5.35
Example 4 Find the reference angle θR for θ if:
a θ = 110° b θ = 212° c θ = 280°
Solution:
a Since θ = 110° is a second quadrant angle,
θR = 180 – 110° = 70°
b Since θ = 212° is a third quadrant angle,

θR = 212° – 180° = 32°
c Since θ = 280° is a fourth quadrant angle,

θR = 360° – 280° = 80°
188
y y y
110° 212° 2800

70°
o x 32° o x o x
800
Exercise 5.6
Find the reference angle θR for θ if:
a θ = 150° b θ = 170° c θ = 240° d θ = 320°
e θ = 99° f θ = 225° g θ = 315° h θ = 840°
Values of the trigonometric functions of θ and its

reference angle θR
Let us consider a second quadrant angle θ. Put θ in standard position as shown in the
figure 5.39, and let P (– x, y) be a point on its terminal side. Using the y-axis as an axis
of symmetry, reflect P through the y-axis. This will give you another point P'(x, y)
which is the image of P on the terminal side of θR.
This implies that OP = OP ' , that is OP = OP ' = x2 + y2 = r

y
y y θ
Hence, sin θ = , sin θR = ⇒ sin θ = sinθ R P (–x,y) r r ′
P ′(x, y)
r r
θR θR '
−x x x
cosθ = , cos θ R = ⇒ cos θ = – cos θR O
r r
y y y
tan θ = = − , tan θ R = ⇒ tan θ = – tan θR Figure 5.39
−x x x
The values of the trigonometric function of a given angle θ and the values of the
corresponding trigonometric functions of the reference angle θR are the same in absolute
value but they may differ in sign.
Example 5 Express the sine, cosine and tangent functions of 160° in terms of its
reference angle.
Solution: Remember that an angle with measure 160o is a second quadrant angle .
In quadrant II, only sine is positive.
The reference angle θR = 180o – 160o = 20o
Therefore, sin 160o = sin 20o, cos 160o = – cos 20o and tan 160o = – tan 20o.
189
Supplementary angles
Two angles are said to be supplementary, if the sum of their measures is equal to 180o.
Example 6 Pairs of angles with measures of 30o and 150o, 120o and 60o, 45o and
135o, 75o and 105o, 10o and 170o are examples of supplementary angles.
Example 7 Find the values of sin 150o, cos 150o and tan 150o .
Solution: The reference angle θR = 180o– 150o = 30o
1 3
Therefore, sin 150o = sin 30o = , cos 150o = – cos 30o = −
2 2
and tan 150o = – tan 30o = − 3 .

3
Example 8 Find the values of sin 240o, cos 240o and tan 240o
Solution: The reference angle θR = 2400 – 1800 = 600
3 , cos 240o = – cos 60o= 1
sin 240o = – sin 60o = − − and
2 2
tan 240o = tan 60o = 3.
… remember that in quadrant III only tangent is positive.
In general,
If θ is a second quadrant angle, then its reference angle will be (180 o – θ ). Hence,
sinθ = sin(180o – θ ) cosθ = – cos (180o – θ ) tanθ = – tan (180o – θ )
If θ is a third quadrant angle, its reference angle will be θ –1800.
Hence, sinθ = – sin (θ – 180o) cosθ = – cos (θ – 180o) and tanθ = tan (θ – 180o).
Exercise 5.7
1 Express the sine, cosine and tangent functions of each of the following angle
measures in terms of their reference angle:
a 105o b 175o c 220o
d – 260o e – 300o f 380o
2 Find the values of:
a sin 135o, cos 135o and tan 135o b cos 143o, if cos 37o = 0.7986
c tan 138o, if tan 42o = 0.9004 d sin 115o , if sin 65o = 0.9063
e tan 159o, if tan 21o = 0.3839 f cos 24o, if cos 156o = – 0.9135
190
Co–terminal angles
Co–terminal angles are angles in standard position that have a common terminal side.
Example 9
a The three angles with measures 30o, – 330o and 390o are co-terminal angles.
(See Figure 5.40)
y
y
4150
300 3900
x 550
o initial side x
–3300 o initial side
0
–305

b The three angles with measures 55 , – 305 and 415o are also co-terminal.
o o
(See Figure 5.41)
ACTIVITY 5.4
1 With the help of the following table find angles which are co-
terminal with 60o.
Angles which are co–terminal with 60o
60o + 1(360o) = 420o 60o – 1(360o) = – 300o
60o + 2(360o) = 780o 60o – 2(360o) = – 660o
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
60o + 6(360o) = 2220o 60o – 6(360o) = –2100o
. .
. .
. .
2 Give a formula to find all angles which are co-terminal with 60o.
Given an angle θ, all angles which are co–terminal with θ are given by the formula
θ ± n (360o ), where n = 1 , 2, 3, . . .
Example 10 Find a positive and a negative angle co-terminal with 75° .
Solution: To find a positive and a negative angle co-terminal with a given angle, you
can add or subtract 360°. Hence, 75° – 360° = –285°; 75° + 360° = 435°.
191
Therefore, –285° and 435° are co-terminal with 75°.

There are an infinite number of other angles co-terminal with 75°. They are found
by 75° ± n (360°), n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Exercise 5.8
Find any two co-terminal angles (one of them positive and the other negative) for each
of the following angle measures:
a 70o b 110o c 220o d 270o
e – 90o f – 37o g – 60o h – 70o
Trigonometric values of co–terminal angles

ACTIVITY 5.5
Consider Figure 5.42 and find the trigonometric values of θ and β.
P (x, y) is a point on the terminal side of both angles.
Answer each of the following questions: y
a Are θ and β co-terminal angles? Why? β r P (x, y)

b Which angle is positive? Which angle is negative? θ
o x
c Find the values of sinθ , cosθ , tanθ in terms of x, y, r.
d Find the values of sinβ , cosβ , tanβ in terms of x, y, r.
e Is sinθ = sinβ ? Is cosθ = cosβ ? Is tanθ = tanβ ? Figure 5.42
f What can you conclude about the trigonometric values of co-terminal angles?
Co-terminal angles have the same trigonometric values.
Example 11 Find the trigonometric values of
a – 330o and 30o b 120o and – 240o
Solution:
a Observe that both angles are co-terminal. Their terminal side lies in the first
quadrant (See Figure 5.43).
y
−330 = 30 – 1(360 ). This gives us:
o o o
sin 30o = sin (–330o) =

1 –330o 30o
x
2 o
cos 30o = cos (–330o) = 3 Figure 5.43
2
tan 30o = tan (–330o) = 3
3
192
b Both 120o and – 240o angles are co-terminal. y

Their terminal side lies in the second quadrant.
120o
(See Figure 5.44) –240o
− 240 o = 120 o − 360 o . Thus, o x
3
sin 120o = sin (– 240o) = sin 60o = Figure 5.44
2
… a 600angle is the reference angle for a 1200 angle
3
cos 120o = cos (– 240o) = – cos 60o = −
2
… cosine is negative in quadrant II
tan 120 = tan (– 240o) = – tan 60o = − 3
o
… tangent is also negative in quadrant II
Angles larger than 360o

Consider the 780o angle Co–
Co–terminal angles
780o = 360o +360o + 60o = 2(360o) +60o y

o
… a 60 angle is the co-terminal acute angle for a 600
780o angle
Since an angle and its co–terminal have the same o
x
initial side
trigonometric value, 7800
–3000
3 3
sin 780o = sin 60o =,cos 780o = cos 60o =
2 2 Figure 5.57
o o
and tan 780 = tan 60 = 3 . Figure 5.45
o
(Remember that since 780 is the measure of a first quadrant angle, all three of the
functions are positive.)
Example 12 Find the trigonometric values of 945o. y
o o o o o o
Solution: 945 = 360 + 360 + 225 = 2(360 ) + 225
This means 945o and 225o are measures of co-terminal 3rd 9450
quadrant angles. x
The reference angle for 225o is θR = 225o– 180o = 45o.
Since an angle and its co-terminal have the same
trigonometric value, it follows that Figure 5.46
sin 945o = sin 225o = – sin 45o = – 2 … sine is negative in quadrant III
2
cos 945o = cos 225o = – cos 45o = – 2 … cosine is negative in quadrant III
2
tan 945o = tan 225o = tan 45o = 1 … tangent is positive in quadrant III
193
Exercise 5.9
1 Find the value of each of the following:
a sin 390o, cos 390o, tan 390o
b sin (– 405o), cos (– 405o), tan (– 405o)
c sin (– 690o), cos (– 690o), tan (– 690o)
d sin 1395o, cos 1395o, tan 1395o
2 Express each of the following as a trigonometric function of a positive acute angle:
a sin 130o b sin 200o c cos 165o d cos 310o
e tan 325o f sin (–100o) g cos (–305o) h tan 415o
i sin 1340o j tan1125o k sin (–330o) l cos 1400o
5.1.3 Graphs of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Functions
In this section, you will draw and discuss some properties of the graphs of the three
trigonometric functions: sine, cosine and tangent.
Graph of the sine function

ACTIVITY 5.6
1 Complete the following table of values for y = sin θ.
θ in deg –360 –330 –270 –240 –180 –120 –90
y = sin θ
θ in deg 0 90 120 180 240 270 330 360

y = sin θ
2 Mark the values of θ on the horizontal axis and the values of y on the vertical axis
and plot the points you find.
3 Connect these points using a smooth curve to draw the graph of y = sinθ.
4 What are the domain and the range of y = sinθ ?
Example 1 Draw the graph of y = sinθ, where –360° ≤ θ ≤ 360o
Solution: To determine the graph of y = sinθ, we construct a table of values for
y = sinθ, where –360° ≤ θ ≤ 360o (which is the same as −2π ≤ θ ≤ π in radians.)
194
The tables below show some of the values of y = sinθ in the given interval.
θ in deg –360 –330 –300 –270 –240 –210 –180 –150 –120 – 90 – 60 –30
θ in rad −11 5 3 4 7 5 2 π π π
– 2π π − π − π − π − π −π − π − π − − −
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
y = sin θ 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 – 0.5 – 0.87 – 1 – 0.87 – 0.5
θ in deg 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
θ in rad π π π 2 5 7 4 3 5 11
0 π π π π π π π π 2π
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
y = sin θ 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 – 0.5 – 0.87 –1 – 0.87 – 0.5 0
To draw the graph we mark the values of θ on the horizontal axis and the values of y on
the vertical axis. Then we plot the points and connect them using a smooth curve.
y
1
0.5 y = sinθ
θ
-3600 -3300 -3000-2700 -2400 -2100 -1800 -1500 -1200 -900 -600 -300 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600
θ
0
- 0.5
-1
Figure 5.47
After a complete revolution (every 360o or 2π radian) the values of the sine function
repeat themselves. This means
sin 0o = sin 0o ± 360o = sin 0o ± 2(360o ) = sin 0o± 3(360o ), etc.
sin 90o = sin 90o ± 360o = sin 90o ± 2(360o ) = sin 90o ± 3(360o ), etc.
sin 180o = sin 180o ± 360o = sin 180o±2(360o ) = sin 180o ±3(360o ), etc.
In general, sin θ = sin (θ ± n (360 o )) where n is an integer.
A function that repeats its values at regular intervals is called a periodic function.
The sine function repeats after every 360o or 2π radians.
Therefore, 360o or 2π is called the period of the sine function.
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle
y
1
θ
−720o −360o 0 360o 720o 1080o
-1 period
o o
Figure 5.48 Graph of y = sin θ for –720 ≤ θ ≤ 1080
195
Domain and range

For any angle θ taken on the unit circle, there is some point P (x, y) on its terminal side. Since
y
sinθ = = y, the function y = sinθ is defined for any angle θ taken on the unit circle.
1
Therefore, the domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers.
Also, note from the graph that the value of y is never less than –1 or greater than +1.
Note: The domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers
The range of the sine function is {y | –1 ≤ y ≤ 1}
Graph of the cosine function

ACTIVITY 5.7
1 Complete the following tables of values for y = cos θ.
θ in deg – 360 – 300 – 270 – 240 – 180 – 120 – 90 – 60

y = cos θ
θ in deg 0 60 90 120 180 240 270 300 360

y = cos θ
2 Sketch the graph of y = cos θ.
3 What are the domain and the range of y = cos θ ?
4 What is the period of the cosine function?
From Activity 5.7 you can see that y = cos θ is never less than –1 or greater than +1.
Just like the sine function, the cosine function is periodic at every 360o or 2π radians.
Therefore, 360o or 2π is called the period of the cosine function.
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle
y
1
θ
−720 o
−360o 0 360 o
720 o
1080o
-1 period
Figure 5.49 Graph of y = cos θ for –720o ≤ θ ≤ 1080o
196
Note: The domain of the cosine function is the set of all real numbers.
The range of the cosine function is {y | –1 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
Figure 5.50 represents the sine and cosine functions drawn on the same co-ordinate
system.
f (x) = sin x
y f (x) = cos x
1
0.5
x
0
0.5
-1 3π
−π π π 3π 2π
−2π − 2 − 0 π
2 2 2
Figure 5.50
From this diagram you can see that both sine and cosine curves have the same shape.
π
The curves “follow” each other, always exactly radians (90°) apart.
2
Graph of the tangent function

ACTIVITY 5.8
1 Complete the following tables of values for y = tan θ.
θ in deg –360 –315 –270 –225 –180 –135 –90 –45

y = tan θ
θ in deg 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
y = tan θ
2 Use the table you constructed above to sketch the graph of y = tanθ.
3 For which values of θ is y = tan θ undefined?
4 What are the domain and the range of y = tanθ ?
5 What is the period of the tangent function?
The Activity 5.8 you have done above gives you a hint on what the graph of y = tanθ
looks like. Next, you will see the graph in detail.
197
Example 2 Draw the graph of y = tanθ, where –360° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.

Solution: The tables below show some of the values of y = tanθ ,
where −2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
ߠ in deg –360 –315 –270 –225 –180 –135 –90 –45 0
7 3 5 3 π π
ߠ in rad –2π − π − π − π −π − π − − 0
4 2 4 4 2 4
y = tan ߠ 0 1 – –1 0 1 – –1 0
ߠ in deg 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

π π 3 5 3 7
ߠ in rad π π π π π 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4
y = tan ߠ 1 – –1 0 1 – –1 0
Remember that if θ is in a standard position and P(x, y) is a point where the terminal
y y
side of θ intersects the unit circle, then tan θ = . However, is not defined if x = 0.
x x
y
(0,1)
P (x,y)
θ
(1,0) x
(–1,0)
(0,–1)
Figure 5.51
So tan θ is not defined if
θ = 90o, θ = 90o ± 180o, θ = 90o ± 2(180o), θ = 90o ± 3(180o), etc.
π
In general, tan θ is undefined if θ = 90o± n (180o) or if θ = + nπ, where n is an integer.
2
π
The graph of y = tan θ does not cross the vertical lines at θ = + nπ , n is integer.
2
π
Moreover, if we closely investigate the behaviour of tanθ as θ increases from − to
2
π
, we can see that tan θ increases from negative infinity to positive infinity (from –∞
2
π π
to ∞). A sketch of the graph of y = tanθ for − <θ < , is shown in Figure 5.52.
2 2
198
π π
− O θ
2 2
Figure 5.52
From the graph we see that the tangent function repeats itself every 180o or π radians.
Therefore, 180o or π is the period for the tangent function.
Since tanθ is periodic with period π we can extend the above graph for as many
repetitions (cycles) as we want.
For example, the graph of y = tanθ for –2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π is shown below.
y
–2π – π – O π 2π θ
Figure 5.53
What are the domain and the range of y = tanθ ?
For which values of θ is y = tanθ not defined?
y
Using a unit circle we can see that tan θ = is undefined whenever the x-coordinate on
x
the unit circle is 0.
π 3 5 7
This happens whenθ = ± , ± π , ± π , ± π , etc. Therefore the domain of the
2 2 2 2
π
tangent function must exclude these odd multiples of .
2
π
Hence, the domain of the tangent function is {θ | θ ≠ n , where n is an odd integer}.
2
The range of y = tanθ is the set of real numbers.
199
Group Work 5.4

1 Use the graph of the cosine function to find the values of θ
for which cos θ = 0.
2 From the graph of y = sin θ, find the values of θ for which sin θ = −1.
3 Graph the sine curve for the interval –540o ≤ θ ≤ 0o.
Exercise 5.10
1 Refer to the graph of y = sin θ or the table of values for y = sinθ to determine how
the sine function behaves as θ increases from 0o to 360o and answer the
following:
a As θ increases from 0o to 90o, sinθ increases from 0 to 1 .
b As θ increases from 90o to 180o, sinθ decreases from ______ to _____.
c As θ increases from 180o to 270o , sinθ decreases from _____ to _____.
d As θ increases from 270o to 360o, sinθ increases from ______ to ____.
2 Refer to the graph of y = cos θ or the table of values for y = cos θ to determine
how the cosine function behaves as θ increases from 0o to 360o and answer the
following:
a As θ increases from 0o to 90o, cos θ decreases from 1 to 0 .
b As θ increases from 90o to 180o, cos θ decreases from ______ to _____.
c As θ increases from 180o to 270o , cos θ increases from _____ to _____.
d As θ increases from 270o to 360o, cos θ increases from ______ to ____.
3 Determine how the tangent function behaves as θ increases from 0o to 360o and
answer the following:
a As θ increases from 0o to 90o, tanθ increases from 0 to positive infinity (+∞)
b As θ increases from 90o to 180o tanθ increases from to .
c As θ increases from 180o to 270o tanθ increases from to .
d As θ increases from 270o to 360o tanθ from –∞ to 0.
200
5.2 THE RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS OF THE

BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In this section, you will learn about three more trigonometric functions, which are called
the reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent functions, named respectively as
cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
5.2.1 The Cosecant, Secant and Cotangent

Functions
Definition 5.2
If θ is an angle in standard position and P(x, y) y
is a point on the terminal side of θ, different
from the origin O(0, 0), and r is the distance of
point P from the origin O, then y P(x , y)
HYP r
cscθ =
r
=
OPP y
θ
HYP r
secθ = = O ( 0, 0 ) x x
ADJ x
ADJ
cotθ = = x Figure 5.54
OPP y
cscθ, secθ and cotθ are abbreviations for Cosecantθ, Secantθ and Cotangentθ
respectively.
Example 1 If θ is an angle in standard position and P(3, 4) 4 y P( 3 , 4 )
is a point on the terminal side ofθ, then evaluate
r
the cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
Solution: The distance r = 32 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 units
θ
HYP 5
So, cscθ = = ,
OPP 4 O 3 x
HYP 5 ADJ 3
secθ = = and cotθ = =
ADJ 3 OPP 4 Figure 5.55
ACTIVITY 5.9
Referring to Figure 5.55 find:
1 sinθ, cosθ and tanθ.
2 Compare sinθ with cscθ ; cosθ with secθ ; tan θ with cot θ.
3 How do they relate? Are they equal? Are they opposites? Are they reciprocals?
201
From the results of Activity 5.9, you can conclude the following:
y
cscθ = r whereas sinθ =
y r
r x
secθ = whereas cosθ =
x r
y
cotθ = x whereas tanθ =
y x
Have you noticed that one is the reciprocal of the other?
That is,
1 r 1 1
cscθ = r = 1 = , sec θ = = = and
y y sin θ x  x  cos θ
 
r r
1 1
cot θ = x = =
y  y tan θ
 
x
Therefore,
1 1 1
csc θ = , sec θ = and cot θ = .
sin θ cos θ tan θ
Hence, cscθ and sinθ are reciprocals
secθ and cosθ are reciprocals
tanθ and cotθ are reciprocals
Example 2 If θ = 30o, then find cscθ, secθ, cotθ.
Solution:
1 1 1
cscθ = = =2 … remember that sin 300 = = 0.5
sin θ 1 2
 
2
1 1 2 2 3 3
secθ = = = = … remember that cos 300 =
cos θ  3 3 3 2
 
 2 
1 1 3 3
cotθ = = = = 3 … remember that tan 300 =
tan θ  3 3 3
 
 3 
202
1
Example 3 If sinθ is 0.5, then cscθ is =2
0 .5
1
If cosθ is – 0.1035, then secθ is = −9.6618
− 0.1035
1 1
If tanθ is − , then cotθ is =–4
4  1
− 
 4
Example 4 Using a unit circle, find the values of the cosecant, secant and cotangent
functions if θ = 90o, 180o, 270o.
Solution: As you can see in the adjacent figure, the y
terminal side of the 90o angle intersects the (0,1)
unit circle at (0 ,1)

900
1
Hence, csc 90 = r = = 1
o x
y 1
r 1
sec 90o = = is undefined
x 0
0 Figure 5.56
cot 90o = x = = 0
y 1
The terminal side of the 180o angle intersects y
the unit circle at (–1, 0).
1 1800
Hence, csc 180 = r = is undefined
o
x
y 0 (–1,0)
r 1
sec 180o = = = –1
x −1
−1
cot 180o = x = is undefined Figure 5.57
y 0
Similarly the terminal side of the 270o angle y
intersects the unit circle at (0 ,–1).
2700
1
Hence, csc 270 = r =
o
= –1 x
y −1
r 1
sec 270o = = is undefined
x 0 (0,–1)
0
cot 270o = x = =0 Figure 5.58
y −1
Example 5 Using a unit circle, find the values of the cosecant, secant and cotangent
functions if θ = 360o.
203
Solution: The terminal side of angle 360o intersects the unit circle at (1, 0).
1 y
Hence, csc 360o = r = is undefined
y 0
r 1 00
sec 360o = = = 1 (1, 0)
x 1 x
O
1
cot 360o = x = is undefined
y 0
Remember that these results are also true for 0o , 720o, 1080o, etc. Figure 5.59
When do you think the functions cscθ, secθ and cotθ are undefined?
For example, csc θ = r is undefined when y = 0. The value of y on the unit circle will
y
be 0 when θ = 0 , ± 180o, ± 2(180o), ± 3(180o), ± 4(180o) , etc.
o
In general, cscθ is undefined for θ = ± n (180o), where n is an integer.
Group Work 5.5

1 Decide if the following trigonometric functions are
positive or negative and complete the following table:
θ has terminal side in quadrant
I II III IV
csc θ +
sec θ –
cot θ –
2 Complete the following table of values:
θ in deg –360 –300 –270 –240 –180 –120 –90 –60 0
y = csc θ
y = sec θ
θ in deg 60 90 120 180 240 270 300 360

y = csc θ
y = secθ θ
3 Sketch the graphs of y = cscθ and y = secθ on a separate coordinate system.
4 Construct a table of values for y = cotθ and sketch the graph.
Hint: use the table of values for y = tan θ .
5 Discuss and identify the values of θ where secθ and cotθ will be undefined.
204
Exercise 5.11
1 Suppose the following points lie on the terminal side of an angleθ. Find the
cosecant, secant and cotangent functions of θ :
a P (12, 5) b P (– 8, 15) c P (– 6, 8) d P (5, 3)
4 −3
e P (2, 0) f P( , ) g P ( 2, 5) h P ( 6, 3)
5 5
2 Complete each of the following:
a If sinθ is – 0.35, then cscθ is ___. b If secθ is 2.6, then cos θ is ____.
c If cscθ is 30.5, then sinθ is ____. d If tanθ is 1, then cotθ is ____.
e If tanθ is 3 , then cotθ is____. f If tanθ is 0, then cotθ is____.

3
3 Find the values of csc θ, sec θ and cot θ, if θ in degrees is:
a 30 b 45 c 60 d 120
e 150 f 210 g 240 h 300
i – 390 j – 405 k – 420 l 780.
3
4 If cot θ = and θ is in the first quadrant, find the other five trigonometric
8
functions of θ.
Co–functions
What kinds of functions are called co-functions?
In order to understand the concept of a co-function, try the following Activity:
ACTIVITY 5.10 A
ABC is a right angle triangle.α and β are acute α
angles. Since their sum is 90o, they are
10
complementary angles. Find the values of the 8
six trigonometric functions for both α and β, and 900
compare the results. β
C 6 B
Identify the functions that have the same value. Figure 5.60
From Activity 5.10, you may conclude the following:

Observe that ABC is a right angle triangle with m(∠C) = 90o,
α + β = 90o. This means the acute angles α and β are complementary.
205
Hence we have the following relationship:

A
a c
sin α = = cos β csc α = = sec β α
c a
b c
cos α = = sin β sec α = = csc β b c
c b
a b 900
tan α = = cot β cot α = = tan β β
b a C a B
Figure 5.61
Note that, for the two complementary angles α and β.
The sine of any angle is equal to the cosine of its complementary angle.
The tangent of any angle is equal to the cotangent of its complementary angle.
The secant of any angle is equal to the cosecant of its complementary angle.
Thus, the pair of functions sine and cosine are called co–functions.
Similarly, tangent and cotangent, secant and cosecant are also co-functions.
Any trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the co-function of its
complementary angle. That is, if 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°, then
sinθ = cos (90o – θ ) cscθ = sec (90o – θ )
cosθ = sin (90o – θ ) secθ = csc (90o – θ )
tanθ = cot (90o – θ ) cotθ = tan (90o– θ )
Example 6
π π
a sin 30o = cos 60o b sec 40o = csc 50o c tan = cot
3 6
Exercise 5.12
1 Find the size of acute angleθ in degrees if:
a sin 20o = cosθ b secθ = csc 80o c tan 55o = cotθ
π 5
d cos = sin θ e secθ = csc π f cot 1o = tanθ
9 12
2 Answer each of the following:
a If cos 35o = 0.8387, then sin 55o = ______
b If sin 77o = 0.9744, then cos 13o = ______
c If tan 45o = 1, then cot 45o = ______
d If sec 15o = x , then csc 75o = ______
a a
e If csc θ = and sec ߚ = , then θ + ߚ = ________
b b
f If cot 55o = y and tan θ = y, then θ = __________
206
5.3 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Pythagorean identities
Using the definitions of the six trigonometric functions discussed so far, it is possible to
find special relationships that exist between them.
Let θ be an angle in standard position and P(x, y) be
a point on the terminal side of θ (See Figure 5.62)
From Pythagoras’ Theorem we know that
y
x2 + y2 = r2
If we divide both sides by r2 we have x
2 2 2 y P (x,y)
x y r
2
+ 2 = 2 r y
r r r
2 2
θ
 x  y
    =1
+ O x x
r r Figure 5.62
∴ (cosθ )2 + (sinθ )2 = 1
If we divide both sides of x2 + y2 = r2 by x2, then we have
x2 y2 r 2
+ =
x2 x2 x2
2 2
 y r
1+   =  
 x x
1 + (tanθ )2 = (secθ )2
If we divide both sides of x2 + y2 = r2 by y2, then we have
x2 y 2 r 2
+ =
y2 y2 y2
2 2
x r
  +1 =  
 y  y
(cotθ )2 + 1 = (cscθ )2
Hence we have the following relations:
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
1 + cot2θ = csc2θ
The above relations are known as Pythagorean identities.
Note:
(sinθ )2 = sin2θ and (cosθ )2 = cos2θ , etc.
207
1
Example 1 If sinθ = and θ is in the first quadrant, find the values of the other
2
five trigonometric functions of θ.
Solution: From sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 , we have
cos2θ = 1 – sin2θ
2
1 1 3 3
So, cosθ = 1− sin θ = 1−   = 1 − =
2
=
 2 4 4 2
1 1 1 1
secθ = = = 2 ; cscθ = = =2
cos θ  3 3 sin θ 1
   
 2  2
From 1 + tan2θ = sec2θ, we have, tan2θ = sec2θ – 1

2
 2  4 1 3
So tanθ = sec θ −1 =
2
  − 1 = −1 = = 1 =
 3 3 3 3 3
From cot2θ + 1 = csc2θ, we have cot2θ = csc2θ – 1, this implies that
cot θ = csc2 θ − 1 = 22 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 .
Exercise 5.13
1 Using the Pythagorean identities find the values of the other five trigonometric
functions if:
15
a sin θ = and θ is in quadrant I.
17
−4
b cos θ = and θ is in quadrant II.
5
7
c cot θ = and θ is in quadrant III.
24
24
d cos θ = and θ is in quadrant IV.
25 B
2 Referring to the right angle triangle ABC
(See Figure 5.63), find:
a sin θ b cos θ c sin (900 − θ ) a
d cos (90 – θ )
0
e csc (90 − θ )
0
f cot (90 – θ )
0
3 Fill in the blank space with the appropriate word: θ

A C
b
a The sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of _____. Figure 5.63
b The cosecant of an angle is equal to the secant of _____.
c The tangent of an angle is equal to the _______ of its complementary angle.
208
Quotient identities
The following are additional relationships that can be derived from the six trigonometric
functions:
ACTIVITY 5.11
Let θ be an angle in standard position and P(x, y) be a point y
on the terminal side of θ (See Figure 5.64).
Then answer the following:
y
P(x,y)
a What are the values of sinθ, cosθ, tanθ and cotθ ? r y
sin θ θ
b How do the values and tanθ compare? O x x
cos θ
cos θ
c How do the values and cotθ compare?
sin θ Figure 5.64
Referring to Figure 5.64, we can derive the following relationships between the six
trigonometric functions:
 y
sin θ  
= r  = × =
y x y r y
sinθ = and cosθ = . From this we have, = tanθ.
r r cos θ x r x x
 
r
x
cos θ  
=  r  = × r = x = cotθ
x
Similarly,
sin θ  y r y y
 
r 
Hence the relations:
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = and cot θ = which are known as quotient identities.
cos θ sin θ
4 3
Example 2 If sinθ = and cosθ = , then find tanθ and cotθ.
5 5
 4
sin θ  
= 5 =
4
Solution: From quotient identity tanθ =
cos θ  3 3
 
5
 3
cos θ  
= 5 =
3
cotθ =
sin θ  4 4
 
5
209
Note: An identity is an equation that is true for all values of the variable for which both
sides of the equation are defined.
All identities are equations but all equations are not necessarily identities. This is
because, unlike identities , equations may not be true for some values in the domain.
For example consider the equation sin θ = cos θ.
For most values of θ, this equation is not true (for instance, sin 30o ≠ cos 30o)
Hence the expression sinθ = cosθ represents a simple trigonometric equation, but it is
not an identity.
Group Work 5.6

Use the Pythagorean and quotient identities to solve each of the
following:
−4
1 cos α = and α is in quadrant II. Find tan α and cot α.
5
8
2 sin α = and α is in quadrant I. Find tan α and cot α.
17
1
3 sin 330o = − . Find tan 330o and cot 330o.
2
3
4 cos 150o = − . Find tan 150o and cot 150o.
2
5 sec 60o = 2 . Find tan 60o and cot 60o.
6 Suppose α is an acute angle such that sin α = x and sin (90o − α) = y; find
tan (90o − α) and cot (90o – α).
Using tables of the trigonometric functions

So far you have seen how to determine the values of trigonometric functions of some
special angles. The same methods can in theory be applied to any angle. However,
results found in this way are approximations. Therefore we use published tables of
values, where values are given to four decimal places of accuracy.
Since the trigonometric functions of a positive acute angle θ and the corresponding co-
functions of the complementary angle (90° − θ ) are equal, trigonometric tables are often
constructed only for values of θ between 0° and 45°.
To find the trigonometric functions of angles between 45° and 90°, a table constructed for
values of θ between 0° and 45° is used by reading from bottom up. Corresponding to each
angle θ between 0° and 45° listed in the left hand column, the complementary angle
(90° − θ ) is listed in the right hand column. Corresponding to each trigonometric function
listed at the top, the co-function is listed at the bottom. Then, for angles from 45° to 90°,
the trigonometric functions are read using the bottom row and the right hand column.
210
(A part of the trigonometric table is given below for your reference).

θ sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ
0°° 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 − 90°°
1°° 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.29 89°°
2°° -------- -------- -------- -------- 88°°
. .
. .
. .
5°° 0.0872 -------- 0.0875 -------- 85°°
. .
. .
. .
45°° -------- -------- -------- -------- 45°°
cos θ sin θ cot θ tan θ θ
For instance, sin 5° and cos 85° are both found at the same place in the table and each is
approximately equal to 0.0872. Similarly, tan 5° = cot 85° = 0.0875, etc.
Example 3 Use the table given at the end of the book to find the approximate values of:
a cos 20° b cot 50°
Solution:
a Since 20° < 45°, we begin by locating 20° in the vertical column on the left
side of the degree table. Then we read the entry 0.9397 under the column
labelled cos at the top.
∴ cos 20o = 0.9397 .
b Since 50° > 45°, we use the vertical column on the right side (reading
upward) to locate 50° and read above the bottom caption "cot" to get
0.8391;
∴ cot 50° = 0.8391.
Example 4 Find θ so that:
a secθ = 1.624 b sinθ = 0.5831
Solution: Finding an angle when the value of one of its functions is given is the
reverse process of that illustrated in the above example.
a Given secθ = 1.624, looking under the secant column or above the secant
column, we find the entry 1.624 above the secant column and the
corresponding value of θ is 52°. Therefore, θ = 52o.
211
b Referring to the "sine" columns of the table, we find that 0.5831 does not
appear there. The two values in the table closest to 0.5831 (one smaller and
one larger) are 0.5736 and 0.5878. These values correspond to 35° and 36°,
respectively. As shown below, the difference between the value of sinθ and
sin 36° is smaller than the difference between sinθ and sin 35°. We therefore
use the value 36° for θ because sinθ is closer to sin 36° than it is to sin35°.
sin θ = 0.5831 sin 36° = 0.5878
sin 35° = 0.5736 sinθ = 0.5831
difference = 0.0095 difference = 0.0047
∴θ = 36° ( nearest degree).
The following examples illustrate how to determine the values of trigonometric
functions for angles measured in degrees (or radians) whose measures are not between
π
0° and 90° (or 0 and ).
2
Example 5 Use the numerical table, reference angles, trigonometric functions of
negative angles and periodicity of the functions to determine the value of
each of the following:
a sin 236° b cos 693°
Solution:
a To find sin 236°, first we consider the quadrant that the angle 236° belongs
to. This is done by placing the angle in standard position as shown in
Figure 5.65. We see that the 236° angle lies in quadrant III so that the sine
value is negative. The reference angle corresponding to 236° is
θR = 236° – 180° = 56°. Thus, sin 236° = – sin 56°.
Since 56° > 45°, we locate 56° in the vertical column on the right side
of the trigonometric table. Looking in the vertical column above the
bottom caption "sin", we see that sin 56° = 0.8290.
So sin 236° = – sin 56° = – 0.8290.
y
2360
x
θR=560 o
Figure 5.65
212
b To find the value of cos 693°, first observe that 693°

y
is greater than 360°. The period of cosine function is
360°. Dividing 693° by 360° we obtain 693°
693° = 1 × 360° + 333° x
O
This means that the 693° angle is co terminal with the θR = 27°
333° angle. i.e., cos 693° = cos 333°.
Since the terminal side of 333° is in quadrant IV, the Figure 5.66
reference angle is θR = 360° – 333° = 27° (See Figure 5.66)
Cosine is positive in quadrant IV, so cos 333° = cos 27° = 0.8910 .
Hence, cos 693° = 0.8910.
Exercise 5.14
1 Using trigonometric table, find:
a sin 59° b cos 53° c tan 36° d sec 162°.
e sin 593° f tan 593° g cos (–143°)
2 In each of the following problems, find A correct to the nearest degree:
a sin A = 0.5299 b cos A = 0.6947 c tan A = 1.540
d csc A = 1.000 e sec A = 2.000 f cot A = 1.808
5.4 REAL LIFE APPLICATION PROBLEMS

Even though trigonometry was originally used to relate the angles of a triangle to the
lengths of the sides of a triangle, trigonometric functions are important not only in the
study of triangles but also in modeling many periodic phenomena in real life. In this
section you will see some of the real life applications of trigonometry.
Solving right-angled triangles

Many applications of trigonometry involve “solving a triangle”. A triangle has basically
seven components; namely three sides, three angles and an area. Thus, solving a triangle
means to find the lengths of the three sides, the measures of all the three angles and the
measure of its area.
Revision of the properties of right angle triangles

B
We already know that, for a given right angled triangle,
the hypotenuse (HYP) is the side which is opposite the r
y
right angle and is the longest side of the triangle. HYP
For the angle markedθ in Figure 5.67: OPP
B C is the side opposite (OPP) angle θ . A

θ
x C
AC is the side adjacent (ADJ) angle θ . ADJ
Figure 5.67
213
Hence,
y r 1
sinθ = cscθ = =
r y sin θ
x r 1
1 x2 + y2 = r2 2 cosθ = secθ = =
r x cos θ
y x 1
tanθ = cotθ = =
x y tan θ
sin θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 tanθ =
cos θ
3 1 + tan2θ = sec2θ 4
cos θ
1 + cot2θ = csc2θ cotθ =
sin θ
Example 1 Solve the right-angled triangle with A
an acute angle of 25o and hypotenuse 10
of length 10 cm. b
Solution: It is required to find the missing 25º250
C a B
elements of the triangle. These are
Figure 5.68
a m(∠A) b length of side BC
c length of side AC d the area of the triangle
Draw the triangle and label all known parts (See Figure 5.68)
a m(∠A) = 90o – 25o = 65o
b To find a, observe that the side BC is opposite to the 65o angle, and the
a
length of the hypotenuse is 10 cm. So sin 65o =
10
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 10, we obtain
a = 10 × sin 65o
Using the trigonometric table, we have
a = 10 × sin 65o ≈ 10 × 0.9063 = 9.063 cm
c To find b, we can use the Pythagorean theorem or the sine function.
b
sin 25° =
10
Multiplying both sides by 10 we obtain b = 10 × sin 25o
Using trigonometric table we have b = 10 × sin 25° ≈ 10 × (0.4226) ≈ 4.226 cm.
1 1
d Area of ∆ABC = ab ≈ × 9.063 × 4.226 ≈ 19.150 cm2
2 2
Example 2 Solve the right angle triangle whose hypotenuse is 20 units with one of
the legs is 17 units.
214
Solution: The missing elements of the triangle are

a m(∠A) c length of side AC B
b m(∠B) d the area of the triangle

20
Draw the triangle (See Figure 5.69). 17
a Since the hypotenuse and the side opposite A
are given,
A b C
17
sin A = = 0.8500 Figure 5.69
20
Thus, from the trigonometric table we see that m (∠A) ≈ 58o
b m (∠B) = 90o – m (∠A) = 90o – 58o = 32o
b
c To find b, use cos A = which gives
20
b = 20 cos A ≈ 20 cos 58o ≈ 20(0.5299) ≈ 10.598
1 1
d Area of ∆ABC = × b ×17 = ×10.598 ×17 = 90.083units 2 .
2 2
ACTIVITY 5.12
1 Solve the right angled triangle ABC with the right angle at B,
AB = 2 cm and BC = 3 cm.
2 Solve the right angle triangle ABC with the right angle at B,
m(∠A) = 24° and AB = 20 cm.
Angle of elevation and angle of depression

The line of sight of an object is the line joining the eye of an observer and the object.
If the object is above the horizontal plane through the eye of the observer, the angle
between the line of sight and this horizontal plane is called the angle of elevation
(See Figure 5.70). If the object is below this horizontal plane, the angle is then called
the angle of depression.
Object 2
Angle of elevation
Horizontal
Angle of depression
Angle of elevation Object 1
Figure 5.70
215
Example 3 Find the height of a tree which casts a shadow

of 12.4 m when the angle of elevation of the
sun is 52o.
Solution: Let h be the height of the tree in metres. For
the 52o angle, the opposite side is h and the
hm
adjacent side 12.4 m.
h
Therefore, tan 52o =
12.4 o
52
∴ h = 12.4 × tan 52 = 15.9 m.
o
12.4 m
Therefore, the tree is 15.9 m high.
Figure 5.71
Example 4 From the top of a building, the angle of depression of a point on the
ground 7 m away from the base of the building is 60o. Find the height of
the building.
T Horizontal line
60
o L
•P
G 7m
Figure 5.72
Solution: In Figure 5.72, T is a point on the top of the building, P is the point on the
ground, and T L is a horizontal ray through T in the plane of ∆TGP.
m (∠GPT) = m (∠LTP) = 60o (why?)
GT
= tan(∠GPT ) = tan 60o. GT = 7 tan 60o ≈ 7 × 1.732 ≈ 12 m.
PG
Therefore, the height of the building is about 12 metres.
Example 5 A person standing on the edge of one bank of a canal observes a lamp
post on the edge of the other bank of the canal. The person's eye level is
152 cm above the ground. The angle of elevation from eye level to the
top of the lamp post is 12°, and the angle of depression from eye level to
the bottom of the lamp post is 7°. How high is the lamp post? How wide
is the canal? (See Figure 5.73a.)
216
B
120
70
152 cm 120
C A
70
152
D E
a b
Figure 5.73
Solution: Considering the essential information, we obtain the diagram as
Figure 5.73b.
We want to find the height of the lamp post BD and the width of the canal AC.
The eye level height AE of the observer is 152cm. Since AC and ED are parallel,
CD also has length 152 cm. In the right angled triangle ACD we know that the
side CD is opposite to the angle of 7°.
opp 152 152
So, tan 7° = = giving AC =
adj AC tan 7 o
152 152
Therefore, AC = = = 1237.79 cm
tan 7° 0.1228
So the canal is approximately 12.4 metres wide.
Now, using the right triangle ACB, we see that
opp BC BC
tan12 o = = =
adj AC 1237.79
Therefore BC = 1237.79 × tan 12° = 1237.79 × 0.2126 = 263.15 cm.
So the height of the lamp post BD is
BC + CD = 263.15 + 152 = 415. 15 cm ≈ 4.15 m
Exercise 5.15
1 In Problems a to f, ∆ABC is a right angle triangle with m(∠C) = 90°. Let a , b , c be
its sides with c the length of its hypotenuse , a its side length opposite angle A and b
its side length opposite angle B. Using the information below, find the missing
elements of each right angle triangle , giving answers correct to the nearest whole
number.
a m(∠B) = 50° and c = 20 units b m(∠A) = 54° and a = 12 units
c m(∠A) = 36° and b = 8 units d m(∠B) = 55° and a = 10 units
e m(∠A) = 38° and c = 20 units f m(∠A) = 17° and a = 14 units.
217
2 a A ladder 6 metres long leans against a building. The angle formed by the
ladder and the ground is 66°. How far from the building is the foot of the
ladder?
b A monument is 50 metres high. What is the length of the shadow cast by the
monument if the angle of elevation of the sun is 60°?
c When the sun is 35° above the horizon, how long is the shadow cast by a
building 15 metres high?
d From an observer O, the angles of elevation of the bottom and the top of a
flagpole are 40° and 45° respectively. Find the height of the flagpole.
o
45
o
40
O
30 m
Figure 5.74
e From the top of a cliff 200 metres above sea level the angles of depression to
two fishing boats are 40° and 45° respectively. How far apart are the boats?
40°
45°
200 m
Figure 5.75
f A surveyor standing at A notices two objects B and C on the opposite side of a
canal. The objects are 120 m apart. If the angle of sight between the objects is
37°, how wide is the canal?
B 120 m C
37°
A
Figure 5.76
218
Key Terms
angle in standard position negative angle radian
angle of depression period reference angle
angle of elevation periodic function special angle
co-function positive angle supplementary angles
complementary angles pythagorean identity trigonometric function
co–terminal angles quadrantal angle trigonometry
degree quotient identity unit circle
Summary
1 An angle is determined by the rotation of a ray about its
vertex from an initial position to a terminal position. terminal position
2 An angle is positive for anticlockwise rotation and B

negative for clockwise rotation. θ
o A
3 An angle in the coordinate plane is in standard initial position
Position, if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side is Figure 5.77
along the positive x-axis.
4 Radian measure of angles:
2π radians = 3600 π radians = 1800
π
5 To convert degrees to radians, multiply by .
180º
180º
6 To convert radians to degrees, multiply by .
π
7 If θ is an angle in standard position and P (x , y) is a point on the terminal side of θ,
other than the origin O (0 , 0), and r is the distance of point P from the origin O, then
y 1
sin θ = csc θ = r = y
r y sin θ
r P(x,y)
x r 1
cos θ = sec θ = = θ
y
r x cos θ O(0,0) x
Figure 5.78
y 1
tan θ = cot θ = x =
x y tan θ
r= x 2 + y 2 (Pythagoras rule)
219
8 Signs of sine, cosine and tangent functions: 900
In the first quadrant all the three trigonometric 2 1

functions are positive. sin all 00
1800
In the second quadrant only sine is positive. tan cos
3
In the third quadrant only tangent is positive. 4
2700
In the fourth quadrant only cosine is positive. Figure 5.79
All S tudents T ake C hemistry

9 Functions of negative angles:
If θ is an angle in standard position, then
sin(−θ ) = – sin θ cos(–θ ) = cosθ tan(–θ ) = – tanθ
10 Complementary angles:
Two angles are said to be complementary, if their sum is equal to 900.
If ߙ and β are any two complementary angles, then
1
sin ߙ = cos β cos ߙ = sin β tan ߙ =
tan β
11 Reference angle θR:

If θ is an angle in standard position whose terminal side does not lie on either
coordinate axis, then the reference angle θR for θ is the positive acute angle
formed by the terminal side of θ and the x-axis. y
12 The values of the trigonometric function of a given P(–x,y) r θ r P’(x, y)

angle θ and the values of the corresponding θR θR
x
trigonometric functions of the reference angle θR are
O
the same in absolute value but they may differ in sign.
13 Supplementary angles: Figure 5.80

Two angles are said to be supplementary, if their sum is equal to 180o. If θ is a
second quadrant angle, then its supplement will be (180o – θ ).
sin θ = sin (180o – θ ),
cosθ = – cos (180o – θ ) ,
tanθ = – tan (180o – θ )
220
14 Co-terminal angles are angles in standard position (angles with the initial side on
the positive x-axis) that have a common terminal side.
15 Co-terminal angles have the same trigonometric values.
16 The domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers.
17 The range of the sine function is {y | –1 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
18 The graph of the sine function repeats itself every 360o or 2π radians.
19 The domain of the cosine function is the set of all real numbers.
20 The range of the cosine function is {y | –1 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
21 The graph of the cosine function repeats itself every 360o or 2π radians.
π
22 The domain of the tangent function = θ | θ ≠ n , where n is an odd integer 
 2 
23 The range of y = tan θ is the set of all real numbers.

24 The tangent function has period 180o or π rad.
π π
25 The graph of y = tan θ is increasing for − <θ < .
2 2
26 Any trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the co–function of its
complementary angle.
That is, if 0o ≤ θ ≤ 90o, then
sinθ = cos (90o – θ ) cscθ = sec (90o – θ )
cosθ = sin (90o– θ ) secθ = csc (90o – θ )
tanθ = cot (90o – θ ) cotθ = tan (90o – θ )
27 Reciprocal relations:
1 1 1
cscθ = , secθ = , cotθ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
28 Pythagorean identities:
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 1 + tan2θ = sec2θ cot2θ + 1 = csc2θ
29 Quotient identities:
sin θ cos θ
tanθ = cotθ =
cos θ sin θ
221

1 Indicate to which quadrant each of the following angles belong:
a 225o b 333o c –300o d 610o
e –700o f 900o g –765o h –1238o
i 1440o j 2010o.
2 Find two co-terminal angles (one positive and the other negative) for each of the
following angles:
a 80o b 140o c 290o d 375o e 2900o
f –765o g –900o h –1238o i –1440o j –2010o.
3 Convert each of the following to radians:
a 40o b 75o c 240o d 330o e –95o
f –180o g –220o h – 420o i –3060o .
4 Convert each of the following angles in radians to degrees:
2π −2π 7π 43π
a b c d
6 3 18 6
4π −3π −π
e − f 5π g h .
9 12 24
5 Use a unit circle to find the values of sine, cosine and tangent of θ when θ is:
a 810o b – 450o c 900o d – 630o
e 990o f – 990o g 1080o h –1170o
6 Find the values of sine, cosine and tangent functions of θ when θ in radians is:
5π 7π 4π 3π
a b c d
6 6 3 2
5π −5π −7π −11π
e f g h .
3 3 4 6
7 State whether each of the following functional values are positive or negative:
a sin 310o b cos 220o c cos (–220o) d tan 765o
5π
e sin (–90o) f sec (–70o) g tan 327o h cot
3
− 11π
I csc 1387o j sin ( )
6
8 Give a reference angle for each of the following;
a 140o b 260o c 355o d 414o
e –190o f –336o g 1238o h –1080o.
222
9 Referring to the values given in the table below for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360o roughly sketch
the graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions.
Degrees Radians sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ sec θ csc θ
0º 0 0 1 0 Undefined 1 Undefined
π 1 3 3 2 3
30º 3 2
6 2 2 3 3
π 2 2
45º 1 1 2 2
4 2 2
π 3 1 3 2 3
60º 3 2
3 2 2 3 3
π
90º 1 0 Undefined 0 Undefined 1
2
2π 3 1 − 3 2 3
120º − − 3 –2
3 2 2 3 3
3π 2 2
135º − –1 –1 − 2 2
4 2 2
5π 1 − 3 − 3 2 3
150º − 3 − 2
6 2 2 3 3
180º π 0 –1 0 Undefined –1 Undefined
7π 1 3 3 2 3
210º − − 3 − –2
6 2 2 3 3
5π 2 2
225º − − 1 1 − 2 − 2
4 2 2
4π 3 1 3 −2 3
240º − − 3 –2
3 2 2 3 3
3π
270º –1 0 Undefined 0 Undefined –1
2
5π 3 1 2 3
300º − − 3 − 3 2 −
3 2 2 3
7π 2 2
315º − –1 –1 2 − 2
4 2 2
11π 1 3 3 2 3
330º − – – 3 –2
6 2 2 3 3
360º 2π 0 1 0 Undefined 1 Undefined
223
10 Find the value of each of the following:

a sin (–120o ) b cos 600o c tan (– 300o)
d csc 990o e sec 450o f cot (– 420o).
11 Evaluate the six trigonometric functions of θ, if θ is in standard position and its
terminal side contains the given point P (x, y):
a P (5, 12) b P (– 7, 24) c P ( 5, – 6) d P (– 8, – 17)
e P (15, 8) f P (1, – 8) g P (– 3, –4) h P (0, 1)
12 Let θ be an angle in standard position. Identify the quadrant in which θ belongs
given the following conditions:
a If sin θ < 0 and cos θ < 0 b If sin θ > 0 and tan θ > 0
c If sin θ > 0 and sec θ < 0 d If sec θ > 0 and cot θ < 0
e If cos θ < 0 and cot θ > 0 f If sec θ < 0 and csc θ > 0.
13 Find the acute angleθ, if:
1
a sin 60o = b sinθ = cosθ c sin700 = cosθ
cscθ
sin θ sin θ sin 70 o cos θ
d 1= e = cot 35o f =
cos 80 0 cos θ cos 70 o sin θ
−4
14 If θ is obtuse and cos θ = , find:
5
a sinθ b tan θ c cscθ d cot θ.
2
15 If –900 < θ < 0 and tanθ = − , find cosθ.
3
16 In problems a to d below, ∆ABC is a right angle triangle with m(∠C) = 90°. Let
a, b, c be its sides with c the hypotenuse a the side opposite angle A and b the
side opposite angle B. Using the information below, find the missing elements of
each right triangle, rounding answers correct to the nearest whole number.
a m (∠B) = 60° and a = 18 units. b m (∠A) = 45° and c = 16 units.
c m (∠A) = 22° and b = 10 units. d m (∠B) = 52° and c = 47 units.
17 a Find the height of a tree, if the angle of elevation of its top changes from 25°
to 50° as the observer advances 15 metres towards its base.
b The angle of depression of the top and the foot of a flagpole as seen from
the top of a building 145 metres away are 26° and 34° respectively. Find
the heights of the pole and the building.
c To the nearest degree, find the angle of elevation of the sun when a 9 metre
vertical flagpole casts a shadow 3 metres long.
224
Leonardo da
Vinci obtained
the “Mona
Lisa” smile by
tilting the lips
so that the
ends lie on a
circle which
Unit touches the

outer corners
of the eyes.
The outline of the top of the head is
the arc of another circle exactly twice
as large as the first.
PLANE GEOMETRY
Unit Outcomes:
know more theorems special to triangles.
know basic theorems specific to quadrilaterals.
know theorems about circles and angles inside, on and outside a circle.
solve geometrical problems involving quadrilaterals, circles and regular
polygons.
Main Contents
6.1 Theorems on triangles
6.2 Special quadrilaterals
6.3 More on circles
6.4 Regular polygons
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
Why do you study Geometry?
♦
♦ Geometry teaches you how to think clearly. Of all the subjects taught at high
school level, Geometry is one of the lessons that gives the best training in correct
and accurate methods of thinking.
♦
♦ The study of Geometry has a practical value. If someone wants to be an artist, a
designer, a carpenter, a tinsmith, a lawyer or a dentist, the facts and skills learned
in Geometry are of great value.
Abraham Lincoln borrowed a Geometry text and learned the proofs of most of the
plane Geometry theorems so that he could make better arguments in court.
Leonardo da Vinci obtained the “Mona Lisa” smile by tilting the lips so that the
ends lie on a circle which touches the outer corners of the eyes. The outline of the
top of the head is the arc of another circle exactly twice as large as the first. In the
same artist’s “Last Supper”, the visible part of Christ conforms to the sides of an
equilateral triangle.
Plane Geometry (sometimes called Euclidean Geometry) is a branch of Geometry
dealing with the properties of flat surfaces and plane figures, such as triangles,
quadrilaterals or circles.
6.1 THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES

In previous grades, you have learnt that a triangle is a polygon with three sides and is
the simplest type of polygon.
Three or more points that lie on one line are called collinear points. Three or more
lines that pass through one point are called concurrent lines.
Collinear points Concurrent lines

Figure 6.1
226
Unit 6 Plane Geometry
ACTIVITY 6.1
1 What do you call a line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to
the mid-point of the opposite side?
2 How many medians does a triangle have?
3 Draw triangle ABC with ∠ C = 90o, AC = 8 cm and CB = 6 cm. Draw the median
from A to BC . How long is this median? Check your result using Pythagoras
theorem.
4 Draw a triangle. Construct all the three medians. Are they concurrent? Do you
think that this is true for all triangles? Test this by drawing more triangles.
5 Is it possible for the medians of a triangle to meet outside the triangle?
Theorems about collinear points and concurrent lines are called incidence theorems.
Some such theorems are stated below.
Recall that a line that divides an angle into two congruent angles is called an angle
bisector of the angle.
A line that divides a line segment into two congruent line segments is called a bisector
of the line segment. When a bisector of a line segment forms right angle with the line
segment, then it is called the perpendicular bisector of the line segment.
Median of a triangle
A median of a triangle is a line segment drawn from any vertex to the mid-point of the
opposite side.
D
A
Figure 6.2
BD is a median of triangle ABC.
227
ACTIVITY 6.2
Copy ∆ABC in Figure 6.3.
A C
Figure 6.3
1 Construct all the medians of ∆ABC carefully.
2 i Mark the mid-point of BC as E.

ii Mark the mid-point of AC as F.
iii Mark the mid-point of AB as D.
3 Did the medians intersect at a point?
If your answer is yes, mark the point O.
4 Measure each of the following segments and determine the indicated ratios.
i a AO b OE AO : OE
ii a CO b OD CO : OD
iii a BO b OF BO : OF
5 How do you relate the ratios obtained in Question 4 above?
The above Activity helps you to observe the following theorem.
Theorem 6.1
2
The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point of the distance
3
from each vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
Proof:-
Suppose AE and DC are medians of ∆ABC that are intersecting at point O.
(See Figure 6.4).
228
Statement Reason
1 In ∆ABC, AE and DC are medians intersecting at 1 Given
point O.
2 Draw DE . 2 Construction
3 Draw EG parallel to DC with G on the extension of 3 Construction
AC
4 Draw EF parallel to AB with F on AC 4 Construction
5 Draw FH parallel to DC with H on AB 5 Construction
6 Draw line ℓ parallel to DC pasing through A. 6 Construction
7 AFED and CGED are parallelograms with common 7 Steps 3 and 4

side DE
8 Therefore, AF = DE = CG 8 Step 7
9 1 9 ∆ABC ∼ ∆DBE from
DE = AC = AF
2 step 1
10 AF = FC = CG 10 Steps 8 and 9

11 AG is trisected by parallel lines ℓ, HF , DC and EG. 11 Steps 3, 5 and 10
12 AE is trisected by ℓ, HF , DC and EG. 12 Step 11 and property
of parallel lines
B
D G
O
H C
F
A ℓ
Figure 6.4
1 2
Therefore, OE = AE , AO = AE.
3 3
2
You have proved that the medians DC and AE meet at point O such that OA = AE.
3
Your next task is to prove that the medians AE and BF intersect at the same point O.
With the same argument used above, let O ' be the point of intersection of AE and BF
2 2
whose distance from A is of AE that is AO ' = AE.
3 3
229
E
•
O'
A
F C
Figure 6.5
It follows that AO = AO ' and hence O = O′ as O and O′ are on AE.
Therefore, all the three medians of ∆ABC are concurrent at a single point O
2
located at of the distance from each vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
3
Example 1 In Figure 6.6, AN , CM and BL are medians of ∆ABC. If AN = 12 cm,
OM = 5 cm and BO = 6 cm, find BL, ON and OL.
Solution:
By Theorem 6.1,
C
2 2
BO = BL and AO = AN
3 3
2 2
Substituting 6 = BL and AO = × 12 L
3 3 N
So BL = 9 cm and AO = 8 cm. O•
Since BL = BO + OL,
OL = BL – BO = 9 – 6 = 3 cm. A B
M
Now, AN = AO + ON gives
Figure 6.6
ON = AN – AO = 12 – 8 = 4 cm
∴ BL = 9 cm, OL = 3 cm and ON = 4 cm
Note: The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of
the triangle.
Altitude of a triangle
The altitude of a triangle is a line segment drawn from a vertex, perpendicular to the
opposite side, or to the opposite side produced.
The altitudes through B and A for the triangles are shown in Figure 6.7.
230
B A
C A C
C B A
Figure 6.7
ACTIVITY 6.3
1 What is meant by an angle bisector?
2 Any side of a triangle may be designated as a base.
How many bases may a triangle have?
3 How many altitudes can a triangle have?
4 By drawing the following types of triangle with their respective altitudes,
determine whether the altitudes intersect inside or outside the triangle.
a an acute-angled triangle; b an obtuse-angled triangle;
c a right-angled triangle.
5 Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the following triangles, and note
where the perpendicular bisectors intersect.
a an acute-angled triangle; b an obtuse-angled triangle;
c a right-angled triangle.
6 Draw any ∆ ABC. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB and
CB . Label their intersection as point O.
a Why is point O equidistant from A and B?
b Why is point O equidistant from B and C?
c Do you think that the perpendicular bisector of the side AC passes through
the point O? (Why?)
Activity 6.3 can help you to state the following theorem.
Theorem 6.2
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent
at a point which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
231
Let ∆ ABC be given and construct perpendicular bisectors on any two of the sides. The
perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC are shown in Figure 6.8a. These perpendicular
bisectors intersect at a point O; they cannot be parallel. (Why?)
Using a ruler, find the lengths AO, BO and CO. Observe that the intersection point O is
equidistant from each vertex of the triangle.
Note that the perpendicular bisector of the remaining side BC must pass through the
point O. Therefore, the point of intersection of the three perpendicular bisectors is
equidistant from the three vertices of ∆ ABC.
B B
E E F
O O
• •
A C A C
D D
a b
Figure 6.8
Let us try to prove this result.
With O the point where the perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC meet, as
shown in Figure 6.8b, ∆AOD ≡ ∆COD by SAS and hence AO ≡ CO.
Similarly, ∆AOE ≡ ∆BOE by SAS and hence AO ≡ BO .
Thus, AO ≡ BO ≡ CO. It follows that O is equidistant from the vertices of ∆ABC .
Next, let F be the foot of the perpendicular from O to BC . Then, OF is the
perpendicular bisector of BC because ∆BOC is an isosceles triangle.
Therefore, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of ∆ABC are concurrent.
Note: The point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle is called
circumcentre of the triangle.
Theorem 6.3
The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
To show that the three altitudes of ∆ABC meet at a single point, construct ∆A'B'C'
(shown in Figure 6.9) so that the three sides of ∆ A'B'C ' are parallel respectively to the
three sides of ∆ABC:
232
Let EA , BF and C D be the altitudes of ∆ABC .

B
The quadrilaterals ABA'C, ABCB' and C' A'
AC 'BC are parallelograms. (Why?) D E
Since ABA'C is a parallelogram, AC = BA'.
(Why?) Again, since ACBC' is a parallelogram,
A C
AC = BC'. Therefore, BC' = BA' (Why?) and BF F
bisects A ' C ' .
Accordingly, BF is perpendicular to AC and so BF
is the perpendicular bisector of A ' C '. Similarly, one
can show that CD and AE are perpendicular B'
Figure 6.9
bisectors of A ' B ' and B ' C ' respectively.
Therefore, the altitudes of ∆ABC are the same as the perpendicular bisectors of the
sides of ∆A'B'C'. Since the perpendicular bisectors of any triangle are concurrent
(theorem 6.2), it is therefore, true that the altitudes are concurrent.
Note: The point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle is called orthocentre of
the triangle.
Angle bisector of a triangle
Theorem 6.4
The angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a point which is
equidistant from the sides of the triangle.
To show that the angle bisectors of ∆ABC meet at a single point, draw the bisectors of
∠A and ∠C, intersecting each other at O (Figure 6.10).
Construct the perpendiculars OA′, OB′ and OC ′ . B
Do these segments have the same length? Show B'

A'
that ∆OBB' ≡ ∆OBA' and conclude that O
∠ OBB' ≡ ∠OBA'.
C
Therefore, the bisector of ∠B also passes
through the point O. C'
Therefore, the angle bisectors of ∆ABC meet at a A
single point. Also their point of intersection is Figure 6.10
equidistant from the three sides of ∆ABC.
233
Note: The point of intersection of the bisectors of the angles of a triangle is called
the incentre of the triangle.
Example 2 In a right angle triangle ABC, ∠C is a right angle, AB = 8 cm and
CA = 6 cm. Find the length of CO where O is the point of intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of ∆ABC. B
Solution: The perpendicular bisector of CA is parallel to CB .

E O
Hence, O is on AB .
Therefore, AO = 4. (By theorem 6.2, AO = BO) C A
D
By theorem 6.2, O is equidistant from A, B and C Figure 6.11
Therefore, CO = AO = 4 cm.
Group Work 6.1

Work in a small group on one or more of the following
statements. There will be a class discussion on these facts, so
each one should be attempted by at least one group.
Task: Check that the following statements hold true for any type of triangle by carrying
out the construction carefully.
Materials required: ruler, protractor and compasses
Method: construction and measurement
1 The medians of any triangle are concurrent.
2
2 The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point the distance from each
3
vertex to the mid-point of the oppostie side.
3 The altitudes of any triangle are concurrent.
4 The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent at a point
which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
5 The angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a point which is equidistant
from the sides of the triangle.
6 Given any triangle, explain how you can find the centre of the circle:
a inscribed in the triangle (incentre).
b circumscribed about the triangle (circumcentre).
234
Altitude theorem
The altitude theorem is stated here for a right angled triangle. It relates the length of the
altitude to the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle, to the lengths of the segments of the
hypotenuse.
Theorem 6.5 Altitude theorem

In a right angled triangle ABC with altitude CD to the hypotenuse AB,
AD CD
=
DC DB
Proof:-
Consider ∆ABC as shown in Figure 6.12 ∆ABC ∼ ∆ACD . . . AA similarity
So, ∠ABC ≡ ∠ACD
Similarly, ∆ABC ∼ ∆CBD . . . AA similarity
So, ∠ABC ≡ ∠CBD. C
It follows that ∠ACD ≡ ∠CBD.
By AA similarity, ∆ACD ∼ ∆CBD.
AD CD
Hence = … (∗)
CD BD
A B
AD CD
Equivalently, = D
DC DB Figure 6.12
The following are some forms of the altitude theorem.
From (∗), (CD)2 = (AD) (BD)
or (AD) (DB) = (CD) (DC)
This can be stated as:
The square of the length of the altitude is the product of the lengths of the
segments of the hypotenuse.
Example 3 In ∆ABC, CD is the altitude to the hypotenuse AB, AD = 9 cm and
BD = 4 cm. How long is the altitude CD ? See Figure 6.12.
Solution Let h = CD. From the Altitude Theorem, (CD)2 = (AD) (BD)
Substituting, h2 = 9 × 4 = 36 cm 2
So, h = 6 cm.
The length of the altitude is 6 cm.
235
Menelaus'' theorem
Menelaus' theorem was known to the ancient Greeks almost two thousand years
ago. It was named in honour of the Greek mathematician and astronomer Menelaus
(70 - 140 AD).
Theorem 6.6 Menelaus' theorem

If points D, E and F on the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of ∆ABC
BD CE AF
(or their extensions) are collinear, then × × = −1 . Conversely,
DC EA FB
BD CE AF
if × × = −1, then the points D, E and F are collinear.
DC EA FB
Note: 1 For a line segment AB, we use the convention: AB = −BA.

AF
2 If F is in AB , then = r > 0.
FB
In Figure 6.13, let D divide BC in the ratio r, E divides CA in the ratio s and F ′ divides
AB in the ratio t,
BD CE AF
i.e., r = , s= and t = .
DC EA FB C
We see from the figure that D divides BC and E
D H
divides CA internally, but F divide AB externally.
I
Assume that D, E and F are collinear. E

Draw AG , BH , CI perpendicular to DF . G
Then, ∆ CEI ∼ ∆AEG (why?), F B

A
CE CI CE CI
So, = ⇒− = . Figure 6.13
AE AG EA AG
Similarly, ∆AFG ∼ ∆BFH and ∆BDH ∼ ∆CDI
AF AG BD BH AF AG BD BH
So, = , = ⇒− = , − = .
BF BH CD CI FB BH DC CI
 BD   CE   AF   − BH  −CI  − AG 
Hence, rst =      =    = −1
 DC   EA   FB   CI  AG  BH 
 BD  CE  AF 
Therefore     = −1
 DC  EA  FB 
236
It is also possible for all three of D, E and F C

to divide their respective sides externally,
as you can see by drawing a figure. In this
case, r, s, t are all negative. Otherwise the
D
preceding proof will remain unchanged.
E
Therefore, rst = –1 in this case also. It is not
possible to have an even number of external
divisions, so rst = –1 in each of the possible
F′
cases. A B
To prove the converse of Menelaus' Figure 6.14
theorem, assume that rst = –1.

Extend DE until it intersects AB say at a point F'. Let r' be the ratio in which F ′ divides
AB , then r'st = –1 (Why?).
Hence, r' = r (Why?)
Since F is the only point that divides AB in the ratio r, F = F'. This implies that D, E
and F are collinear.
Exercise 6.1
1 In Figure 6.15, AD ≡ DC , AE ≡ EB, F is the intersection of CE and BD. Prove
1
that EF = EC.
3
A
A
R
E D B
F
B C P Q
2 In Figure 6.16, RP and RQ are the bisectors of the equal angles APB and AQB,
respectively. If RP = RQ, prove that A, R, B lie on a straight line.
Hint: Join P and Q.
3 If two medians of a triangle are equal, prove that the triangle formed by a segment
of each median and the third side is an isosceles triangle.
4 Prove that the segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and is half as long as the third side.
5 a Let A (0, 0), B (6, 0) and C (0, 4) be vertices of ∆ABC.
i Find the point of intersection of the medians of ∆ABC.
237
2
ii Show that the point obtained in i is
of the distance from each vertex
3
to the mid-point of the opposite side.
b Repeat 5a for ∆DEF where D (0, 0), E (4, 0) and F (2, 4) are the vertices.
6 In right angled triangle ABC shown in Figure 6.17, CD is altitude to the
hypotenuse AB . If AC = 5 units and AD = 4 units, find the length of
a BD b BC
B
B
D
4 h
h1
P h3
h2
A
C 5 A C
7 Altitude triangle for equilateral triangle: In Figures 6.18, ∆ABC is an
equilateral triangle with altitude of length h and an interior point P. Three
altitudes of lengths h1, h2 and h3 are drawn from P to the sides of the triangle.
Show that h = h1 + h2 + h3.
Hint: Compare the area of ∆ABC with the sum of the areas of
∆ APC , ∆ APB and ∆BPC.
In problems 8 – 10, the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, r, s, t have the meanings which
have in the statement of Menelaus' theorem.
8 In Figure 6.19, D and D' are symmetrical about the mid-point of BC. E and E', F
and F' are also symmetrical about the mid-points of their corresponding sides.
Show that D', E' and F ' are collinear if D, E and F are collinear.
A
F E'
F' E
B C
D D'
Figure 6.19

9 In the proof of the converse part of Menelaus' theorem, assume that DE meets

AB at some point F'.

a Prove that if DE // AB , then rs = 1.

b Prove that if rst = –1, then DE is not parallel to AB.

c Prove that if rs = 1, then DE // AB.
238
10 In Figure 6.20 below, D divides BC in the ratio r and D' divides CB in the same
ratio r. E is the mid-point of CA . D, E, F are collinear and D', E, F' are also
collinear. Show that FA = BF'
C
D′
E
D
F′ A F
B
Figure 6.20
6.2 SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS

In this section, we consider the following special quadrilaterals: trapezium,
parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus and square.
Keep in mind the mathematical definitions of each of the above quadrilaterals.
ACTIVITY 6.4
1 Discuss parallel lines based on what you see in your classroom.
2 State the parallel lines postulate.
3 Discuss what is meant by “equiangular quadrilateral” and “equilateral
quadrilateral”?
4 Define the following quadrilaterals in your own terms.
a parallelogram b rectangle c square
5 What is an altitude of a parallelogram? A B
6 In Figure 6.21,
i indicate a pair of adjacent sides. D
ii indicate opposite vertices of the quadrilateral.

C
iii Join two opposite vertices. Figure 6.21
What do you call this line segment?
7 What is a diagonal of a quadrilateral? How many diagonals does a parallelogram
or rectangle have?
239
Trapezium
Definition 6.1
A trapezium is a quadrilateral where only two of the sides are parallel.
In Figure 6.22, the quadrilateral ABCD is a A B
trapezium. The sides AD and BC are non-
parallel sides of the trapezium ABCD.
Note that if the sides AD and BC of
trapezium ABCD are congruent, then the D C
trapezium is called an isosceles trapezium. Figure 6.22
Parallelogram
Definition 6.2
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides
are parallel.
In Figure 6.23, the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. A

B
AB // DC and AD // BC
D
C
Figure 6.23
ACTIVITY 6.5
1 Draw a quadrilateral ABCD. Let P, Q, R and S be the mid-points
of its sides. Check, by construction and measurement, that
PQRS is a parallelogram.
2 Draw a trapezium ABCD with AB = 2 cm, BC = DA = 3 cm and DC = 4 cm.
a Indicate and measure the base angles of trapezium ABCD.
b Draw the diagonals DB and AC and then measure their lengths. Also,
compare the lengths of the two diagonals.
3 Draw a parallelogram ABCD with AB = 3 cm and BC = 8 cm.
a Mark points on AB that divide it into three congruent parts. Through these
points, draw lines across ABCD parallel to BC . Why do these lines divide
ABCD into three smaller parallelograms?
240
b Mark points on BC that divide it into four congruent segments. Through

these points, draw lines across ABCD parallel to AB . How many small
parallelograms does this make?
c Draw the diagonals of all the smaller parallelograms and show that these
diagonals also form parallelograms.
Properties of a parallelogram and tests for a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram are
stated in the following theorem:
Theorem 6.7
a The opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.
b The opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.
c The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
d If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
e If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the
f If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the
Proof of a and b:- B C

Given: Parallelogram ABCD
To prove: AB ≡ CD and BC ≡ DA
A D
Figure 6.24
Statement Reason
1 Draw diagonal AC 1 Through two points there is exactly one
straight line.
2 AC ≡ CA 2 Common side.
3 ∠CAB ≡ ∠ACD and 3 Alternate interior angles of parallel lines.
∠ACB ≡ ∠CAD
4 ∆ ABC ≡ ∆CDA 4 ASA postulate.
5 AB ≡ CD and BC ≡ DA , and 5 Corresponding parts of congruent triangles
∠ABC ≡ ∠CDA
Can you show that ∠BAD ≡ ∠DCB?

241
Proof of c:- B C
Given: Parallelogram ABCD with
diagonals AC and BD
intersecting at O.
O
To prove: AO ≡ OC and BO ≡ DO .
A D
Figure 6.25
Statement Reason
1 AB ≡ CD 1 Theorem 6.7a
2 ∠CAB ≡ ∠ACD and ∠ABD ≡ ∠CDB 2 Alternate interior angles
Hence,
∠OAB ≡ ∠OCD and ∠ABO ≡ ∠CDO
3 ∆AOB ≡ ∆ COD 3 ASA postulate
4 AO ≡ CO and BO ≡ DO 4 Corresponding parts of congruent
triangles.
Proof of f:-
B C
Given: A quadrilateral ABCD with
∠A ≡ ∠C and ∠B ≡ ∠D .
To prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.
A D
Figure 6.26
Statement Reason
o
1 m(∠A) + m(∠B) + m(∠C) + m(∠D) = 360 1 The sum of the interior angles of a
quadrilateral is 360o
2 m(∠A) = m(∠C) and m(∠B) = m(∠D) 2 Given
3 2m (∠A) + 2m (∠D) = 360o 3 Steps 1 and 2
4 m(∠A) + m(∠D) = 180o 4 Simplification
5 Therefore, AB // DC 5 ∠A and ∠D are interior angles on
the same side of transversal AD .
6 m ( ∠A ) + m ( ∠B ) = 180o 6 Step 2 and 4.
7 Therefore, AD // BC 7 ∠A and ∠B are interior angles on
the same side of transversal AB .
8 ABCD is a parallelogram 8 Definition of a parallelogram
Steps 5 and 7.
242
Rectangle
Definition 6.3
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one of its angles is a right angle.
In Figure 6.27, the parallelogram ABCD is a rectangle whose angle D is a right angle.
What is the measure of each of the other angles of the rectangle ABCD?
A B
Some properties of a rectangle
i A rectangle has all properties of a parallelogram.
ii Each interior angle of a rectangle is a right angle. Figure 6.23
iii The diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.
D C
Figure 6.27
Rhombus
Definition 6.4
A rhombus is a parallelogram which has two congruent adjacent sides.
A B
In Figure 6.28, the parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus.
Some properties of a rhombus
i A rhombus has all the properties of a parallelogram.
ii A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral.
iii The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each D C
other. Figure 6.28
iv The diagonals of a rhombus bisect its angles.
Square
Definition 6.5
A square is a rectangle which has congruent adjacent sides.
In Figure 6.29, the rectangle ABCD is a square. A B
Some properties of a square

i A square has the properties of a rectangle.
ii A square has all the properties of a rhombus. D C
Figure 6.29
243
Group Work 6.2
1 What are some similarities and differences between a

parallelogram, a rectangle and a square?
2 If ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = 3x – 4, BC = 2x + 7 and CD = x + 18, what
type of parallelogram is ABCD?
3 Discuss the relationship among the four triangles formed by the diagonals of a
rhombus.
Theorem 6.8
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are congruent and are perpendicular
bisectors of each other, then the quadrilateral is a square.
Proof:-
A B
Given: AC ≡ BD ; AC and BD are
perpendicular bisectors of each other.
To prove: ABCD is a square. •
o
Let O be the point of intersection of AC and BD .
D
Figure 6.30 C
Statement Reason
1 AC ≡ BD , AC and BD are 1 Given
perpendicular bisectors of each other.
2 AO ≡ BO ≡ CO ≡ DO 2 Step 1
3 ∠AOB ≡ ∠BOC ≡ ∠COD ≡ ∠DOA 3 All right angles are congruent

4 ∆AOB ≡ ∆BOC ≡ ∆COD ≡ ∆DOA 4 SAS Postulate
5 ∠CBD ≡ ∠ADB and 5 Corresponding angles of congruent
∠DCA ≡ ∠BAC triangles
6 BC // AD and AB // CD 6 Alternate interior angles are
congruent
7 ABCD is a parallelogram 7 Definition of a parallelogram
8 ABCD is a rectangle 8 Diagonals are congruent
9 ABCD is a square 9 Definition of a square,
AB ≡ CD and Step 4
244
Exercise 6.2
1 ABCD is a parallelogram, P is the mid-point of AB and Q is the mid-point of CD .
Prove that APCQ is a parallelogram.
2 The mid-points of the sides of a rectangle are the vertices of a quadrilateral. What
kind of quadrilateral is it? Prove your answer.
3 The mid-points of the sides of a parallelogram are the vertices of a quadrilateral.
What kind of quadrilateral is it? Prove your answer.
4 Prove each of the following:
a If the diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent, then the parallelogram is a
rectangle.
b If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other and one angle of the
quadrilateral is a right angle, then the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
c If all the four sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is
a rhombus.
d The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
5 In each of the following statements, sufficient conditions to be a parallelogram are
stated. Prove this in each case.
a If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
b If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is congruent and parallel, then
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
c If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is
a parallelogram.
6 Draw a parallelogram ABCD. Extend AB through B to P so that AB = BP; extend
AD through D to Q so that AD = DQ. Prove that P, C and Q all lie on one
straight line. (Hint : Draw BD )
7 M is the mid-point of the side BC of a parallelogram ABCD. DM and AB
produced meet at N. Prove that AB ≡ BN .
8 If ABCD is a parallelogram with M and N the mid-points of
DC and AB respectively, prove that AM ≡ CN .
9 ABCD is a parallelogram with AD produced to F and CB produced to E such
that DF ≡ BE . Prove that AECF is a parallelogram.
245
6.3 MORE ON CIRCLES

In this section, you are going to study circles and the lines and angles associated with
them. Of all simple geometric figures, a circle is perhaps the most appealing. Have you
ever considered how useful a circle is? Without circles there would be no watches,
wagons, automobiles, steamships, electricity or many other modern conveniences.
Recall that a circle is a plane figure, all points of which are C
X
equidistant from a given point called the centre of the circle.
•
As you recall from Grade 9, in Figure 6.31, PQ is a chord of B
A O
the circle with centre O. AB is a chord (diameter)
AXC is an Q
arc of the circle. P
Figure 6.31
If A and C are not end-points of a diameter,
AXC is a minor arc.

∠BOC is a central angle. AXC or arc AXC is said to subtend ∠AOC or ∠AOC
intercepts arc AXC.
ACTIVITY 6.6
1 Draw a circle and a line intersecting the circle at two points and
another line intersecting at one point. Draw a line that does not
intersect the circle.
2 If the length of a radius of a circle is r, then what is the length of its diameter?
3 Referring to Figure 6.32, answer each of the following questions:
a Name at least three chords, two secants and two tangents.
b Name three angles formed by two intersecting chords.
c Name an angle formed by two intersecting tangents.
d Name an angle formed by two intersecting secants.
G
C
E B
K
F
J O
I
M L D
P H
Q A
Figure 6.32
4 Construct:
a a central angle of 75o in a circle. b a central angle of 120o in a circle.
246
5 How large is a central angle that is subtended by a 3 cm chord in a circle of radius

3 cm?
6 What is the measure of a semi-circle as an arc?
7 Is the statement ‘the measure of an arc is equal to the measure of the
corresponding central angle’ true or false?
6.3.1 Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines

Intersecting Inside and On a Circle
R
We now extend the discussion to angles whose vertices do
not necessarily lie at the centre of the circle.
In a circle, an inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex • Q
P O
lies on the circle and whose sides are chords of the circle.
In Figure 6.33, angle PRQ is inscribed in the circle. We •
S
also say that ∠PRQ is inscribed in the arc PRQ and Figure 6.33 P
∠PRQ is subtended by arc PSQ (or PSQ
).
Measure of a central angle: Note that the measure of a • •X

O
central angle is the measure of the arc it intercepts.
). Q
So, m ( ∠ POQ) = m ( PXQ
Figure 6.34
Theorem 6.9
The measure of an angle inscribed in a circle is half the measure of the arc
subtending it.
B
Proof:-
Given: Circle O with ∠B an inscribed angle
intercepting
AC . •
O
1
To prove: m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC ) , where A C
2
X B
X is a point as shown in Figure 6.35. Figure 6.35
To prove theorem 6.9, we consider three cases. O
Case 1: Suppose that one side of ∠ABC is a
diameter of the circle with centre O. A C
X
Figure 6.36
247
Statement Reason
1 Draw radius OB 1 Construction.
2 OC ≡ OB 2 Radii of the same circle.
3 ∠OBC ≡ ∠OCB 3 Base angles of an isosceles triangle.
4 ∠AOC ≡ ∠OCB + ∠OBC 4 An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles.
5 m( ∠AOC) = 2m(∠ABC ) 5 Substitution.
6 But m(∠AOC ) = m (
AXC ) 6 ∠AOC is a central angle.
7 2m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC ) 7 Substitution.
8 1 8 Division of both sides by 2.
m ( ∠ABC ) = m(
AXC )
2
1 B
Therefore, m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC )
2
Case 2: Suppose that A and C are on opposite
sides of the diameter through B, as
shown in Figure 6.37.
A C
Y D X
Figure 6.37
Statement Reason
1
1 m ( ∠ABD ) = m (
AYD) 1 Case 1
2
1
2 m ( ∠DBC ) = m ( DXC
) 2 Case 1
2
1 1
3 m( ∠ ABD) + m( ∠DBC ) = ( )
AYD) + m ( DXC 3 Addition
2 2
1 4
4 ∴ m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC ) Substitution
2
1 B
Therefore, m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC )
2
O•
Case 3: Suppose that A and C are on the same
side of the diameter through B as shown
in Figure 6.38. • • C
D Y A X
Figure 6.38
248
Statement Reason
1
1 m ( ∠DBC ) = )
m ( DAC 1 Case 1
2
1
2 m ( ∠DBA ) = )
m ( DYA 2 Case 1
2
1 ) – 1 m( DYA
)
3 m ( ∠ DBC) – m ( ∠ DBA) = m ( DAC 3 Addition
2 2
1
4 ∴ m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXC ) 4 Substitution
2
1
Therefore, m ( ∠ ABC) = m ( AXC ) in all cases and the theorem holds.
2 P
) = 110o.
Example 1 In Figure 6.39, m ( PXQ
Find the measure of ∠ PRQ. •X
Solution: By theorem 6.9, we have R
Q
1 ) = 1 (110o) = 55o
m ( ∠ PRQ) = m ( PXQ Figure 6.39
2 2
Corollary 6.9.1
An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.
B
Proof:-
In Figure 6.40, ∠ ABC is inscribed in semi-circle ABC.
∠ ABC is subtended by arc ADC, which is a semi-circle. A • C
O
The measure of arc ADC is 180o or π radians.
D
1
By theorem 6.9, m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
ADC ) Figure 6.40
2
1 π
= (180o) = 90o or radians.
2 2
Corollary 6.9.2
An angle inscribed in an arc less than a semi-circle is obtuse.
249
Proof:-
B
1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m ( ADC )
2
But m (
ABC ) < length of a semi-circle C
A
) < 180o
m ( ABC
Therefore, (
ADC ) > 180
o
D
1 1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m ( o
ADC ) > (180 ) Figure 6.41
2 2
m ( ∠ ABC) > 90o. So, ∠ ABC is an obtuse angle.
Corollary 6.9.3
An angle inscribed in an arc greater than a semi-circle is acute.
Theorem 6.10
Two parallel lines intercept congruent arcs on the same circle.
E A F
E A F
A B
•O •O •O
C D
B C
D M P N G B H
a b c
Figure 6.42
Proof:-
To prove this fact, you have to consider the following three possible cases:

a When one of the parallel lines EF is a tangent line and the other BC is a
secant line as shown in Figure 6.42a.

b When both parallel lines AB and CD are secants as shown in Figure 6.42b.

c When both parallel lines EF and GH are tangents as shown in Figure
6.42c.
Case a:

Given: A circle with centre O, EF and BC are two parallel lines such that

EF is a tangent to the circle at A and BC is a secant.
To prove:
AB ≡
AC
250
Statement Reason
1 Draw diameter AD 1 Construction.
2 AD ⊥ EF and AD ⊥ BC 2 A tangent is perpendicular to the diameter drawn
to the point of tangency and also EF // BC is
given.
3 ≡ CD
BD 3 Any perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a
chord bisects the chord and the arc subtended by it.
4
AB ≡
AC 4
ABD ≡
ACD (semicircles) and step 3.
Proofs of case b and case c are left as exercises.
Theorem 6.11
An angle formed by a tangent and a chord drawn from the point of
tangency is measured by half the arc it intercepts.
P A
Given: Circle O with ∠ ABC formed by
tangent t and chord AB at B, the point of •
O
contact. •X
•
Y

1
To prove: m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXB ) • t
2 B C

Figure 6.43
Statement Reason
1 Draw AP parallel to t. 1 Construction.
2 ∠ PAB ≡ ∠ ABC 2 Alternate interior angles of parallel lines.
1
3 )
m ( ∠ PAB) = 2 m ( PYB 3 theorem 6.9.
4 ≡
But PYB AXB 4 theorem 6.10.
1
5 ∴ m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXB ) 5 Substitution from steps 2 – 4.
2
Theorem 6.12
The measure of an angle formed by two chords intersecting inside a
circle is half the sum of the measures of the arc subtending the angle
and its vertically opposite angle.
251
Proof:-

Given: Two lines AB and CD intersecting at P Y
inside the circle.
1 1
To prove: m ( ∠ BPD) = m(
AXC ) + m( BYD ). •
2 2 Z
Figure 6.44
Statement Reason
1 Draw a line through A such that AE // CD 1 Construction
Corresponding angles formed
2 m ( ∠ BPD)= m ( ∠ BAE) 2 by two parallel lines and a
transversal line.
1 )
3 m ( ∠ BAE) = m ( BDE 3 theorem 6.9.
2
4
AXC ≡ DZE 4 theorem 6.10.
1
∴ m ( ∠ BPD) = )
m ( BDE
2
5 5 theorem 6.11.
1 1
= m ( BYD ) + m ( DZE )
2 2
1 ) + 1 m (
6 m ( ∠ BPD) = = m ( BYD AXC ) 6 Substitution and step 4.
2 2
1
Therefore, m ( ∠ BPD) =  m ( )
AXC ) + m ( BYD
2   S R
Example 2 In Figure 6.45, m ( ∠ MRQ) = 30o, and

m ( ∠ MQR) = 40o.
M
Write down the measure of all the other angles in
the two triangles, ∆ PSM and ∆ QMR. What do
you notice about the two triangles?
P Q
Solution: m ( ∠ QMR) = 180o – (30o + 40o) (why?)
Figure 6.45
= 180o – 70o = 110o
1 )
m ( ∠ RQS) = m ( RS
2
1 )
Therefore, 40o = m ( RS
2
∴ m ( RS
) = 80o
252
1 )
m ( ∠ PRQ) = m ( PQ
2
1 )
Hence, 30o = m ( PQ
2
∴ m ( PQ
) = 60o
1 )= 1
m ( ∠ PSQ) = m ( PQ (60o) = 30o
2 2
1 )= 1
m ( ∠ RPS) = m ( RS (80o) = 40o
2 2
The two triangles are similar by AA similarity.
Example 3 An angle formed by two chords intersecting within a circle is 48o, and
one of the intercepted arcs measures 42o. Find the measures of the other
intercepted arc.
Solution: Consider Figure 6.46.
1 42o
) + 1 m (
m ( ∠ PRB) = m ( PB AQ ) (by theorem 6.11)
2 2
1 1
48o = (42o)+ (
AQ )
2 2 48o
⇒ 96 = 42 + m (
o o
AQ )
∴54o = m (
AQ )
Figure 6.46
Remark: The following result is sometimes called the product or rectangle

property of a circle.
If two chords intersect in a circle as shown in Figure 6.47, then (AP) (PB) = (XP) (PY).
Hint for proof:
1 ∠ XAP ≡ ∠ BYP and ∠ AXP ≡ ∠ YBP (why?)

2 ∆PAX ∼ ∆PYB (why?)
3 AP PX (why?)
=
YP PB
4 ∴ (AP) (PB) = (YP) (PX) (why?)
Figure 6.47
253
Example 4 In Figure 6.48, calculate the radius of the circle. C
Solution: Let the radius of the circle be r units long. A 2 B

4 P 4
Then, OD = r and PD = 2r – 2.
Since (AP) (PB) = (CP) (PD), you have •O
4 × 4 = 2 (2r – 2) r
16 = 4r – 4
r=5 D
Figure 6.48
Group Work 6.3

1 In Figure 6.49, AB and PQ are parallel, m (BOQ) = 70o and
O is the centre of the circle. What is the measure of ∠AOP ?
A
A B
D
O o
• 70 O•
P Q C B
2 In Figure 6.49, if PO = 5 units and m PQ ( )

= 120 , find the length of PQ .
o
3 In Figure 6.50, if central angle ∠ AOB is a right angle.

a What are the degree measures of ∠ ACB and ∠ ADB?
b Find the degree measure of ∠CBO, if m (∠CAO) = 20°.
Exercise 6.3
1 In Figure 6.51, AB is a diameter. O is the centre of the circle. If OC // BD and
m ( ∠ ABD) = 60o, find m ( ∠OCD ).
C D
Y

o M L
60 N
A • B •
O O

X

254
2 Prove that, if an angle inscribed in an arc of a circle is a right angle, then the arc is
a semicircle.
3 is an arc of 28o, and YN
In Figure 6.52, MX is an arc of 50o.
a What is the degree measure of ∠ YLN ?
b If ML = 4 units, LX = 5 units and LN = 7 units, find YL.
4 In Figure 6.52 of Question 3, would it be possible for ∠ MLX to be a 30o angle
to be 40o? If so, what would be the measure of YN
and for the measure of MX ?
5 In Figure 6.53, O is the centre of the circle. If m ( ∠ AOB) = 40o and
m ( ∠ COD) = 60o, find
a m (∠ AQB) b m( ∠ APB)?
F P
C
B
Q
z
P M C
x y
A D
O
A E
6 In Figure 6.54, if m ( ∠ FAM) = 40 and m ( ∠ CPE) = 50o, what is the degree
o
measure of ∠ EYC ?
7 a In Figure 6.55, the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD lie on the circle O. Such a
quadrilateral is called cyclic quadrilateral.
i What is the sum of the measure of arcs ABC and ADC ?
ii Prove that opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
o
60
P
S
b In Figure 6.56, is there a circle containing P, Q, R and S?
255
8 In Figure 6.57, find the values of x and y given that O is the centre of the circle
and m ( ∠ AOC) = 160o
x
R
S
s r
y
t 35o
U
40o
P Q
50o
9 In Figure 6.58, calculate the angles marked p, q, x and y.
10 Find the values of the angle marked x, y, s, r and t as shown in Figure 6.59.
6.3.2 Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines

Intersecting Outside a Circle
B
What happens if two secant lines intersect outside a circle? In
A
Figure 6.60, AB and XY intersect at P outside the circle. They C

intercept arcs BY and AX. Draw the chord AC parallel to XY . P Y
X
Can you see that the measure of ∠ XPA is half the difference
between the measures of arcs BY and AX? Can you prove it? Figure 6.60
This is stated in theorem 6.13.
Theorem 6.13
The measure of the angle formed by the lines of two chords intersecting
outside a circle is half the difference of the measure of the arcs they
intercept.
The product property, (PA) (PB) = (PX) (PY) is also true B

when two chords intersect outside a circle. In this case, the A
proof is similar to the proof of the product property given
Y
in section 6.3.1. P
X
Draw AX and BY . Two similar triangles are formed. Figure 6.61
By considering corresponding sides, we see that
(PA) (PB) = (PX) (PY).
Can you point out the similar triangles, in Figure 6.61 and put in the other details?
256
Theorem 6.14
The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant drawn to a
circle from a point outside the circle is equal to one-half the difference
of the measures of the intercepted arcs.
A
Proof:-
Given: Secant PBA and tangent PD intersecting at P. B •X
1
To prove: m ( ∠P ) = [m ( )]
AXD ) − m ( BD P
2 D
Figure 6.62
Statement Reason
1 Draw BD 1 Construction.
An exterior angle of a triangle is
2 ∠ABD ≡ ∠BDP + ∠DPA 2 equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles of a triangle.
3 ∠ABD – ∠BDP ≡ ∠DPA ≡ ∠P 3 Subtraction.
1
m( ∠ABD ) = m(
AXD ) and
2
4 4 theorem 6.9 and theorem 6.11.
1
m( ∠ PDB) = m( BD )
2
m ( ∠ ABD) – m ( ∠ BDP)
5 1 1 5 Substitution.
= m ( )
AXD ) − m ( BD
2 2
1 1
6 ∴ m ( ∠P ) = m ( )
AXD ) − m ( BD 6 Substitution.
2 2
Theorem 6.15 A
If a secant and a tangent are drawn from a point C
outside a circle, then the square of the length of the
P B
tangent is equal to the product of the lengths of
line segments given by
(PA)2 = (PB) (PC). Figure 6.63
257
Proof:-
Given: A circle with secant PC and tangent PA as in Figure 6.64
To prove: (PA)2 = (PB) (PC) C
Draw AB and CA . Then ∆PCA ∼ ∆PAB (show!) B O•

PC PA
Hence, = and (PA)2 = (PB) (PC)
PA PB P
A
Example 5 In Figure 6.65, from P secants PA and PC Figure 6.64
are drawn so that m ( ∠ APC) = 30o; chords AB and

A
CD intersect at F such that m ( ∠AFC ) = 85o. Find
the measure of arc AC, measure of arc BD and F D
measure of ∠ABC . C
B P
Solution: Let m ( )=y
AC ) = x and m ( DB
Figure 6.65
1 1
Since m ( ∠AFC ) = m ( AC ) + m ( BD )
2 2
1
85o = (x + y)
2
x + y = 170o . . . . . . . . . (1)
1 1
Again as m ( ∠APC ) = m ( )
AC ) − m ( BD
2 2
1
30o = (x – y)
2
x – y = 60o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Solving equation 1 and equation 2 simultaneously, we get
x + y = 170o
x – y = 60o
2x = 230o
x = 115o
Substituting for x in equation 2,
115o – y = 60o
y = 55o
Therefore, m ( o ) = 55o.
AC ) = 115 and m ( DB
1 1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m ( AC ) = (115o) = 57.5o.
2 2
258
Group Work 6.4
1 AB is a diameter of a circle centre O. C is a point on

the circumference. D is a point on AC such that OD
bisects ∠AOC. Prove that OD is parallel to BC .

2 In Figure 6.66, suppose lines PA and PX are tangents to a circle. Prove that
1 1
m ( ∠APX ) = (measure of major arc AX) − (measure of minor arc AX)
2 2
1 1
or m ( ∠P ) = m ( ACX ) − m ( ABX )
2 2
Hint: Draw a line through A parallel to PX
A
C
B •
P O
X
Figure 6.66
3 Suppose a geostationary satellite S orbits at 35,000 km above earth, rotating so
that it appears to hover directly over the equator. Use Figure 6.67 to determine the
measure of the arc on the equator visible to this geostationary satellite.
X 11o
Q
Equator S
Satellite
Earth
Figure 6.67
Exercise 6.4
1 If the measure of arc AQ is 30o and the measure of arc BR is 60o, what is the
measure of ∠P ? Refer to Figure 6.68.
R
Q
•O
P
A B
Figure 6.68
259

2 In Figure 6.69 AP is a tangent to the circle. Prove that ∠ CAP ≡ ∠ABC.
A
B
C
P
Figure 6.69
3 In Figure 6.70, CD is a diameter and AB is bisected by CD at P. A square with

side AP and a rectangle with sides C P and PD are drawn. Prove that the areas
of the square and the rectangle are equal.
C
A B
P
O
A P C
P D
Figure 6.70

4 In Figure 6.71, AC , CE and EG are tangents to the circle with centre O, at B, D
and F respectively. Prove that CB + EF = CE.
C D E
•
B O F
A G
Figure 6.71
5 Use the circle in Figure 6.72 with tangent PT , secants PE , PC and chord BD to
find the lengths of GB and EF and PT , if
CG = 4 units, GA = 6 units, DG = 3 units, PF = 9 units and PA = 8 units.
260
B
C A P
G B
D F P
R
E A
T C Q

6 In Figure6.73, m(∠BPC) = 48 , m( ∠BRC ) = 68 and m( ∠BCR ) = 62o. Calculate
o o
the measures of angles of ∆ ABC.

7 The diagonals AC and BD of the parallelogram ABCD are of lengths 20 cm and
12 cm respectively. If the circle BCD cuts CA at F, find the length of AF .
8 In Figure 6.74, BP = 6 cm, DC = 10 cm and CP = 8 cm. Calculate the lengths of
the chord AB and the tangent PT .
A T W
Z
D
B
C Y
P X

9 In Figure 6.75, Y is the mid-point of XZ and WX is tangent to the circle. Find WX
in terms of XY. Explain your reasoning.
6.4 REGULAR POLYGONS

A polygon whose vertices are on a circle is said to be inscribed in the circle. The circle
is circumscribed about the polygon.
In Figure 6.76, the polygon ABCDE is inscribed in the circle or the circle is
circumscribed about the polygon.
Q
A
P
E
•O •O
R
D T
B
C
S
A polygon whose sides are tangent to a circle is said to be circumscribed about the
circle. In Figure 6.77, the pentagon PQRST is circumscribed about the circle. The circle
is inscribed in the pentagon.
261
ACTIVITY 6.7
1 What is a regular polygon? Give examples.
2 Draw three circles of radius 5 cm. Circumscribe a quadrilateral
about the first circle, a triangle about the second, and a 7-sided
polygon about the third.
3 Circumscribe a circle about a square.
4 Draw a circle such that three of the four sides of a rectangle are tangent to it. Give
reasons why a circle cannot be inscribed in the rectangle of unequal sides.
5 Show that a circle can always be circumscribed about a quadrilateral if two
opposite angles are right angles.
6 Show that, if a circle can be circumscribed about a parallelogram, then the
parallelogram is a rectangle.
7 What is the measure of an angle between the angle bisectors of two adjacent
angles in a regular polygon of 3, 5, 10, n sides?
8 What is the measure of an angle between the perpendicular bisectors of two
adjacent sides of a regular polygon of 3, 7, 10, n sides?
9 Draw a square with side 5 cm. Draw the inscribed and circumscribing circles.
6.4.1 Perimeter of a Regular Polygon

You have studied how to find the length of a side (s) and perimeter (P) of a regular
polygon with radius “r” and the number of sides “n” in grade 9. The following example
is given to refresh your memory.
Example 1 The perimeter of a regular polygon with 9 sides is given by:
180o 180o
P = 9 × 2r sin = 9d sin , where d = 2r is diameter
9 9
= 9d sin 20o ≈ 3.0782d
Example 2 Find the length of a side and the perimeter of a regular quadrilateral with
radius 5 units.
180o 180o
Solution: s = 2r sin P = 2nr sin
n n
180o 180o
s = 2 × 5 sin = 10 sin 45o P = 2 × 4 × 5 sin = 40 sin 45o
4 4
2 2
= 10 × = 40 ×
2 2
∴ s = 5 2 units. ∴ P = 20 2 units.
262
6.4.2 Area of a Regular Polygon A B
Draw a circle with centre at O and radius r. Inscribe in it a a

regular polygon with n sides as shown in Figure 6.78. r r
Join O to each vertex. The polygonal region is then •O
divided into n triangles. ∆AOB is one of them.
360o
∠AOB has degree measure . Figure 6.78
n
Recall that the formula for the area A of a triangle with sides a and b units long and ∠C
included between these sides is:
1
A = ab sin (∠C)
2
Hence, area of ∆AOB is
1 1 2 360o
A = r×r sin (∠AOB) = r sin
2 2 n
Therefore, the area A of the polygon is given by
1 360o
A = nr2 sin (why?)
2 n
Theorem 6.16
The area A of a regular polygon with n sides and radius r is
1 360 o
A = nr 2 sin .
2 n
This formula for the area of a regular polygon can be used to find the area of a circle. As the
number of sides increases, the area of the polygon becomes closer to the area of the circle.
ACTIVITY 6.8
A B
Square ABCD is inscribed in a circle of radius r.
a What is the measure of angle AOB? r
b Find the area of the square ABCD. •
O
c Find the area of the square, if r = 10 cm.
D C
Figure 6.79
Example 3 Show that the area A of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle with
3 3 2
radius r is r .
2
263
1 2 360o 1 360o
Solution: A= nr sin = × 6 × r 2 sin = 3r2 sin 60o
2 n 2 6
3 3 3r 2
A = 3r ×
2
= sq units.
2 2
Exercise 6.5
1 Find the area of a regular nine-sided polygon with radius 5 units.
2 Find the area of a regular twelve-sided polygon with radius 3 units.
3 Prove that the area A of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle with radius r is
3 3r 2
A= . Use this formula to find the area of an equilateral triangle inscribed
4
in a circle with radius:
a 2 cm b 3 cm c 2 cm d 2 3 cm.
4 Prove that the area A of a square inscribed in a circle with radius r is A = 2r2. Use
this formula to find the area of a square inscribed in a circle with radius:
a 3 cm b 2 cm c 3 cm d 4 cm.
5 Show that all the distances from the centre of a regular polygon to the sides are
equal.
s s
A 2 P 2 B
a C
r r
s
r
2
O • a
Q
s
r 2
D.
Figure 6.80
6 Use Figure 6.80 given above to prove the formula for the apothem a:
180o
a = r cos .
n
180o
7 Use the formula a = r cos to calculate the apothems of the following regular
n
polygons inscribed in a circle of radius 12 cm:
a triangle b quadrilateral c hexagon d nonagon.
264
8 Show that a formula for the area A of a regular polygon with n sides, apothem a
1
and perimeter P is: A = aP.
2
Use this formula to calculate the area of a regular;
a triangle b quadrilateral c hexagon d octagon.
Give your answer in terms of its radius.
9 a Show that another formula for the area A of a regular polygon with n sides,
radius r and perimeter P is:
1 180o
A= Pr cos .
2 n
b Show that the ratio of the area of two regular n-sided polygons is the square
of the ratio of their radii.
180o
c Use the formula for the apothem and s = 2r sin to show that the ratio of
n
the areas of two regular polygons with the same number of sides is the ratio
of the squares of the lengths of corresponding sides.
d Can you prove the result in c above without using any of the formulae of
this section?
10 A circular tin is placed on a square. If a side of the square is congruent to the
diameter of the tin, calculate the percentage of the square which remains
uncovered. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Key Terms
altitude concurrent lines plane geometry
apothem Euclidean Eeometry product property
arc incentre quadrilateral
bisector incircle rectangle
central angle inscribed angle regular polygon
centroid major arc rhombus
chord median semi-circle
circle minor arc square
circumcentre orthocenter trapezium
circumcircle parallelogram
collinear points perpendicular
265
Summary
2
1 The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point of the distance from each
3
vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
2 The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent at a point
called circumcenter which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
3 The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent at a point called the orthocentre of the
triangle. If points D, E and F on the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of ∆ABC
BD CE AF
(or their extensions) are collinear, then × × = −1. Conversely,
DC EA FB
BD CE AF
if × × = −1, then the points D, E and F are collinear.
DC EA FB
4 A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has only two sides parallel.
5 A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel.
6 A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one of its angles is a right angle.
7 A rhombus is a parallelogram which has two congruent adjacent sides.
8 A square is a rectangle which has congruent adjacent sides.
9 In a circle, an inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex lies on the circle and
whose sides are chords of the circle. A
10 In Figure 6.81, m ( ∠ APB) =

1
2
(
m
AXB ) P •X
A
B
Figure 6.81 - X
11 An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle. |

P B
12 An angle inscribed in an arc less than a semi-circle is obtuse. Figure 6.82
13 An angle inscribed in an arc greater than a semi-circle is acute. B
C
1
14 In Figure 6.82, m (∠APB ) = m (
AXP ) . X • •Y
2 P
1 1 A
15 In Figure 6.83, m (∠BPD) = m( AXC ) + m( BYD ) D
2 2
and (AP) (PB) = (CP)(PD) Figure 6.83
266
16 In Figure 6.84: B
1 A
a ) − 1 m (
m ( BPD ) = m ( BD AC )
2 2 P D
1 ) − 1 m (QC
) C
b m ( DPQ ) = m ( DQ
2 2
c (PA) (PB) = (PC) (PD) •
Q
d (PQ)2 = (PC) (PD) Figure 6.84
17 The length of a side s and perimeter P of a regular polygon with n sides and radius
r are:
180 o 180 o
s = 2r sin P = 2n r sin P = ns
n n
18 The area A of a regular polygon with n sides and radius r is
1 2 360 o
A= nr sin .
2 n

1 The points E and F are the mid-points of side AB and AD of parallelogram
1
ABCD. Prove that area (AECF) = area (ABCD). (See Figure 6.85)
2
D C
A
E B
Figure 6.85
2 Two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at right angles at a point inside a

and
circle. If m (∠BAC) = 35o, find the measures of ∠ABD, CB AD.
3 In Figure 6.86, O is the centre of the circle. Calculate x and y.
P C
y A B P
A
E r
•O D •
130 o
F O
A C Y
x X
B B
267
4 In Figure 6.87, if m (∠A) = 10o, m ( EF ) = 95o, find m (∠B) .

) = 15 and m ( CD
5 From any point outside a circle with centre O and radius r, a line is drawn cutting
the circle at A and B. Prove that (PA) (PB) = (PO)2 – r2, as shown in Figure 6. 88
6 Two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect when produced at a point P outside
the circle and PT is tangent from P to the circle.
Prove that (PA) (PB) = (PC) (PD) = (PT)2.
P
D
C B
A T
Figure 6.89
7 A chord of a circle of radius 6 cm is 8 cm long. Find the distance of the chord
from the centre.
8 M N is a diameter and Q R is a chord of a circle, such that MN ⊥ QR at L (as
shown in Figure 6.90). Prove that (QL)2 = (ML).(LN).
M C
6
Q R B
L 2
A
D
13
E
N

9 Secants CA and CE intersect a circle at A, B, D and E as shown in Figure 6.91. If
the lengths of the segments are as shown, find the length of CD .

10 AOB, COD are two straight lines such that AB = 20 cm, CD = 19 cm, AO = 6 cm,
CO = 7 cm. Prove that ACBD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
11 ABXY is a parallelogram of area 18 cm2, AB = 6 cm, AY = 4 cm and C is a point
on YX or extended such that BC = 5 cm. Find:
a the area of ∆ ABC b the distance from B to AY .
c the distance from A to CB
268
Unit
The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt are among the

best known pieces of architecture in the world.
The Pyramid of Khafre was built as the final
resting place of the Pharaoh Khafre and is about
MEASUREMENT 136 m high.
Unit Outcomes:
solve problems involving surface area and volume of solid figures.
know basic facts about frustums of cones and pyramids.
Main Contents
7.1 Revision on Surface Areas and Volumes of Prisms and Cylinders
7.2 Pyramids, Cones and Spheres
7.3 Frustums of Pyramids and Cones
7.4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Composite Solids
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
INTRODUCTION
Recall that geometrical figures that have three dimensions (length, width and height) are
called solid figures. For example, cubes, prisms, cylinders, cones and pyramids are
three dimensional solid figures. In your lower grades, you have learnt how to find the
surface areas and volumes of solid figures like cylinders and prisms. In this unit, you
will learn more about surface areas and volumes of other solid figures. You will also
study about surface areas and volumes of composed solids and frustums of pyramids
and cones.
OPENING PROBLEM
Ato Nigatu decided to build a garage and began by calculating the number of bricks
required. The floor of the garage is rectangular with lengths 6 m and 4 m. The height of
the building is 4 m. Each brick used to construct the building measures 22 cm by 10 cm
by 7 cm.
a How many bricks might be needed to construct the garage?
b Find the area of each side of the building.
c What more information do you need to find the exact number of bricks
required?
7.1 REVISION ON SURFACE AREAS AND

VOLUMES OF PRISMS AND CYLINDERS
There are many things around us which are either prismatic or cylindrical in shape. In
this sub-unit, you will closely look at the geometric solids called prisms and cylinders
and their surface areas and volumes.
Let E1 and E2 be two parallel planes, ℓ a line intersecting both planes, and R be a region
in E1. For each point P of R, let P ' be the point in E2 such that PP ' is parallel to ℓ.
The union of all points P ' is a region ℓ ℓ

R ' in E2 corresponding to the region R' P'′ E
P'P EE222
EEE22E2
2
R in E1. The union of all the
segments PP ' is called a solid
P R E1
region D. This solid region is R E1
known as a cylinder. See Figure 7.2

Figure 7.1
270
Unit 7 Measurement
ℓ
Some important terms
For the cylinder D, the region R is called its lower base R' E2
or simply base and R' is its upper base.
The line ℓ is called its directrix and the perpendicular D
distance between E1 and E2 is the altitude of D. If ℓ is

R E1
perpendicular to E1, then D is called a right cylinder,
otherwise it is an oblique cylinder. If R is a circular
region, then D is called a circular cylinder. Figure 7.2
Directrix ℓ
Upper base
ℓ ℓ
Lower base
a b c
Oblique cylinder Right cylinder Right circular cylinder
Figure 7.3
Let C be the bounding curve of the base region R.

P'
The union of all the elements PP ' for which P Lateral
belongs to C is called the lateral surface of the surface
cylinder. The total surface is the union of the Total surface
lateral surface and the bases of the cylinder.

P C
Figure 7.4
There are other familiar solid figures that are special cylinders. Look again at the solid
figure D described above in Figure 7.2.
Definition 1.1
If R is a polygonal region, then D is called a prism.
If R is a parallelogram region, then D is a parallelepiped.
If R is a triangular region, then D is a triangular prism.
If R is a square region, then D is a square prism.
A cube is a square right prism whose altitude is equal to the length of the edge
of the base.
271
Note: Edges of upper base
In the prism shown in Figure 7.5, B

A C
1 AB , BC , CD , DE , EA are edges of
the upper base. E D
A ' B ', B ' C ', C ' D ', D ' E ', E ' A ' are
edges of the lower base. Lateral edge Lateral
2 AA ', BB ', CC ', DD ', EE ' are called B' face
lateral edges of the prism. A' C'
3 The parallelogram regions ABB'A', E' D'
BCC ' B ', AEE ' A ', DCC ' D ', EDD ' E
Edge of the
Edges base
lower base
are called lateral faces of the prism.
Figure 7.5
4 The union of the lateral faces of a
prism is called its lateral surface.
5 The union of its lateral faces and its two bases is called its total surface or simply
its surface.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1 How many edges does the base of the prism shown in Figure 7.5
have? Name them.
2 Identify each of the solids in Figure 7.6, as prism, cylinder, triangular prism, right
prism, parallelepiped, rectangular parallelepiped and cube.
a b c d
e f g
Figure 7.6
3 Are the lateral edges of a prism equal and parallel?
272
Unit 7 Measurement
4 Using Figure 7.7, complete the following blank

B
spaces to make true statements: C
A P'
a The figure is called a ______.
D
b The region ABCD is called a __________.
c AE and CG are called ______.
d The region AEHD is called a ______ .
e ______ is the altitude of the prism. F
G
f If ABCD were a parallelogram, the prism E P
would be called a ______. H
Figure 7.7
g If AE were perpendicular to the plane of
the quadrilateral EFGH, then the prism would be called ______.
5 Consider a rectangular prism with dimensions of its bases l and w and height h.
Determine:
a the base area b lateral surface area c total surface area
If we denote the lateral surface area of a prism by AL, the area of the base by AB, altitude
h and the total surface area by AT, then
AL = Ph; where P is the perimeter of the base and h is the height of the prism.
AT = 2AB + AL
Example 1 Find the lateral surface area of each of the following right prisms.
5
6 cm 5
4
5 cm 3 cm
10
3 cm 5 cm
a b
Figure 7.8
Solution:
a AL = Ph = (3 + 5 + 3 + 5) cm × 6 cm = 16 cm × 6 cm = 96 cm2
b AL = Ph = (5 + 5 + 4) × 10 = 14 × 10 = 140 units2
Similarly, the lateral surface area (AL) of a right circular cylinder is equal to the product
of the circumference of the base and altitude (h) of the cylinder. That is,
AL = 2π rh, where r is the radius of the base of the cylinder.
273
The total surface area AT is equal to the sum of the

areas of the bases and the lateral surface area. That is,
AT = AL + 2AB h
AT = 2π r h + 2π r2 = 2π r (h + r)
r
Figure 7.9
Example 2 The total surface area of a circular cylinder is 12π cm2 and the altitude is
1cm. Find the radius of the base.
Solution: AT = 2π r (h + r) ⇒ 12π = 2π r (1 + r) ⇒ 6 = r + r2
r2 + r – 6 = 0 ⇒ (r + 3) (r – 2) = 0 ⇒ r + 3 = 0 or r – 2 = 0
⇒ r = –3 or r = 2.
Therefore, the radius of the base is 2 cm. (why?)
The measurement of space completely enclosed by the bounding surface of a solid is
called its volume.
The volume (V) of any prism equals the product of its base
area (AB) and altitude (h). That is,
V = ABh h
AB
Figure 7.10
Example 3 Find the total surface area and volume of the following prism.
6
7
1 6
14
Figure 7.11
6 8
Solution: Taking the base of the prism to be, as shown 4
shaded in the following figure, we have: 7 6
10
1
1  14
AB = (7 × 14) –  × 8 × 6  Figure 7.12
2 
= 98 – 24 = 74 units2
AL = Ph = (7 + 6 + 10 + 14 + 1) × 6
= 38 × 6 = 228 units2
AT = AL + 2AB = 228 + 2 × 74 = 376 units2
V = AB h = 74 × 6 = 444 units3
274
Unit 7 Measurement
Volume of a right circular cylinder r

The volume (V) of a circular cylinder is equal to the product of
the base area (AB) and its altitude (h). That is, h
V = ABh
V = πr2 h, where r is the radius of the base.
Figure 7.13
Example 4 Find the volume of the cylinder whose base circumference is 12π cm
and whose lateral area is 288 π cm2.
Solution: C = 2π r ⇒ 12π = 2π r ⇒ r = 6 cm
AL = 2π r h
288π cm2 = 2π × 6 cm × h ⇒ 288π cm2 = 12π cm × h ⇒ h = 24 cm
Therefore, V = π r2 h = π (6 cm)2 × 24 cm = 36π cm2 × 24 cm = 864π cm3
Exercise 7.1
1 The altitude of a rectangular prism is 4 units and the width and length of its base
are 3 units and 2 units respectively. Find:
a the lateral surface area b the total surface area c the volume
2 The altitude of the right pentagonal prism shown in Figure 7.14 is 5 units and the
lengths of the edges of its base are 3, 4, 5, 6 and 4 units. Find the lateral surface
area of the prism.
5
4 6
3 4 5
Figure 7.14
3 A lateral edge of a right prism is 6 cm and the perimeter of its base is 20 cm. Find
the area of its lateral surface.
4 Find the lateral surface area of each of the solid figures given in Figure 7.15.
2 cm
5 cm
10 cm 4 cm
5 cm 10 cm
7 cm
a b
Figure 7.15
275
5 Find the perimeter of the base of a right prism for which the area of the lateral
surface is 180 units2 and the altitude is 4 units.
6 The base of a right prism is an equilateral triangle of length 3 cm and its lateral
surfaces are rectangular regions. If its altitude is 8 cm, then find:
a the total surface area of the prism b the volume of the prism.
7 If the dimensions of a right rectangular prism are 7 cm, 9 cm and 3 cm, then find:
a its total surface area b its volume
c the length of its diagonal.
8 Find the total surface area and the volume of each of the following solid figures:
3 cm
8 cm
6 cm
7 cm
6 cm 5 cm
6 cm
a 2 cm b c
Figure 7.16
9 If the diagonal of a cube is 12 cm, find the area of its lateral surface.
10 The radius of the base of a right circular cylinder is 2 cm and its altitude is 3 cm.
Find:
a the area of its lateral surface b the total surface area
c the volume.
11 Show that the area of the lateral surface of a right circular cylinder whose altitude
is h and whose base has radius r is 2πr h.
12 Imagine a cylindrical container in which the height and the diameter are equal.
Find expressions, in terms of its height, for its
a total surface area b volume.
13 A circular hole of radius 5 cm is drilled through the centre of a right circular
cylinder whose base has radius 6 cm and whose altitude is 8 cm. Find the total
surface area and volume of the resulting solid figure.
276
Unit 7 Measurement
7.2 PYRAMIDS, CONES AND SPHERES

Do you remember what you learnt about pyramids, cones and spheres in your previous
grades? Can you give some examples of pyramids, cones and spheres from real life?
Definition 7.2
A pyramid is a solid figure formed when each vertex of a polygon is joined
to the same point not in the plane of the polygon (See Figure 7.17).
B
B C B
A C A C
A D E D
Triangular pyramid Quadrilateral pyramid Pentagonal pyramid
a b c
Figure 7.17
ACTIVITY 7.2
1 What is a regular pyramid?
2 What is a tetrahedron?
3 Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false:
a The lateral faces of a pyramid are triangular regions.
b The number of triangular faces of a pyramid having same vertex is equal to
the number of edges of the base.
c The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance from the base to the
vertex of the cone.
V
4 Using Figure 7.18, complete the following to make true statements.
a The figure is called a ______.
b The region VED is called a _______.
c The region ABCDEF is called ______.
A B
F P C
d ______ is the altitude of the pyramid.
E D
e VE and VF are called ______. Figure 7.18
277
f Since ABCDEF is a hexagonal region, the pyramid is called a _______.

5 Draw a cone and indicate:
a its slant height b its base c its lateral surface.
The altitude of a pyramid is the length of the perpendicular from the vertex to the plane
containing the base.
The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any of its lateral faces.
Definition 7.3
The solid figure formed by joining all points of a circle to a point not on the
plane of the circle is called a cone.
V
Vertex
V
Slant height
Lateral
face Altitude
Lateral face
Base Base
The figure shown in Figure 7.19 represents a cone. Note that the curved surface is the
lateral surface of the cone.
A right circular cone (see Figure 7.20) is a cone with the foot of its altitude at the
centre of the base. A line segment from the vertex of a cone to any point on the
boundary of the base (circle) is called the slant height.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1 Consider a regular square pyramid with base edge 6 cm and
slant height 5 cm.
a How many lateral faces does it have?
b Find the area of each lateral face.
c Find the lateral surface area.
d Find the total surface area.
2 Try to write the formula for the total surface area of a pyramid or a cone.
278
Unit 7 Measurement
Surface area
The lateral surface area of a regular pyramid is equal to half the product of its slant
height and the perimeter of the base. That is, V
1
AL = Pℓ,
2
where AL denotes the lateral surface area;
P denotes the perimeter of the base; ℓ
ℓ denotes the slant height. D C
AB
The total surface area (AT) of a pyramid is given by
A B
1
AT = AB + AL = AB + Pℓ, Figure 7.21
2
where AB is area of the base.
Example 1 A regular pyramid has a square base whose side is 4 cm long. The lateral
edges are 6 cm each.
a What is its slant height? b What is the lateral surface area?
V
c What is the total surface area?
Solution: Consider Figure 7.22,
6
a ( VE )2 + ( EC )2 = ( VC )2 ℓ
ℓ2 + 22 = 62
D C
ℓ2 = 32
2
O E
ℓ = 4 2 cm 2
A 4 B
Therefore, the slant height is 4 2 cm. Figure 7.22
b There are 4 isosceles triangles.

Therefore,
1 1 
AL = 4 × BC × VE = 4  × 4 × 4 2  = 32 2 cm2
2 2 
1 1
or AL = Pℓ = (4 + 4 + 4 + 4) 4 2 = 8 × 4 2 = 32 2 cm2
2 2
c AT = AL + AB = 32 2 + 4 × 4
= 32 2 + 16 = 16 (2 2 + 1 ) cm2
279
The lateral surface area of a right circular cone is equal to half the product of its slant
height and the circumference of the base. That is,
1 1
AL = Pℓ = (2πr) ℓ = πrℓ;
2 2 h
ℓ
ℓ = h2 + r 2
r
Figure 7.23
where AL denotes the lateral surface area, ℓ represents the slant height, r stands for the
base radius, and h for the altitude.
The total surface area (AT) is equal to the sum of the area of the base and the lateral
surface area. That is,
AT = AL + AB = πrℓ + πr2 = πr (ℓ + r)
Example 2 The altitude of a right circular cone is 8 cm. If the radius of the base is 6 cm,
then find its:
a slant height b lateral surface area c total surface area.
Solution: Consider Figure 7.24
a ℓ= h2 + r 2 = 82 + 62 = 100
8
ℓ = 10 cm ℓ
b AL = π rℓ = π × 6 × 10 = 60π cm2
6
c AT = π r (ℓ + r) = π × 6 (10 + 6) = 6π × 16
Figure 7.24
= 96π cm2
Volume
The volume of any pyramid is equal to one third the product V
of its base area and its altitude. That is,

1
V= AB h, h
3
where V denotes the volume, AB the area of the base and AB
h the altitude. Figure 7.25
280
Unit 7 Measurement
Example 3 Find the volume of the pyramid given in Example 1 above.

Solution: Here, we need to find the altitude of the pyramid as shown below:
( V O )2 + ( OE )2 = ( VE )2 ⇒ h2 + 22 = (4 2 )2
h2 + 4 = 32
h2 = 28 ⇒ h = 2 7 cm
1 1 32
× (4 × 4) × 2 7 =
3
V = AB h = 7 cm
3 3 3
The volume of a circular cone is equal to one-third of the
product of its base area and its altitude. That is,
h ℓ
1 1
V = AB h = π r 2 h
3 3
r
where V denotes the volume, r the radius of the base
and h the altitude. Figure 7.26
Example 4 Find the volume of the right circular cone given in Example 2 above.
1 2 1
Solution: V = π r h = π (6) 2 × 8 = 96π cm 3
3 3
Example 5 Find the lateral surface area, total surface area and the volume of the
following regular pyramid and right circular cone.
V
h
12 cm
8 2 cm
D C
8 cm
E F
10 cm
A 10 cm B
a b
Figure 7.27
Solution:
a To find the lateral surface area, we must find the slant height ℓ.
In ∆VEF, we have,
(VE)2 + (EF)2 = (VF)2 ⇒ 122 + 52 = (VF)2
169 = (VF)2 ⇒ VF = 13 cm
Therefore, the slant height is 13 cm.
281
1 1
Now, AL = Pℓ = (10 + 10 + 10 + 10)13 = 260 cm2
2 2
AT = AL + AB = 260 cm2 + 100 cm2 = 360 cm2
1 1
V = AB h = ×100 ×12 = 400 cm3 .
3 3
b Altitude : h = ℓ2 − r 2 = (8 2) 2 − 82 = 128 − 64 = 64 = 8 cm
AL = πrℓ = π × 8 × 8 2 = 64 2π cm2
AT = πr (ℓ + r) = 8π (8 2 + 8) = 64π ( 2 + 1) cm2
1 2 1 512π
V= π r h = π (8) 2 × 8 = cm3
3 3 3
Surface area and volume of a sphere

The sphere is another solid figure you studied in lower grades.
Definition 7.4
A sphere is a closed surface, all points of which are r
equidistant from a point called the centre.
o
Figure 7.28
The surface area (A) and the volume (V) of a sphere of

radius r are given by
r
A = 4 π r2
4
V = π r3
3
Figure 7.29
Example 6 Find the surface area and volume of a spherical gas balloon with a diameter
of 10 m.
d 10
Solution: We know that d = 2r or r = ∴r= =5m
2 2
A = 4π r2 = 4π (5)2 = 100π m2
4 4 500
V = π r 3 = π (5)3 = π m3
3 3 3
282
Unit 7 Measurement
Exercise 7.2
1 Calculate the volume of each of the following solid figures:
20
6
15
3 5
9
10
a b c
Figure 7.30
2 One edge of a right square pyramid is 6 cm long. If the length of the lateral edge
is 8 cm, then find:
a its total surface area b its volume.
3 The altitude of a right equilateral triangular pyramid is 6 cm. If one edge of the
base is 6 cm, then find:
4 A regular square pyramid has all its edges 7 cm long. Find:
a its total surface area b its volume
5 The altitude and radius of a right circular cone are 12 cm and 5 cm respectively. Find:
6 The volume of a pyramid is 240 cm3. The pyramid has a rectangular base with
sides 6 cm by 4 cm. Find the altitude and lateral surface area of the pyramid if the
pyramid has equal lateral edges.
7 Show that the volume of a regular square pyramid whose lateral faces are
s3 2
equilateral triangles of side length s, is .
6
8 The lateral edge of a regular tetrahedron is 8 cm. Find its altitude.
9 Find the volume of a cone of height 12 cm and slant height 13 cm.
10 Find the volume and surface area of a spherical football with a radius of 10 cm.
11 A glass is in the form of an inverted cone whose base has a diameter of 20 cm. If
0.1 litres of water fills the glass completely, find the depth of water in the glass
 22 
 take π ≈  .
 7
12 A solid metal cylinder with a length of 24 cm and radius 2 cm is melted down to
form a sphere. What is the radius of the sphere?
283
7.3 FRUSTUMS OF PYRAMIDS AND CONES

In the preceding section, you have studied about pyramids and cones. You will now
study the solid figure obtained when a pyramid and a cone are cut by a plane parallel to
the base as shown in Figure 7.31.
Let E be the plane that contains the base and E' be the plane parallel to the base that cuts
the pyramid and cone.
Cross-section
E'
E'
Parallel
plane
E E
a b
Figure 7.31
Definition 7.5
If a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the intersection
of the plane and the pyramid (or the cone) is called a horizontal cross-
section of the pyramid (or the cone).
Let us now examine the relationship between the base and the cross-section.
V
Let ∆ABC be the base of the pyramid lying in
the plane E. Let h be the altitude of the pyramid k
and let ∆A ' B ' C ' be the cross-section at a h
A' C'
D' B'
distance k units from the vertex. E'
Let D and D' be the points at which the

perpendicular from V to E meet E and E ', A
C
respectively. E D
B
We have, Figure 7.32
1 ∆VA'D' ∼ ∆VAD.
This follows from the fact that if a plane intersects each of two parallel planes, it
intersects them in two parallel lines, and an application of the AA similarity
theorem. Hence,
VA ' VD ' k
= =
VA VD h
284
Unit 7 Measurement
2 Similarly, ∆ VD'B' ∼ ∆VDB and hence,

VB ' VD ' k
= =
VB VD h
Then, from 1 and 2 and the SAS similarity theorem, we get,
A ' B ' VA ' k
3 ∆ VA'B' ∼ ∆ VAB. Therefore, = =
AB VA h
By an argument similar to that leading to (3), we have
B 'C ' k A 'C ' k
4 = and =
BC h AC h
Hence, by the SSS similarity theorem,
∆ABC ∼ ∆ A'B'C '
ACTIVITY 7.4
In the pyramid shown in Figure 7.33, ∆ABC is equilateral. A plane
parallel to the base intersects the lateral edges in D, E and F such
1 V
that VE = EB.
3
VF D F
a What is ? E
VC
EF A C
b What is ?
BC
c Compare the areas of ∆VEF and ∆VBC and of B
Figure 7.33
∆DEF and ∆ABC.
Theorem 7.1
In any pyramid, the ratio of the area of a cross-section to the area of the base is
k2
where h is the altitude of the pyramid and k is the distance from the vertex
h2
to the plane of the cross-section.
285
V V
k
B' k
A' Ac C'
B'
D' A' A C'
c
h E' D' h
B B
A Ab C
C
A Ab
E D
D
Ac area( A ' B ' C ' D ') k 2 area( A ' B ' C ' D ' E ') k 2
= = 2 = 2
Ab area( ABCD) h area( ABCD) h
Figure 7.34
Example 1 The area of the base of a pyramid is 90 cm2. The altitude of the pyramid is
12 cm. What is the area of a horizontal cross-section 4 cm from the vertex?
Solution: Let Ac be the area of the cross-section, and Ab the base area.
A k2 A 42
Then, c = 2 ⇒ c = 2
Ab h 90 12
90 × 16
∴ Ac = cm 2 = 10 cm 2
144
Note that similar properties hold true when a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base.
Can you state them?
ACTIVITY 7.5
1 The altitude of a square pyramid is 5 units long and a side of the base
is 4 units long. Find the area of a horizontal cross-section at a
distance 2 units above the base.
2 The area of the base of a pyramid is 64 cm2. The altitude of the pyramid is 8 cm.
What is the area of a cross-section 2 cm from the vertex?
3 The radius of a cross-section of a cone at a distance 5 cm from the base is 2 cm. If
the radius of the base of the cone is 3 cm, find its altitude.
When a prism is cut by a plane parallel to the base, each part of the prism is again a
prism as shown in Figure 7.35a.
a b
Figure 7.35
286
Unit 7 Measurement
However, when a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the part of the pyramid
between the vertex and the horizontal cross-section is again a pyramid whereas the other
part is not a pyramid (as shown in Figure 7.35b).
Frustum of a pyramid
Definition 7.6
A frustum of a pyramid is a part of the pyramid included between the base and
a plane parallel to the base.
The base of the pyramid and the cross-section made by the plane parallel to it are called
the bases of the frustum. The other faces are called lateral faces. The total surface
of a frustum is the sum of the lateral surface and the bases.
The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance between the bases.
Upper base
Altitude Lateral faces
Lower base
Figure 7.36
Note:
i The lateral faces of a frustum of a pyramid are trapeziums.
ii The lateral faces of a frustum of a regular pyramid are congruent isosceles
trapeziums.
iii The slant height of a frustum of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any one
of the lateral faces.
iv The lateral surface area of a frustum of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of
the lateral faces.
Frustum of a cone
Definition 7.7
A frustum of a cone is a part of the cone included between the base and a
horizontal cross-section made by a plane parallel to the base.
287
For a frustum of a cone, the bases are the base of Upper base
the cone and the cross-section parallel to the base.
Lateral face
The lateral surface is the curved surface that
makes up the frustum. The altitude is the Altitude
Slant height
perpendicular distance between the bases.
Lower base
Figure 7.37
The slant height of a frustum of a right circular cone is that part of the slant height of
the cone which is included between the bases.
Can you name some objects we use in real life (at home) that are frustums of cones?
Are a bucket and a glass frustum of cones? Discuss.
Example 2 The lower base of the frustum of a regular pyramid is a square 4 cm long,
the upper base is 3 cm long. If the slant height is 6 cm, find its lateral
surface area.
Solution: As shown in Figure 7.38, each lateral face is a trapezium, the area of
each lateral face is 3
1 1
AL = × h (b1 + b2 ) = × 6(3 + 4) = 21 cm 2
2 2 6
Since the four faces are congruent isosceles trapeziums,
the lateral surface area is 4
AL = 4 × 21 cm = 84 cm
2 2
Figure 7.38
Example 3 The lower base of the frustum of a regular A' B'
pyramid is a square of side s units long. D' s' C' s'
The upper base is s' units long. If the slant
height of the frustum is ℓ, then find the ℓ
A B
lateral surface area.
s
D s C
Figure 7.39
Solution: Figure 7.39 represents the given problem. ABCD is a square s units long.
Similarly A'B'C 'D' is a square s' units long.
Lateral surface area:
AL = area (D'C 'CD) + area (C 'B'BC) + area (A'B'BA) + area (D'A'AD)
1 1 1 1
= ℓ (s + s ') + ℓ (s + s') + ℓ (s + s') + ℓ (s + s')
2 2 2 2
1
AL = ℓ (4s + 4s') = 2ℓ (s + s').
2
Observe that 4s and 4s' are the perimeters of the lower and upper bases, respectively.
In general, we have the following theorem:
288
Unit 7 Measurement
Theorem 7.2
The lateral surface area (AL) of a frustum of a regular pyramid is equal
to half the product of the slant height (ℓ) and the sum of the perimeter
(P) of the lower base and the perimeter (P ') of the upper base. That is,
1
AL = ℓ (P + P ')
2
Group Work 7.1
Consider the following figure.

1 Find the areas of the bases.
2 Find the circumferences of the bases of the frustum, c1 and c2. k2
3 Find lateral surface area of the bigger cone. r2 k1
4 Find lateral surface area of the smaller cone.

5 Find lateral surface area of the frustum. r1
6 Give the volume of the frustum.
Figure 7.40
Example 4 A frustum of height 4 cm is formed from a
right circular cone of height 8 cm and base k
radius 6 cm as shown in Figure 7.41. Calculate 8 cm
the lateral surface area of the frustum. Ac
Solution: Let Ab, Ac and AL stand for area of the base of 4 cm

the cone, area of the cross-section and lateral 6 cm Ab
surface area of the frustum, respectively.
2 Figure 7.41
Area of cross-section  k 
= 
Area of the base h
2
Ac  4 
=   , since k = 8 cm – 4 cm = 4 cm
Ab  8 
Ac 1
= (area of the base = π r = π × 6 = 36π)
2 2
36π 4
1
Ac = × 36π = 9π cm2
4
Ac = π (r') 2, where r' is radius of the cross-section
∴ 9π = π (r')2 ⇒ r' = 3 cm
289
Slant height of the bigger cone is:
ℓ= h2 + r 2 = 82 + 62 = 100 = 10 cm
Slant height of the smaller cone is:
k 2 + ( r ′) = 42 + 32 = 25 = 5 cm
2
ℓ' =
Now the lateral surface area of:
the smaller cone = π r'ℓ' = π (3 cm) × 5 cm = 15π cm2
the bigger cone = π rℓ = π (6 cm) × 10 cm = 60π cm2.

Hence, the area of the lateral surface of the frustum is
AL = 60π cm2 – 15π cm2 = 45π cm2.
The lateral surface (curved surface) of a frustum of a circular cone is a trapezium whose
parallel sides (bases) have lengths equal to the circumference of the bases of the frustum
and whose height is equal to the height of the frustum.
Theorem 7.3
For a frustum of a right circular cone with altitude h and slant height ℓ,
if the circumferences of the bases are c and c', then the lateral surface
area of the frustum is given by
1 1
AL = ℓ (c + c') = ℓ (2π r + 2π r') = ℓπ (r + r')
2 2
Example 5 A frustum formed from a right circular cone has base radii of 8 cm and
12 cm and slant height of 10 cm. Find:
a the area of the curved surface
b the area of the total surface. (Use π ≈ 3.14).
Solution:
a AL = πℓ ( r + r') = π × 10 cm (8 + 12) cm = 10π cm × 20 cm
= 200π cm2 = 200 × 3.14 cm2 = 628 cm2
b Area of bases:
AB = Ac + Ab = π (r') 2 + π r2 = π (8 cm)2 + π (12 cm)2 = 64π cm2 + 144π cm2
= 208π cm2 ≈ 208 × 3.14 cm2 ≈ 653 cm2
Total surface area of the frustum:
AT = AL + AB ≈ 628 cm2 + 653 cm2 = 1281 cm2
290
Unit 7 Measurement
Example 6 The area of the upper and lower bases of a

frustum of a pyramid are 25 cm2 and 36 cm2
respectively. If its altitude is 2 cm, then find k
the altitude of the pyramid.
Solution:
2 2
Ac  k  25 2
k
=  ⇒ =
Ab  h  36 (2 + k )2
5 k
⇒ = ⇒ 6k = 5k + 10 Figure 7.42
6 2+k
∴ k = 10
Therefore, the altitude of the pyramid is 2 cm + 10 cm = 12 cm.
Note that the upper and lower bases of the frustum of a pyramid are similar polygons
and that of a cone are similar circles.
k
h h
A'
h'
Figure 7.43
Let h = the height (altitude)of the complete cone or pyramid.

k = the height of the smaller cone or pyramid.
A = the base area of the bigger cone or pyramid (lower base of the frustum)
A' = the base area of the completing cone or pyramid (upper base of the frustum)
h' = h – k = the height of the frustum of the cone or pyramid.
V = the volume of the bigger cone or pyramid.
V ' = the volume of the smaller cone or pyramid (upper part).
Vf = the volume of the frustum
1 1
V= Ah and V ' = A ' k , consequently the volume (Vf) of the frustum of the
3 3
pyramid is
1 1 1
Vf = V – V ' = Ah – A'k = (Ah – A'k)
3 3 3
291
Using this notion, we shall give the formula for finding the volume of a frustum of a
cone or pyramid as follows:
Vf =
h'
3
(
A + A '+ AA ' )
where A is the lower base area, A' the upper base area and h' is the height of a frustum of
a cone or pyramid.
From this, we can give the formula for finding the volume of a frustum of a cone in
terms of r and r' as follows:
π
Vf = h ' ( r 2 + (r ') 2 + rr ')
3
where r is the radius of the bigger (the lower base of the frustum) cone and r' is the
radius of the smaller cone (upper base of the frustum).
Example 7 A frustum of a regular square pyramid has 2 cm
height 5 cm. The upper base is of side 2 cm 2 cm
and the lower base is of side 6 cm. Find the
5 cm
volume of the frustum.
Solution:
6 cm
Since the upper base and lower base are squares, Figure 7.44
6 cm
A = (6 cm)2 = 36 cm2
A' = (2 cm)2 = 4 cm2
Vf =
h'
3
(
A + A '+ AA ' =) 5
3
( )
36 + 4 + 36 × 4 cm 3
5 5 260
= (40 + 12) cm3 = × 52 cm3 = cm3 .
3 3 3
Exercise 7.3
1 The lower base of a frustum of a regular pyramid is a square of side 6 cm, and the
upper base has side length 3 cm. If the slant height is 8 cm, find:
a its lateral surface area b its total surface area.
2
2 A circular cone with altitude h and base radius r is cut at a heightof the way
3
from the base to form a frustum of a cone. Find the volume of the frustum.
3 The areas of bases of a frustum of a pyramid are 25 cm2 and 49 cm2. If its altitude
is 3 cm, find its volume.
292
Unit 7 Measurement
4 The slant height of a frustum of a cone is 10 cm. If the radii of the bases are 6 cm
and 3 cm, find
a the lateral surface area b the total surface area
c the volume of the frustum.
5 A frustum of a regular square pyramid whose lateral faces are equilateral triangles
of side 10 cm has altitude 5 cm. Calculate the volume of the frustum.
6 The altitude of a pyramid is 10 cm. The base is a square whose sides are each
6 cm long. If a plane parallel to the base cuts the pyramid at a distance of 5 cm
from the vertex, then find the volume of the frustum formed.
7 The bucket shown in Figure 7.45 is in the form of a frustum of right circular cone.
The radii of the bases are 12 cm and 20 cm, and the volume is 6000 cm3. Find its
a height b slant height
Figure 7.45
8 A frustum of height 12 cm is formed from a right circular cone of height 16 cm
and base radius 8 cm. Calculate:
a the lateral surface area of the frustum
b the total surface area of the frustum
c the volume of the frustum.
9 A frustum is formed from a regular pyramid. Let the perimeter of the lower base
be P, the perimeter of the upper base be P ' and the slant height be ℓ. Show that
the lateral surface area of the frustum is
1
AL = ℓ(P + P').
2
10 A frustum of height 5 cm is formed from a right circular cone of height 10 cm and
base radius 4 cm. Calculate:
a the lateral surface area b the volume of the frustum.
11 A frustum of a regular square pyramid has height 2 cm. The lateral faces of the
pyramid are equilateral triangles of side 3 2 cm. Find the volume of the frustum.
293
12 A container is in the shape of an inverted frustum of a right circular cone as

shown in Figure 7.46. It has a circular bottom of radius 20 cm, a circular top of
radius 60 cm and height 40 cm. How many litres of oil could it contain?
60 cm
40 cm
20 cm
Figure 7.46
7.4 SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF

COMPOSED SOLIDS
In the preceding sections, you have learned how to calculate the volume and surface
area of cylinders, prisms, cones, pyramids, spheres and frustums. In this section, you
will study how to find the areas and volumes of solids formed by combining the above
solid figures.
ACTIVITY 7.6
1 Give the formula used for:
a finding the lateral surface area of a
i cylinder ii prism iii cone iv pyramid
v sphere vi frustum of a pyramid vii frustum of a cone
b finding the volume of a
i cylinder ii prism iii cone iv pyramid
v sphere vi frustum of a pyramid vii frustum of a cone
2 If the diameter of a sphere is halved, what effect does this have on its volume and
its surface area?
3 What is the ratio of the volume of a sphere whose radius is r units to the cone
having equal radius and height 2r units?
Consider the following examples.
Example 1 A candle is made in the form of a circular cylinder of radius 4 cm at the
bottom and a right circular cone of altitude 3 cm, as shown in Figure
7.47. If the overall height is 12 cm, find the total surface area and the
volume of the candle.
Solution: Slant height of the cone is ℓ = 32 + 42 = 5 cm

294
Unit 7 Measurement
The total surface area of the candle is the sum of the

lateral surface areas of the cone, the cylinder and the
area of the base of the cylinder. That is,
3 cm
AT = π rℓ + 2π rh + π r2 = π (4) 5 + 2π (4) 9 + π (4)2 3
= 20π + 72π + 16π = 108π cm2

The volume of the candle is the sum of the volumes of 12 cm
the cone and cylinder.
1 2
VT = Vcone + Vcylinder = π r hco + π r 2 hcy
3 4 cm
1
= π (4)2 × 3 + π (4)2 × 9 = 16π + 144π = 160π cm3 Figure 7.47
3
Example 2 Through a right circular cylinder whose base
radius is 10 cm and whose height is 12 cm is
drilled a triangular prism hole whose base has
edges 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm as shown in Figure
7.48. Find the total surface area and volume of
the remaining solid.
Solution: The total surface area is the sum of the lateral
surface areas of the cylinder and prism, and
the base area of the cylinder, minus the base Figure 7.48
area of the prism.
1 
AT = 2π rh + ph + 2π r2 – 2  ab 
2 
1 
= 2π (10) 12 + (3 + 4 + 5) 12 + 2π (10)2 – 2  × 3× 4 
2 
= 240π + 144 + 200π – 12 = (440π + 132) cm2
The volume of the resulting solid is the difference between the volume of the
cylinder and prism.
1 1
VT = Vcy – Vp = πr2 h – abh = π (10)2 × 12 – × 3 × 4 × 12
2 2
= 1200π cm3 – 72 cm3 = 24 (50π – 3) cm3.
Example 3 A cone is contained in a cylinder so that
their base radius and height are the same, as
shown in Figure 7.49. Calculate the volume
of the space inside the cylinder but outside
the cone. Figure 7.49
295
Solution: The required volume is equal to the difference between the volume of the
cylinder and the cone. That is,
1 2
V = Vcy – Vco = π r2h – π r 2 h = π r 2 h.
3 3
2
As r = h, then V = π r 3 .
3
Group Work 7.2
1 A cylindrical tin 8 cm in diameter contains water to a

depth of 4 cm. If a cylindrical wooden rod 4 cm in
diameter and 6 cm long is placed in the tin it floats exactly
half submerged. What is the new depth of water?
2 An open pencil case comprises a cylinder of length 20 cm and radius 2 cm and a
cone of height 4 cm, as shown in Figure 7.50. Calculate the total surface area and
the volume of the pencil case.
4 cm
20 cm
4 cm
Figure 7.50
3 A ball is placed inside a box into which it will fit tightly.
If the radius of the ball is 8 cm, calculate:
i the volume of the ball
ii the volume of the box
Figure 7.51
4 An ice-cream consists of a hemisphere and a cone.
Calculate its volume and total surface area. 6 cm
10 cm
20 cm
30 cm
15 cm
4 cm
Figure 7.52
Figure 7.53
5 A torch 20 cm long is in the form of a right circular cylinder of height 15 cm and
radius 4 cm. Joined to it is a frustum of a cone of radius 6 cm. Find the volume of
the torch.
296
Unit 7 Measurement
Exercise 7.4
1 Find the volume of each of the following.
2 cm
5 cm
3 cm 2 cm
4 cm
8 cm
10 cm
4 cm
a b
Figure 7.54
2 A storage tank is in the form of cylinder with one hemispherical end, the other
being flat. The diameter of the cylinder is 4 m and the overall height of the tank is
9 m. What is the capacity of the tank?
3 An iron ball 5 cm in diameter is placed in a cylindrical tin of diameter 10 cm and
water is poured into the tin until its depth is 6 cm. If the ball is now removed,
how far does the water level drop?
4 From a hemispherical solid of radius 8 cm, a conical part is removed as shown in
Figure 7.55. Find the volume and the total surface area of the resulting solid.
6
4

5 The altitude of a frustum of a right circular cone is 20 cm and the radius of its
base is 6 cm. A cylindrical hole of diameter 4 cm is drilled through the cone with
the centre of the drill following the axis of the cone, leaving a solid as shown in
Figure 7.56. Find the volume and the total surface area of the resulting solid.
6 Figure 7.57 shows a hemispherical shell. Find the volume and total surface area of
the solid. 8 cm
7 A cylindrical piece of wood of radius 8 cm and height 18
cm has a cone of the same radius scooped out of it to a
18 cm
depth of 9 cm. Find the ratio of the volume of the wood
scooped out to the volume of wood which is left. (See
Figure 7.58)
Figure 7.58
297
Key Terms
cone lateral edge regular pyramid
cross–section lateral surface slant height
cylinder prism sphere
frustum pyramid volume
Summary
Prism
AL = Ph
AT = 2Ab + AL
V = Ab h Figure 7.59
Right circular cylinder

AL = 2π rh h
AT = 2πr + 2π rh = 2π r (r + h)
2
V = π r2 h r
Figure 7.60
Regular pyramid V
1
AL = Pℓ
2
h ℓ
1
AT = Ab + Pℓ
2
O
1
V = Ab h Figure 7.61
3 V
Right circular cone

AL = π rℓ
h ℓ
AT = π r2 + π rℓ = π r (r + ℓ)
r
1 O
V = π r 2h
3 Figure 7.62
298
Unit 7 Measurement
Sphere
A = 4 π r2
4 r
V = π r3
3
Frustum of a pyramid
Figure 7.63
1 A′b
AL = ℓ (P + P')
2
1
AT = ℓ (P + P') + Ab + A'b h'
2
V=
1
3
(
h' Ab + A 'b + Ab A 'b ) Ab
Figure 7.64 r'

Frustum of a cone
1
AL = ℓ(2π r + 2π r') = ℓ π (r + r') h’
ℓ
2
1
AT = ℓ(2π r + 2π r') + π r2 + π (r')2 = ℓπ (r + r') +π (r2 + r ' 2 ) r
2
1
V = h' π (r2 + ( r ') 2 + rr') Figure 7.65
3

1 Find the lateral surface area and volume of each of the following figures.
12
5 6
12
5 2
6
12
a b c d
Figure 7.66
2 A lateral edge of a right prism is 6 cm and the perimeter of its base is 36 cm. Find
the area of its lateral surface.
3 The height of a circular cylinder is equal to the radius of its base. Find its total
surface area and its volume, giving your answer in terms of its radius r.
299
4 What is the volume of a stone in an Egyptian pyramid with a square base of side
100 m and a slant height of 50 2 m for each of the triangular faces.
5 Find the total surface area of a regular hexagonal pyramid, given that an edge of
the base is 8 cm and the altitude is 12 cm.
6 Find the area of the lateral surface of a right circular cone whose altitude is 8 cm
and base radius 6 cm.
7 Find the total surface area of a right circular cone whose altitude is h and base radius
is r. (Give the answer in terms of r and h)
8 When a lump of stone is submerged in a rectangular water tank whose base is
25 cm by 50 cm, the level of the water rises by 1 cm. What is the volume of the
stone?
9 A frustum whose upper and lower bases are circular regions of radii 8 cm and
6 cm respectively, is 25 cm deep. (See Figure 7.67). Find its volume.
8
25

10 A cylindrical metal pipe of outer diameter 10 cm is 2 cm thick. What is the
diameter of the hole? Find the volume of the metal if the pipe is 30 cm long.
11 A drinking cup in the shape of frustum of a cone with bottom diameter 4 cm and
top diameter 6 cm, can contain a maximum of 80 cm3 of coffee. Find the height of
the cup.
12 The slant height of a cone is 16 cm and the radius of its base is 4 cm. Find the
area of the lateral surface of the cone and its volume.
13 The radius of the base of a cone is 12 cm and its volume is 720π cm3. Find its
height, slant height, and lateral surface area.
14 If the radius of a sphere is doubled, what effect does this have on its volume and
its surface area?
15 In Figure 7.68, a cone of base radius r and altitude 2r and a hemisphere of radius r
whose base coincides with that of the cone are shown. A is the part of the
hemisphere which lies outside the cone and B is the part of the cone lying outside
the hemisphere. Prove that the volume of A is equal to the volume of B.
300
Table of Trigonometric Functions
Table of Trigonometric Functions

sin cos tan cot sec csc
0°° 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 ..... 1.000 ..... 90°°
1°° 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.29 1.000 57.30 89°°
2°° 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.64 1.001 28.65 88°°
3°° 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.08 1.001 19.11 87°°
4°° 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.30 1.002 14.34 86°°
5°° 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.43 1.004 11.47 85°°
6°° 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.514 1.006 9.567 84°°
7°° 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 8.144 1.008 8.206 83°°
8°° 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.115 1.010 7.185 82°°
9°° 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.314 1.012 6.392 81°°
10°° 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.671 1.015 5.759 80°°
11°° 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.145 1.019 5.241 79°°
12°° 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 4.705 1.022 4.810 78°°
13°° 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.331 1.026 4.445 77°°
14°° 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.011 1.031 4.134 76°°
15°° 0.2588 0.9659 0.2679 3.732 1.035 3.864 75°°
16°° 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 3.487 1.040 3.628 74°°
17°° 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.271 1.046 3.420 73°°
18°° 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.078 1.051 3.236 72°°
19°° 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.904 1.058 3.072 71°°
20°° 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.747 1.064 2.924 70°°
21°° 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.605 1.071 2.790 69°°
22°° 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.475 1.079 2.669 68°°
23°° 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.356 1.086 2.559 67°°
24°° 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 2.246 1.095 2.459 66°°
25°° 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.145 1.103 2.366 65°°
26°° 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.050 1.113 2.281 64°°
27°° 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.963 1.122 2.203 63°°
28°° 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 1.881 1.133 2.130 62°°
29°° 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 1.804 1.143 2.063 61°°
30°° 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.732 1.155 2.000 60°°
31°° 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.664 1.167 1.942 59°°
32°° 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 1.600 1.179 1.887 58°°
33°° 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 1.540 1.192 1.836 57°°
34°° 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.483 1.206 1.788 56°°
35°° 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.428 1.221 1.743 55°°
36°° 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.376 1.236 1.701 54°°
37°° 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.327 1.252 1.662 53°°
38°° 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.280 1.269 1.624 52°°
39°° 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 1.235 1.287 1.589 51°°
40°° 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.192 1.305 1.556 50°°
41°° 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.150 1.325 1.524 49°°
42°° 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.111 1.346 1.494 48°°
43°° 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 1.072 1.367 1.466 47°°
44°° 0.6947 0.7193 0.9667 1.036 1.390 1.440 46°°
45°° 0.7071 0.7071 1 .0000 1.000 1.414 1.414 45°°
cos sin cot tan csc sec
301
Table of Common Logarithms

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 0.0128 0.0170 0.0212 0.0253 0.0294 0.0334 0.0374
1.1 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 0.0531 0.0569 0.0607 0.0645 0.0682 0.0719 0.0755
1.2 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 0.0899 0.0934 0.0969 0.1004 0.1038 0.1072 0.1106
1.3 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 0.1239 0.1271 0.1303 0.1335 0.1367 0.1399 0.1430
1.4 0.1461 0.1492 0.1523 0.1553 0.1584 0.1614 0.1644 0.1673 0.1703 0.1732
1.5 0.1761 0.1790 0.1818 0.1847 0.1875 0.1903 0.1931 0.1959 0.1987 0.2014
1.6 0.2041 0.2068 0.2095 0.2122 0.2148 0.2175 0.2201 0.2227 0.2253 0.2279
1.7 0.2304 0.2330 0.2355 0.2380 0.2405 0.2430 0.2455 0.2480 0.2504 0.2529
1.8 0.2553 0.2577 0.2601 0.2625 0.2648 0.2672 0.2695 0.2718 0.2742 0.2765
1.9 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 0.2856 0.2878 0.2900 0.2923 0.2945 0.2967 0.2989
2.0 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 0.3075 0.3096 0.3118 0.3139 0.3160 0.3181 0.3201
2.1 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 0.3284 0.3304 0.3324 0.3345 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404
2.2 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 0.3483 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3560 0.3579 0.3598
2.3 0.3617 0.3636 0.3655 0.3674 0.3692 0.3711 0.3729 0.3747 0.3766 0.3784
2.4 0.3802 0.3820 0.3838 0.3856 0.3874 0.3892 0.3909 0.3927 0.3945 0.3962
2.5 0.3979 0.3997 0.4014 0.4031 0.4048 0.4065 0.4082 0.4099 0.4116 0.4133
2.6 0.4150 0.4166 0.4183 0.4200 0.4216 0.4232 0.4249 0.4265 0.4281 0.4298
2.7 0.4314 0.4330 0.4346 0.4362 0.4378 0.4393 0.4409 0.4425 0.4440 0.4456
2.8 0.4472 0.4487 0.4502 0.4518 0.4533 0.4548 0.4564 0.4579 0.4594 0.4609
2.9 0.4624 0.4639 0.4654 0.4669 0.4683 0.4698 0.4713 0.4728 0.4742 0.4757
3.0 0.4771 0.4786 0.4800 0.4814 0.4829 0.4843 0.4857 0.4871 0.4886 0.4900
3.1 0.4914 0.4928 0.4942 0.4955 0.4969 0.4983 0.4997 0.5011 0.5024 0.5038
3.2 0.5051 0.5065 0.5079 0.5092 0.5105 0.5119 0.5132 0.5145 0.5159 0.5172
3.3 0.5185 0.5198 0.5211 0.5224 0.5237 0.5250 0.5263 0.5276 0.5289 0.5302
3.4 0.5315 0.5328 0.5340 0.5353 0.5366 0.5378 0.5391 0.5403 0.5416 0.5428
3.5 0.5441 0.5453 0.5465 0.5478 0.5490 0.5502 0.5514 0.5527 0.5539 0.5551
3.6 0.5563 0.5575 0.5587 0.5599 0.5611 0.5623 0.5635 0.5647 0.5658 0.5670
3.7 0.5682 0.5694 0.5705 0.5717 0.5729 0.5740 0.5752 0.5763 0.5775 0.5786
3.8 0.5798 0.5809 0.5821 0.5832 0.5843 0.5855 0.5866 0.5877 0.5888 0.5899
3.9 0.5911 0.5922 0.5933 0.5944 0.5955 0.5966 0.5977 0.5988 0.5999 0.6010
4.0 0.6021 0.6031 0.6042 0.6053 0.6064 0.6075 0.6085 0.6096 0.6107 0.6117
4.1 0.6128 0.6138 0.6149 0.6160 0.6170 0.6180 0.6191 0.6201 0.6212 0.6222
4.2 0.6232 0.6243 0.6253 0.6263 0.6274 0.6284 0.6294 0.6304 0.6314 0.6325
4.3 0.6335 0.6345 0.6355 0.6365 0.6375 0.6385 0.6395 0.6405 0.6415 0.6425
4.4 0.6435 0.6444 0.6454 0.6464 0.6474 0.6484 0.6493 0.6503 0.6513 0.6522
4.5 0.6532 0.6542 0.6551 0.6561 0.6571 0.6580 0.6590 0.6599 0.6609 0.6618
4.6 0.6628 0.6637 0.6646 0.6656 0.6665 0.6675 0.6684 0.6693 0.6702 0.6712
4.7 0.6721 0.6730 0.6739 0.6749 0.6758 0.6767 0.6776 0.6785 0.6794 0.6803
4.8 0.6812 0.6821 0.6830 0.6839 0.6848 0.6857 0.6866 0.6875 0.6884 0.6893
4.9 0.6902 0.6911 0.6920 0.6928 0.6937 0.6946 0.6955 0.6964 0.6972 0.6981
5.0 0.6990 0.6998 0.7007 0.7016 0.7024 0.7033 0.7042 0.7050 0.7059 0.7067
5.1 0.7076 0.7084 0.7093 0.7101 0.7110 0.7118 0.7126 0.7135 0.7143 0.7152
5.2 0.7160 0.7168 0.7177 0.7185 0.7193 0.7202 0.7210 0.7218 0.7226 0.7235
5.3 0.7243 0.7251 0.7259 0.7267 0.7275 0.7284 0.7292 0.7300 0.7308 0.7316
5.4 0.7324 0.7332 0.7340 0.7348 0.7356 0.7364 0.7372 0.7380 0.7388 0.7396
302
Table of Common Logarithms
5.5 0.7404 0.7412 0.7419 0.7427 0.7435 0.7443 0.7451 0.7459 0.7466 0.7474
5.6 0.7482 0.7490 0.7497 0.7505 0.7513 0.7520 0.7528 0.7536 0.7543 0.7551
5.7 0.7559 0.7566 0.7574 0.7582 0.7589 0.7597 0.7604 0.7612 0.7619 0.7627
5.8 0.7634 0.7642 0.7649 0.7657 0.7664 0.7672 0.7679 0.7686 0.7694 0.7701
5.9 0.7709 0.7716 0.7723 0.7731 0.7738 0.7745 0.7752 0.7760 0.7767 0.7774
6.0 0.7782 0.7789 0.7796 0.7803 0.7810 0.7818 0.7825 0.7832 0.7839 0.7846
6.1 0.7853 0.7860 0.7868 0.7875 0.7882 0.7889 0.7896 0.7903 0.7910 0.7917
6.2 0.7924 0.7931 0.7938 0.7945 0.7952 0.7959 0.7966 0.7973 0.7980 0.7987
6.3 0.7993 0.8000 0.8007 0.8014 0.8021 0.8028 0.8035 0.8041 0.8048 0.8055
6.4 0.8062 0.8069 0.8075 0.8082 0.8089 0.8096 0.8102 0.8109 0.8116 0.8122
6.5 0.8129 0.8136 0.8142 0.8149 0.8156 0.8162 0.8169 0.8176 0.8182 0.8189
6.6 0.8195 0.8202 0.8209 0.8215 0.8222 0.8228 0.8235 0.8241 0.8248 0.8254
6.7 0.8261 0.8267 0.8274 0.8280 0.8287 0.8293 0.8299 0.8306 0.8312 0.8319
6.8 0.8325 0.8331 0.8338 0.8344 0.8351 0.8357 0.8363 0.8370 0.8376 0.8382
6.9 0.8388 0.8395 0.8401 0.8407 0.8414 0.8420 0.8426 0.8432 0.8439 0.8445
7.0 0.8451 0.8457 0.8463 0.8470 0.8476 0.8482 0.8488 0.8494 0.8500 0.8506
7.1 0.8513 0.8519 0.8525 0.8531 0.8537 0.8543 0.8549 0.8555 0.8561 0.8567
7.2 0.8573 0.8579 0.8585 0.8591 0.8597 0.8603 0.8609 0.8615 0.8621 0.8627
7.3 0.8633 0.8639 0.8645 0.8651 0.8657 0.8663 0.8669 0.8675 0.8681 0.8686
7.4 0.8692 0.8698 0.8704 0.8710 0.8716 0.8722 0.8727 0.8733 0.8739 0.8745
7.5 0.8751 0.8756 0.8762 0.8768 0.8774 0.8779 0.8785 0.8791 0.8797 0.8802
7.6 0.8808 0.8814 0.8820 0.8825 0.8831 0.8837 0.8842 0.8848 0.8854 0.8859
7.7 0.8865 0.8871 0.8876 0.8882 0.8887 0.8893 0.8899 0.8904 0.8910 0.8915
7.8 0.8921 0.8927 0.8932 0.8938 0.8943 0.8949 0.8954 0.8960 0.8965 0.8971
7.9 0.8976 0.8982 0.8987 0.8993 0.8998 0.9004 0.9009 0.9015 0.9020 0.9025
8.0 0.9031 0.9036 0.9042 0.9047 0.9053 0.9058 0.9063 0.9069 0.9074 0.9079
8.1 0.9085 0.9090 0.9096 0.9101 0.9106 0.9112 0.9117 0.9122 0.9128 0.9133
8.2 0.9138 0.9143 0.9149 0.9154 0.9159 0.9165 0.9170 0.9175 0.9180 0.9186
8.3 0.9191 0.9196 0.9201 0.9206 0.9212 0.9217 0.9222 0.9227 0.9232 0.9238
8.4 0.9243 0.9248 0.9253 0.9258 0.9263 0.9269 0.9274 0.9279 0.9284 0.9289
8.5 0.9294 0.9299 0.9304 0.9309 0.9315 0.9320 0.9325 0.9330 0.9335 0.9340
8.6 0.9345 0.9350 0.9355 0.9360 0.9365 0.9370 0.9375 0.9380 0.9385 0.9390
8.7 0.9395 0.9400 0.9405 0.9410 0.9415 0.9420 0.9425 0.9430 0.9435 0.9440
8.8 0.9445 0.9450 0.9455 0.9460 0.9465 0.9469 0.9474 0.9479 0.9484 0.9489
8.9 0.9494 0.9499 0.9504 0.9509 0.9513 0.9518 0.9523 0.9528 0.9533 0.9538
9.0 0.9542 0.9547 0.9552 0.9557 0.9562 0.9566 0.9571 0.9576 0.9581 0.9586
9.1 0.9590 0.9595 0.9600 0.9605 0.9609 0.9614 0.9619 0.9624 0.9628 0.9633
9.2 0.9638 0.9643 0.9647 0.9652 0.9657 0.9661 0.9666 0.9671 0.9675 0.9680
9.3 0.9685 0.9689 0.9694 0.9699 0.9703 0.9708 0.9713 0.9717 0.9722 0.9727
9.4 0.9731 0.9736 0.9741 0.9745 0.9750 0.9754 0.9759 0.9763 0.9768 0.9773
9.5 0.9777 0.9782 0.9786 0.9791 0.9795 0.9800 0.9805 0.9809 0.9814 0.9818
9.6 0.9823 0.9827 0.9832 0.9836 0.9841 0.9845 0.9850 0.9854 0.9859 0.9863
9.7 0.9868 0.9872 0.9877 0.9881 0.9886 0.9890 0.9894 0.9899 0.9903 0.9908
9.8 0.9912 0.9917 0.9921 0.9926 0.9930 0.9934 0.9939 0.9943 0.9948 0.9952
9.9 0.9956 0.9961 0.9965 0.9969 0.9974 0.9978 0.9983 0.9987 0.9991 0.9996
303

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C.K. Bansal (B.Sc., M.A.)

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

© 2010 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education.

PHOTO CREDIT: p.1-AA City Government Design and Construction Bureau.

Developed and Printed by

STAR EDUCATIONAL BOOKS DISTRIBUTORS Pvt. Ltd.

Unit 1 Polynomial Functions ............................. 1

Unit 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . 53

-4 2.5 Applications of exponential and logarithmic

Unit 3 Solving Inequalities .............................. 111

Unit 4 Coordinate Geometry ........................... 143

Unit 5 Trigonometric Functions ...................... 171

Unit 6 Plane Geometry ................................... 225

Unit 7 Measurement ....................................... 269

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL

a f (x) = 1 – x2 b h (x) = 2 x−1

1.1.1 Definition of a Polynomial Function

Note that in the definition of a polynomial function

g ( x) = ( x + 1) = x + 1 , so it is not a polynomial function because it

A polynomial expression in x is an expression of the form

c what is the leading coefficient? d what is the constant term?

Consider the functions f ( x) =

g f (x) = 312x6 h f (x) = 3x2 − x3 + 2

1.1.2 Operations on Polynomial Functions

Addition of polynomial functions

= 2x5 + (3x4 + x4) + (_2 2 x3 + 2 x3 ) + x 2 + (x + 6x) + ( − 5 + 8)

= 2x5 + (3 + 1)x4 + (–2 2 + 2 )x3 + x2 + (1 + 6) x + (8 – 5)

Subtraction of polynomial functions

b f (x) – g (x) = (x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1) – (x3 + 2x2 + 6x – 9 )

Multiplication of polynomial functions

b f (x).g (x) = (x2 + 2x).(x5 + 4x2 – 2)

2x2 + 8x + 5 in the same column.

5x5 + 0x4 –10x3 + 15x2 – 40x + 5 . . . . .(multiplying by 5)

Division of polynomial functions

So, dividing 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 by x – 2 gives a quotient of 2x2 + x + 6 and a

Example 10 Find the quotient and remainder when

Group Work 1.1

2 Let f and g be polynomial functions such that f (x) = x2 – 5x + 6 and g (x) = x2 – x + 3.

1.2 THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS

dividend quotient remainder

This implies that x2 + 3x + 7 = (x + 1) (x + 2) + 5 which illustrates the theorem called

Theorem 1.1 Polynomial division theorem

f(x) = d(x) q(x) + r(x)

ii The uniqueness of q (x) and r (x )

1.2.2 Remainder Theorem

Theorem 1.2 Remainder theorem

1.2.3 Factor Theorem

Theorem 1.3 Factor theorem

Try to develop a proof of this theorem using the remainder theorem.

Group Work 1.2

Hint: You have to prove that

Example 4 Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6. Use the factor theorem to determine

b f (–2) = (–2)3 + 2 (–2)2 – 5 (–2) – 6 = –8 + 8 + 10 – 6 = 4 ≠ 0.

Hence x – 2 is a factor of f (x).

a g (x) = x +1; f (x) = x15 +1

1.3 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

Note that if x – c is a factor of f (x), then c is a zero of f (x).

c Factorising the left side, we have

1.3.1 Zeros and Their Multiplicities