Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Blvd., Ermita, Manila

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Name of Student: Rondilla, Angel B.

ID No.: 15-205-106
Subject Description: Technical Elective 4 (Bridge Engineering)
Subject Code: TE 53

Written Report: Girder Bridges

1.1 Definition

Girder bridges are the simplest and most inexpensive structural form of bridges, it is a solid structure
comprised of a horizontal beam, being supported at each end by piers that endure the weight of the bridge and
the vehicular traffic. It is classified as a simple kind of bridge for no moments are transferred throughout its
support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported— and can also be fixed, cantilever, and
continuous.

Girder bridges can be also called as “beam bridges” in reference to bridge design. However, some define
the two slightly different. By means of their root definitions, beams are defined as one of the most commonly
designed elements of structure typically intended to carry distributed loads such as parallel walls or tributary
areas of the floor and roof systems. And a beam which supports other beams is commonly called a girder. Thus,
girders are beams, but all beams are not necessarily girders.

Link of attached video:

STRUCTURE-TECH: Why girders are made i shaped | Girder Bridge | Bridge Engineering | Lec - 02
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahmGi0ouopE&t=109s

1.2 History

Girder bridge is the simplest and oldest bridge type. The first of this kind has been constructed by human
beings since the ancient times, with the initial design being extremely simple consisting of a tree placed across
a stream or a river.

Herodotus, historian from the ancient Greece, was the first to leave the written document about the bridge
in 484 BC. Bridge he wrote about had been built across the Euphrates River in 8th century BC and was made
from wood and stone.

Ancient Romans are famous for their arch bridges made of stone and concrete but they also begun with
simpler bridge types. The earliest known ancient Roman beam bridge was built across the Tiber River in 7th
century BC and was known as “Pons Sublicius” which literally means “bridge made of wooden beams.”

And with the advancement of civilization, more useful methods were discovered in bridge building that
were based on the utilization of rock, stone, mortar, and other construction materials to build bridges that were
stronger and longer. The Romans were also the first to use cofferdams to construct columns. They would drive
a circular construction, made of wood and lined with clay, into the riverbed and empty it of water with a pump.
That would leave the place to pour the concrete in and would also serve as a mold. These techniques for bridge
building built bridges strong and of a uniform strength.

1.3. Bridge Structural Components

1.3.1. Superstructure

Superstructure is the primary structural element. The portion of the bridge that supports the deck and
connects one substructure element to another.
Girders—A longitudinal bridge element that supports the deck slab carrying external loads and
transmits the load to a substructure element such as bearings or abutment/pier cap or cross beam
Deck—Provides a riding surface and transfers external loads to stringers or girders
Stringers—A similar longitudinal element that transmits loads to another superstructure element
(such as a floor beam) and is typically a part of a more elaborate bridge type such as a truss or a
cable-supported system (not always present)
Floor beams—Transfer load from stringers to girders (not always present)

Stringer, Girder, Floor Beam

Deck, Girder

1.3.2. Secondary Structural Elements

Secondary structural elements are the portions of the bridge that support the superstructure and distributes
all bridge loads to below-ground bridge footings.
Diaphragms—Provide stability to girders during construction (often eliminated due to their initial cost)
Barriers and railings—Serve as a traffic safety element and confine external loads to the designated
riding surface
Bearings—Transfer loads to substructure elements while providing for necessary superstructure
rotation and translation
Joints—Allow movements of superstructure segments to thermal, shrinkage, and seismic demands
(use sparingly to reduce maintenance cost)

Diaphragm
 Barriers & Railings

Bearings

Joints

1.3.3. Substructure

Substructure is the portion of the bridge that supports the superstructure and distributes all bridge loads to
below-ground bridge footings.
Abutments, wingwalls, and approach slabs—Connect the bridge structure to the roadway
embankment
Pier caps and cross-beams—Transfer loads to columns or piles
Piers, bents, and columns—Transfer loads to foundation interface elements
Footing and pile cap—Transfer loads to soil/rock strata or other foundation elements
Piles, shafts, and caissons—Transfer loads to final soil/rock strata via bearing, friction, or both
1.4. Types / Variations

1.4.1. Rolled Steel Girder Bridges

This is the simplest type steel bridge having rolled steel joist as the girder and steel trough plate filled
with concrete or reinforced concrete slab as the bridge deck. It is built using I-beams made from prefabricated
steel. These bridges have very small spans and are constructed over canals or small channels where scour is
negligible and shallow foundations are possible to reduce foundation cost. Since the load carrying capacity of
these bridges is limited, these bridges are suitable for village roads where both the laden weight and frequency
of the vehicular traffic are less.

1.4.2. Box Girder Bridges

A box girder bridge is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of a hollow box.
It composes either prestressed concrete, structural steel, or a composite of steel and reinforced concrete. The
box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. Box girder bridges are commonly used for highway
flyovers and for modern elevated structures of light rail transport.

Advantages:
 Box girders offer better resistance to torsion, which is particularly of benefit if the bridge deck is curved
in plane.
 Allows longer spans.

Disadvantages:
 Box girders are more expensive to fabricate.
 More difficult to maintain, because of the need for access to a confined space inside the box.
1.4.3. Plate Girder Bridges

The plate girder bridges are typically I-beams made up from separate structural steel plates (rather
than rolled as a single cross-section), which are welded or, in older bridges, bolted or riveted together to form
the vertical web and horizontal flanges of the beam. In some cases, the plate girders may be formed in a
Z-shape rather than I-shape. These are suitable for short to medium spans and may
support railroads, highways, or other traffic.

1.4.3. Concrete Girder Bridges

Concrete girder bridges are constructed using concrete I-beam girders that can be made from various
kinds of reinforced concrete, including pre-stressed concrete and post-tensioned concrete.

1.5. Advantages

1. It does not take long to build a girder bridge. Since most beam bridges today are a combination of steel and
reinforced concrete, a building project does not take long to complete. Shorter spans for heavy transportation
needs can go up in about 6 months. If you need to have a continuous span available immediately, then this is
the design to use.
2. No moments are transferred with the girder bridge design.
3. Beam bridges are useful in almost any location. You might find that some beam bridges work better than
others because of their placement location, this design is useful in a variety of situations. It is the most common
bridge used along highway networks because it can quickly and effectively provide enough support while
offering room for traffic to flow beneath. You can find them in use with railroads, cycling trails, and more.
4. You can use multiple types of material to build a girder bridge. Most bridges that incorporate the beam
design tend to use steel and reinforced concrete because it is an inexpensive combination. Some of the
elements of the bridge can be made on-site, while pre-made components can be shipped to the construction
location as needed too
5. There are multiple design options available for this bridge. Most beam bridges use a side-by-side beam
design that permits a deck to rest on top of the supports. You would have the piers, then the underneath
supports, and then the deck. This placement works well with its simplicity to create a bridge that works almost
anywhere.
6. The cost of a girder bridge is minimal for most communities. It is one of the most affordable building options
that is available today, thus tends to be why it is the first choice considered by most communities.
1.6. Disadvantages

1. Span limitations exist for girder bridges. You can only cross a specific amount of space when using the
beam bridge design since it requires ongoing pillar support. Although you can use natural materials and this
option has a high resistance to bending forces, you will rarely find a single span of more than 250 feet with this
option. You can go for an unlimited length if you use multiple spans together with thousands of pilings, but that
work may not be feasible in communities that experience severe weather events frequently. If you chain
multiple beams to create a longer span, then you will increase the construction time of the project as well. The
work will still go faster than other design options, but it is an advantage with severe restrictions as you
contemplate a longer length.
2. Girder bridges can sometimes start to sag as they age. The weakness of the beam bridge design is that it
does not offer any weight transfer as traffic crosses on the top of the deck. If it should receive a weight that is
consistent in its placement on a specific area of the bridge, then the support mechanisms can begin to buckle.
The sagging continues to worsen unless maintenance interventions occur.
3. There is little aesthetic value to consider with a girder bridge. The standard beam bridge looks a little like a
table. You have the deck on top, the supports below, and piers that work to support the weight. Many of them
stay low to the surface of the water on an extended span because of the stresses involved in such a placement.
4. You can spend more on maintenance costs with beam bridges when compared to other designs.
5. The width of the deck span is limited with a girder bridge.
6. There are limited placement options available for beam bridges. Most beam bridges cover short spans
because that limits the number of piers, pilings, and supports that are necessary to support the structure. Most
of them will cross small navigable waterways, highways, or natural obstacles

1.7. Construction Sequences

An example of an assumed construction sequence that is typical for precast-prestressed girder

bridges. However, the construction sequence is now modeled as a series of Construction Events. There really
aren't any differences between Stages and Events. Construction Events provide a better model for time-step
analysis and we wanted to keep the concepts consistent.

The assumed construction events are:

1.Construct Girders (formerly Casting Yard Stage)
2.Erect Girders at the Bridge Site
3.Cast Deck (formerly Bridge Site Stage 1)
4.Final condition without live load (formerly Bridge Site Stage 2)
5.Final condition with live load (formerly Bridge Site Stage 3)

Certain construction activities are assumed to take place during each construction event. For example,
the following activities take place:
1.Tension the strand
2.Cast the girder
3.Wait for the concrete to cure
4.Release the prestressing
5.Lift the girder and move it to storage
6.Wait to ship the girder to the bridge site.

Erecting the girders consists of:

1.Ship the girders to the bridge site
2.Erect the girders onto their permanent bearings
3.Remove temporary strands
4.Cast diaphragms

The construction activities generate analysis intervals. The analysis intervals model the intervals of
time over which changes occur. For example, while the girder is in storage, creep and shrinkage are happening.
Boundary conditions change during lifting and shipping so there are new states of stresses to analyze.

Link of attached video:

STRUCTURE-TECH: 3d model bridge | Construction sequence step by step | Girder bridge | Bridge
Engineering | Lec - 03
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nInj6k8v0-s&t=10s
1.8. Top 10 bridges of this type worldwide

Sundøy Bridge

Sundøy Bridge is a box girder bridge, pre-stressed concrete cantilever bridge, in the municipality of
Leirfjord in Nordland county, Norway. The concrete bridge connects the mainland to the village of Sundøy on
the island of Alsta. The 538-metre (1,765 ft) bridge has three spans, with the main span being 298 metres
(978 ft) long. The bridge was opened on 9 August 2003.

Neckar Viaduct

The Neckar Viaduct at Weitingen is a box girder bridge that crosses the River Neckar, near the
village Horb am Neckar. The bridge has an overall length of 900 meters, spans of 234-134-134-134-264 meters
and a height of 125 meters above ground. The width of the building of over amounts to 31.5 meters and
consists of a 6.10 meters high steel hollow box, which is broad 10 meters down. The bridge was handed over to
the public in 1978.

Coronado Bridge

The San Diego-Coronado Bridge (commonly referred to as the Coronado Bridge) is a 2.12-mile bridge
constructed starting in 1967 and opened on August 3, 1969. It is a prestressed concrete/steel girder bridge,
crossing over San Diego Bay in the United States, linking San Diego with Coronado, California. The bridge is
signed as part of State Route 75.
 Cleddau Bridge

Cleddau Bridge, which was originally called the Milford Haven Bridge, spans the river Cleddau
between Neyland and Pembroke Dock. It is a steel box-girder road bridge of 820 meters and was built between
1967 and 1974. The bridge collapsed during construction on 2 June 1970, killing four men. The bridge became
operational during 1975 being managed by Pembrokeshire County Council.

Raftsundet Bridge

The Raftsundet Bridge with a main span of 298m and a total length of 711m, was the longest
pre-stressed concrete cantilevered span in the world when the cantilevers were joined at June 24th 1998. It is a
part of the ferry free mainland connection for the Lofoten islands. The Lofoten islands are located north of the
Arctic Circle in the county of Nordland in Northern Norway.

Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line

The Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line, also known as the Trans-Tokyo Bay Expressway, is an expressway that is
mainly made up of a bridge–tunnel combination across Tokyo Bay in Japan. It is a steel box girder
bridge with orthotropic deck that connects the city of Kawasaki in Kanagawa Prefecture with the city
of Kisarazu in Chiba Prefecture, and forms part of National Route 409. With an overall length of 23.7 km, it
includes a 4.4 km bridge and 9.6 km tunnel underneath the bay—the fourth-longest underwater tunnel in the
world.
 President Costa e Silva Bridge

President Costa e Silva Bridge, commonly known as the Rio–Niterói Bridge, is a box girder
bridge crossing Guanabara Bay, in the State of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. It is currently the longest prestressed
concrete bridge in the southern hemisphere, and the sixth-longest in the world. It is 13.29 kilometres long –
8.84 kilometres over water and the bridge's 300-meter central span is 72 meters high in order to allow the
passage of hundreds of ships entering and leaving the bay every month. From its completion in 1974 until 1985
it was the world's second-longest bridge, second only to the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway.

Storseisundet Bridge

The Storseisundet Bridge is the longest and most iconic of the seven bridges which cross the islands
between the Romsdal peninsular on the mainland of Norway and the island of Averoya. It is a cantilever bridge
that is a massive 260 meters long with a flowing curve that makes it feel as if you are on a roller-coaster. At the
top of the bridge, the Atlantic Ocean is 23 meters below, a rushing maelstrom around the piers supporting the
bridge. Even on calm days, the wind can be felt. The exposed location means that storms sweep through and
buffet the road throughout the year making it popular with those seeking the wildest roads on the planet.

Shibanpo Bridge

The Shibanpo bridge, located in Chongquin, China, is a multi-span in-situ concrete box girder bridge
with an overall length of 1104m and a main span of 330m. It also boasts the longest box girder span in the
world. The central 108m of the main span was designed as a steel box girder to save weight, and was delivered
to site in 3 segments - a 1325 tonne, 103m centre section and two smaller 100 tonne 2.5m long steel transition
pieces that connect it to the concrete deck at either end.
 Lake Pontchartrain Causeway

The world's longest bridge is a continuous span beam bridge called Lake Pontchartrain Causeway.
Almost 24 miles long, it consists of two, two-lane sections that run parallel to one another. The Southbound
Lane, completed in 1956, is made up of 2243 separate spans, while the Northbound Lane, completed in 1969,
is pieced together from 1500 longer spans.

1.9. Top 5 bridges of this type locally

Candaba Viaduct

The Candaba Viaduct is also known as Pulilan–Apalit Bridge. It is a 5-kilometer viaduct, girder
bridge carrying the North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) across the Candaba Swamp in the provinces
of Bulacan and Pampanga, Philippines. Consisting of six lanes (three northbound and three southbound), it is
the longest bridge in the Philippines. Its construction started on 1974 and was opened on 1977.

Cansaga Bay Bridge

A 1.25-kilometer, four-lane offshore bridge over Cansaga Bay in Consolacion town north of Mandaue
City provides a faster link between the sea and airports to Liloan town, Danao City, and other northern towns of
Cebu.
 Patapat Viaduct

Patapat Causeway Bridge is one of the most scenic and most photographed destinations in Ilocos
Norte, in the Philippines. The viaduct is located on the northernmost tip of Luzon Island. The bridge connects
the tip of Ilocos Norte to Cagayan Valley Region. It’s 1.3 km (1,400 yd) long and is elevated 31 m (102 ft) over
the sea level. It's one of the most spectacular bridges in the world.

Agas-Agas Bridge

The Agas-Agas Bridge is a prestressed concrete beam bridge on the Pan-Philippine Highway.
The ₱1.024-billion bridge was funded partially by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. With a length of
about 350 meters and a height of 89 meters above ground, the center span of the structure measures 177
meters in length supported by two piers measuring 73 meters and 75 meters from the ground. The
mountainous Agas-Agas section of the Pan-Philippine Highway in Southern Leyte is prone to landslides during
heavy rains, much more when a typhoon strikes the province. The bridge was constructed in 2006 to avoid the
troublesome section and cut down the driving time for motorists.

San Juanico Bridge

San Juanico Bridge is one of the longest bridges in the Philippines with a length of 2.16 km. It is part of
the Pan-Philippine Highway and stretches from Samar to Leyte across San Juanico Strait. A steel girder
viaduct is its longest length and its main span is of an arch-shaped truss design. It is accessible by passenger
jeepney, motorcab, bus, or private vehicle. The construction was worth $21.9 million, which started on 1969
and completed four years later.