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Chapter
Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)

Serge-Bertrand Adiko and Rifat Radisovich Mingasov
Abstract
The chapter considers the technology of the crude distillation unit in general.
The crude distillation unit is at the front-end of the oil refinery. The desalting
process and distillation of crude oil are included in the crude distillation unit
(CDU). The desalting process of crude oil is imperative to ensure the good quality of
crude oil, that is, to remove impurities before its transfer to refining. This procedure
minimizes or eliminates harmful substances such as sulfur, water, salts, and even
mechanical impurities, which ensures a long operation of pipelines. However, the
desalting process is only part of the distillation unit. The other phase of this unit is as
already mentioned above is: distillation. Distillation is a more physical than a
chemical process. The distillation process is characterised by mass-thermal transfer
of materials, which leads to the obtaining of fractions. The distillation in the crude
distillation unit is carried out consecutively in two ways: atmospheric and vacuum.
In the Russian Federation, we classify oil refining plants in general as follows: fuel,
fuel-oil, fuel-petrochemical, and fuel-oil-petrochemical. Also, regardless of the pro-
file of the refinery, great importance is given to the crude distillation unit. The
crude distillation unit, if well modeled and organized, makes it possible to obtain
already more light products at this stage; therefore, there is a reduction of heavy
residues, the refinement of which requires more expensive processes such as
hydrocracking or catalytic cracking. The oil topping column K-1, within this
framework, has been adopted in several oil refining plants in addition to the main
column commonly referred to as K-2. The principal purpose of column K-1 is the
separation of light gasoline and the major part of dissolved gases from crude oil.
This first step of distillation at K-1 has the effect of normalizing the amount of
gasoline hydrocarbons and stabilizing the operation of the main column K-2 despite
possible fluctuations in the composition of crude oil. Besides, the CDU equipped
with column K-1 demonstrates an increase in some valuable products such as
methane, ethane, naphtha, etc.
Keywords: demulsifiers, crude oil, desalting process, desalter, electrostatic

desalter, sump, separator, crude distillation units, atmospheric distillation units,
vacuum distillation units, K-1 oil topping column, K-2 main atmospheric column
1. Pre-treatment of crude oil
The crude distillation unit is the first phase of oil refining. That’s what we usually
hear. However, if we are very careful, we can notice that oil refining began at the
level of oil wells with its pre-treatment; the first pre-treatment of crude oil. How-
ever, additional pre-treatment is essential before the first separation (fractions our
cups) are obtained. This additional pre-treatment and the manufacturing of these
first fractions are carried out at the crude distillation unit as shown in Figure 1.
1
Analytical Chemistry - Advancement, Perspectives and Applications
Figure 1.
P& ID diagram flow process of crude distillation unit without vacuum distillation. We would like to emphasize
that reboilers were used in this scheme in this way, just for esthetics. Less flow to the reboilers is done differently.
As well, in our humble opinion for a better understanding of this unit, before
getting into the thick of the topic, it is important to make the list of the main devices
that make up it: The desalination plant, furnaces, distillation columns (atmospheric
and under vacuum). Furthermore, in this process, there are also auxiliary equip-
ment that is also very important, such as pumps, valves, heat exchangers, coolers,
automatic process control systems, etc. The Russian Federation, as a major partici-
pant in the world oil industry alongside the United States of America, Saudi Arabia,
Canada, Argentina, and other countries, has developed its own standards incorpo-
rating international standards. In a similar approach, ordinarily, in Russia, they
appoint the distillation unit: Atmospheric-vacuum distillation unit (AVDU). AVDU
is itself subdivided into two other units which are: Atmospheric distillations unit
(ADU) and vacuum distillation unit (VDU). As a result, in this chapter, we tried to
explain the operation of the atmospheric distillation crude, to model it, and to
compare the usual model of the crude distillation unit with the model of the Russian
Federation.
1.1 Introduction
Many crude oils usually contain besides the basic elements of its chemical com-
position hydrocarbons such as sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and mechanical impurities
[1]. Oil also contains the gaseous phase as methane, ethane, and liquid phase. Gas
typically dissolves in the liquid, whereas in the balance’s case remains strong. It is
noticed with the experience that natural gas fields are close to oil fields [2]. In
general, there are four or three oil: aromatic, paraffin, naphthenic. But there is also a
mixed type [1]. The classification of crude oil is carried out for various reasons. The
criteria for classifying crude oil refer more or less to its quality [3]. For a better
understanding of classificatory at the quality (quality/price), the Petroleum world
has adopted a benchmark called stallion as Brent Blend produced in the North Sea,
West Texas Intermediate (WTI) from the USA, Dubai Crude from Dubai... How-
ever, there are other possibilities to classify oil by density, sulfur content, and
viscosity. Crude oil supplied to refineries must meet requirements [4]. The pre-
treatment of oil from harmful impurities occupies an important place among the
main processes associated with the production, collection, and transportation of oil
to refineries or export [5]. The harmful impurities of oil can be divided into two
2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90394
groups: hydrophilic (lipophobic) and hydrophobic (lipophilic). The hydrophobic

impurities are soluble in oil. These hydrophobic impurities are organometallic com-
pounds (metalloporphyrin complexes), organic acids, among which the most
undesirable organochlorine compounds. The Hydrophilic impurities include impu-
rities that are inherently insoluble in oil, these impurities are water and inorganic
salts dissolved in it, as well as solid salts, mechanical impurities (sand, clay),
hydrogen sulphide, etc. These hydrophilic impurities are in another phase (water),
which are dispersed in the oil in the form of drops of water [6, 7]. Therefore, the
degree of pre-treatment oil in production areas is an imperative and significantly
affects the efficiency and reliability of transportation by pipeline, tanker, rail, and
even road transportation [2]. These requirements should facilitate the transporta-
tion and future processing of Petroleum. The requirements are summarized as
follows: water content, the content of mechanical impurities, saturated steam pres-
sure, the content of chloride salts, and organochlorine compounds [5]. Usually, the
degree of pre-treatment of oil for transportation does not consider the content of
chloride salts and the content of organochlorine compounds [8], literally because all
salts are large in water and not in oil [9], in connection with the decision of the
Russian Federation to join the world trade organization (WTO), the requirements
for oil are unified following the requirements for prepared oil according to ASTM
D1250-97 [4] and EN 224 [3]. However, countries such as Russia use the GOST R
51858-2002 standard for oil, established by oil and gas companies for transportation
by oil pipeline [5] for delivery to oil refining plants in the Russian Federation and
export. In Russia, the pipeline transport takes into account the above-mentioned
points [3, 10]: salt content (100–900 mg/l), water content from 0.5 to 1.0% of mass,
impurity content (not over 0.05% of mass).
1.2 Description of the crude oil and demulsifier
1.2.1 Oil emulsion
An emulsion is a suspension of small droplets of a liquid (water) in a second

liquid (oil crude) [11]. The liquids, in a stable emulsion, can only be separated by a
treatment process which calls the desalting process [10]. The electrical conductivity
of oil emulsions in the literature note that it has an ionic nature. A detailed theory of
ionic conductivity of liquid dielectrics. Despite the low dielectric constant, the polar
components of crude oil dissociate into ions and create a fairly significant amount of
electrical conductivity. The reason of this manifestation is asphalt-resinous sub-
stances in oil [12]. Oil emulsion is illustrated in Figure 2.
1.2.2 The demulsifier (surfactant)
The demulsifier is a chemical additive to break the crude oil emulsion. The
emulsifier destroys the emulsion by reducing the mechanical resistance of the
protective shells formed on the surface of the water droplets. By maintaining a strict
hydrophilic-lipophilic balance [6]. These emulsions are destroyed using synthetic
surfactants (demulsifiers) added to the oil emulsion [13]. The criteria for selecting
and evaluating the demulsifier in terms of technology, that is, yield, are as follows
[8, 12, 14]:
• The velocity of separation of water from oil;
• Quality of destruction of emulsions (fullness of water separation);
3
Figure 2.
Oil emulsion.
• Reliability in changing production conditions;
• The demulsifier must have a good quality/price or cost/efficiency ratio.
1.3 Mechanisms and devices of process of dehydration-desalination

(pre-treatment) of oil crude
The process of dewatering of crude oil enters the oil production process. At the
initial production period of a fresh field, wells often produce either anhydrous or low-
water oil. However, over time, the water content of the oil produced increases at
different rates and sometimes reaches 80–90% in old fields [1, 14]. The desalting
(dewatering) processes depend on the type of oils and its content, any of the follow-
ing typical processes of desalting of crude oil are combined a lot of methods like
thermal, chemical, electrical and mechanical Often, a combination of Thermal and
chemical methods with the mechanical or the electrical method is used to achieve
effective Dehydration of crude oil [11]. The chemical treatment presents itself as a
good option. It consists to use a demulsifier. The demulsifier must be introduced as
early as possible (at the bottom of the well). This is an increased contact time and the
interaction capacity of the demulsifier with emulsion for maximum destruction of the
system [15, 16]. The injection of the demulsifying agent before the pump ensures
proper contact with the crude oil and minimizes the formation of an emulsion [15].
The Industrial application of demulsifiers is not based on non-electrolytes, as their
use is associated with excessive consumption or high price, as well as complex
separation from oil after the deposition of the water layer. Preference is given to
colloidal surface-active substances, among which are anionic, cationic, and nonionic
types [13]. The number of steps (one, two or three) during oil desalination is deter-
mined by the characteristics of the initial oil emulsion and the salts contained therein
For the desalination of oil emulsion independently of the stage: At the well or the
refinery, the main types of equipment used for oil dewatering are electrostatics
disasters, sumps, and separators [7], and they are detailed in Figure 3 [7, 17]:
• thermo-chemical dehydrator;
• sump;
• ultrasonic;
• centrifugal;
• electrostatic desalter.
4
Figure 3.
Some examples of devices for crude oil dewatering, degassing, and desalting. (a) Sump. (b) Separator.
(c) Three-phases separator. (d) Hydrodynamic phase separator.
Each of the above-mentioned apparatus has its own peculiarities and its own
derivatives, according to the precise tasks to be accomplished:
• Advanced separators-vertical flow, horizontal unit with advanced electrostatic

oil dehydration capabilities.
• Desalting device-vertical flow, horizontal device with improved capabilities of

electrostatic dehydration and desalting of oil. The process can occur in one or
two stages.
5
• Field separator-electrostatic coagulator, horizontal apparatus of electrostatic

coagulator. It contains the initial section of the chimney of the heating section
for preheating.
• Electromechanical separators-a horizontal device that is characterized by a

combination of electrostatic grids, coalescing blocks, and the initial section of
the chimney heating section for preheating.
The selection criterion of devices, it is recommended to consider the following

parameters when choosing the equipment [8, 12, 18]:
• properties of formation fluid and its quantity;
• stream type;
• the resistance of emulsion;
• pressure into the device;
• temperature regime.
In the separators, they usually separate gas is usually from the oil in two or three
steps under slight pressure or dilution. The separators of the first stage simulta-
neously play the role of buffer reservoirs and are usually located on the deposit. The
separators of the second and third stages are mostly on the territory of central
collection and distribution points (the sites of pre-treatment and pumping of oil)
[7, 17]. The vertical separators are more productive in comparison with horizontal
ones, but also the vertical separators have a higher price. They are suitable for
enterprises with high production capacities, as well as if the emulsion contains
many solid particles [18]. The horizontal separators are the best option for
processing small volumes of material, as well as liquids with a high content of
dissolved gas. They are in the greatest demand, as they are quite productive and
affordable. To achieve maximum efficiency when using horizontal oil and gas
separators, the oil is mixed in the separation process; the temperature is increased,
and the pressure is reduced. To increase the depth and improve the quality of
separation in Russia, introducing hot drainage water before separation with a three-
phase separator is often used. Thus, they use heat, which increases the selection of
gas, intensifies the process of demulsification of oil, improves the quality of spilled
formation water, reduces investments, energy costs of processes, and significantly
improves the conditions of Environmental protection. The three-phase separator
can split oil, gas, and water at once. However, separators have limits. Even with a
three-stage separation, complete separation of gas from oil is not achieved [8].
Besides, it should be noted that, despite the improvement in oil and gas separation
techniques and technologies, field separators remain cumbersome and expensive
devices [19]. Their operation is based on an inefficient gravitational principle and
they are unproductive; the separators cease to function when the oil and gas mix-
ture forms foam. The loss of energy contained in the flow of oil and gas, with a
decrease in the pressure in the degassing in stages, leads to the need to use more
pumping and compressor units for the collection and transportation of oil and gas
through the pipeline [7, 8].
The final processes of dewatering and desalting are carried out at oil refineries
with electrostatic desalter [20]. At the refinery, three types of electrostatic desalter
6
are mainly operated as oil pre-treatment equipment: vertical, horizontal, and ball
electrostatic desalter [1].
1.4 The salts in crude oil
The salts and minerals often present in the oil are mainly magnesium, calcium,
and sodium chlorides with sodium chloride being the abundant type. These salts
cause corrosion of equipment. For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl). Hydrogen
chloride dissolves in the emulsion’s water producing hydrochloric acid, an
extremely corrosive acid. However, NaCl = Na+ + Cl . Water, though slight, but
dissociates into ions, and the equilibrium is established: H2O=H++OH , thus, in the
salt solution, there is a mixture of Na+ cations and OH , Cl anions. Ions in the
solution move randomly and constantly collide with each other [21]. But these
collisions of Na+ and OH ions, H+ and Cl ions do not lead to the formation of
compounds, since NaOH is a strong base, and HCl is a strong acid. Since weak
electrolytes are not formed when sodium chloride is dissolved in water, sodium
chloride is not hydrolyzed. The concentration of H+ ions is equal to the concentra-
tion of OH ions, so the color of the indicators does not change [13, 20]. All
chemical compounds based on chlorine hydrolyze, except for NaCl, hydrolyze at
high temperature to hydrogen chloride:
CaCl2 þ 2H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2 þ 2HCl (1)

MgCl2 þ 2H2 O ! MgðOHÞ2 þ 2HCl (2)
Any remaining salts are neutralized by the injection of sodium hydroxide which
reacts with the calcium and magnesium chloride to produce sodium chloride
because NaCl does not hydrolyze to the corrosive hydrogen chloride.
CaCl2 þ 2NaOH ! CaðOHÞ2 þ 2NaCl (3)
1.5 Description of dewatering of oil emulsions with electrostatic desalter
The electrical conductivity of oil emulsions is due to the ionic conductivity of oil,
the conductivity of dispersed water droplets in oil. Under certain conditions,
droplets of emulsified water in oil form conductive structures in the form of
“chains”, located along the field lines [12, 22]. The electrical conductivity of the
system in such cases increases sharply (hundreds and thousands of times) in com-
parison with the electrical conductivity of anhydrous oil. Electrical Conductivity of
hydrocarbons (oil), the hydrocarbons have three types of conductivity regimes in
general [23]:
• The stable insulating regime, this regime is characterized by very high

resistance. In this state, conduction is related to traces of dissolved water in the
hydrocarbon.
• The semiconductor, this regime is independent of the presence of water in the

hydrocarbon.
• Conductor, relatively stable. The regime, however, it disappears by sufficient

removal or reduction of the applied electric field and reappears when it is
restored to its initial value.
7
1.5.1 Description of electrostatic desalter and its process
The modern desalting units are designed with electric dehydrators only horizontal
execution and are part of the equipment for preparing oil: both atmospheric and
atmospheric-vacuum installations. The horizontal design of electrostatic desalter has
several advantages, such as a large area of the electrodes and, accordingly, a greater
amount of oil per unit of section of the device, a lower vertical speed of the moving
flow of oil, which provides favorable conditions for settling water, as well as
implementing processes with higher pressure and temperature [22, 24]. The dominant
types of electrostatic desalter are shown in Figure 4. The increases of the electrical
conductivity are related to traces of dissolved water in the oil; it has the effect of slowly
eliminating this water, correlative elimination of an indefinite increase in resistivity.
The work and efficiency of the electrostatic desalter are based on the Stokes formula
[25] for the time of deposition of water droplets and the specific electrical conductivity
(γ, Om m 1) is the electrical conductivity of a substance measured between flat
electrodes of the same area, located at a distance (L) in meter, and divided by the
electrode area [12]. The principle of operation of the electrostatic desalter is quite
simple. We have one inside two electrodes that have two opposite charges. The oil is
supplied to the lower stage of the device, which provides its additional washing and
passing through two (2) electric fields: weak and strong as shown in Figure 5. The
charges of these electrodes change alternately, resulting in a separation of the different
phases: oil, water, and gas [11, 26]. The water has a higher density than the oil and by
the gravitational force, so the water is concentrated at the bottom of the electrostatic
desalter. The oil and the gas without water, so without salts, come out from the upper
part of the electrostatic desalter by manifold as shown in Figure 6 [20]. In the litera-
ture, there are indications that the electrical conductivity of oil and petroleum products
is largely determined by the content of polar surfactants (asphalt-resins) in them [25].
1.5.2 Desalting processes at a refinery
They can be one and two-stage (respectively, with one or two electrostatics
desalters) [20]. To increase the efficiency of the operation, the demulsifiers are added
to the crude oil. Two-stage installations are used to reduce the flow of freshwater when
washing crude oil [13]. The desalter of this design achieves 90% salt removal. How-
ever, 99% salt removal is possible with two-stage desalters [7, 20] as shown in Fig-
ure 7. A second stage is also essential since desalter maintenance requires a lengthy
amount of time to remove the dirt and sediment which settle at the bottom. Therefore,
the crude unit can be operated with a one stage desalter while the other is cleaned.
1.6 Example of modeling of electrostatic desalter at refinery
The electrostatic desalter volume 96 m3, which length-10 m, diameter –3 m.

U (voltage of the electrodes) = 22000 v. Maximum emulsion pre-treatment capacity
Figure 4.
The major types of electrostatic desalter.
8
Figure 5.
Technical schema of electrostatic desalter design.
Figure 6.
The simplified work description of electrostatic desalter.
9
Figure 7.
Two-stage desalting flow processing of crude oil.
is 140 tons/h. The program used in our modeling is Mathcad, to calculate the
material balance and mechanical calculations of electrostatic desalter. The
characteristics of the feedstock are presented in Table 1 [27, 28].
1.6.1 Materials balances of electrostatic desalter
The establishment of a material balance is necessary for modeling [7, 25, 29].
The material balance material allows us to have an idea of the results we need to get
and correct some errors during the project in order to have a satisfactory perfor-
mance of our facilities. To calculate the material balance of electrostatic desalter, it
is necessary to know the data:
• the temperature at the entrance of feedstocks into the electrostatic desalter,

t1 = 90°C;
• the temperature at the outlet of feedstocks in the electrostatic desalter,

t2 = 145°C.
The quantity of oil emulsion chosen is 140 t/h. the water Content of the initial
emulsion is 1% of the total mass. The consumption of the demulsifier (surfactant) is
30 g/t. Our work in this part is to make material balances of the pre-treatment of the oil
at the refinery. Electrostatic desalter performs two procedures at the same time which
are: dehydration and desalination. The descriptive diagram e of the desalting process is
presented in Figure 8. The amount of freshwater or water processing supplied at the
desalting stage is 10% of the mass. The reagent is fed only at the dehydration stage. We
consider the reagent water-soluble. First, the status of “ incoming “is drawn up. The
Indicators Methods Units of measure Values

3
Density at 15°C NF EN 12185 kg/m 884
Water content NF EN 9029 % mass 1
Total acid number ASTM D 664 mg KOH/g 0.619
Sulfur content NF EN 8754 % m/m 0.254
API ASTM D1298 — 29
Kinematic viscosity at 100°C ASTM D445 cSt 1.9
Freezing point NF EN ISO 3016 °C 17
Table 1.
The physicochemical characteristics of Bonga crude oil.
10
Figure 8.
The descriptive diagram of the desalting process.
status “ Expense “ is similar to the desalting- dewatering process. 140 t of emulsion

1.4 t of water in emulsion = 138.6 t of oil. The status “Expense “is similar to the
desalting-dewatering process. Loss is equal: ð138:60:3
100
Þ
= 0.4191 t. The amount of
dewatered oil or desalted oil will be 138.6 t – 0.4158 t = 138.0897 t. According to this
task and Russian GOST R 51828-2002, the water content in the desalted oil shall not
exceed 0.5% of the mass. Thus, the water contained in the desalted oil will be:
138:0897 t 99:95% mass: (4)

X 0:05% mass: (5)
The amount of water X is 0.0691 t.
The water content-X is 0.0691 t in the desalted oil. The total water content phase
in the “incoming” status is 14 t + 0.14 t = 14.14 t.
Based on the previous results and by the possibility that we can really have more
losses. We arbitrarily decide to multiply our losses by 2; the total loss is:
0.4191 t + 0.4191 t = 0.8383 t. Consequently, the summary material balance of the
installation is made. The total amount of drainage water is equal to the drainage
water by oil treatment stage: 0.9332 t + 14.07 t = 15.0032 t. The material balance of
the electrostatic desalter installation is presented in Table 2.
1.6.1 Modeling of the desalting process with electrostatic desalter
The exercise of modeling is a variant very often useful and used in the modeling
of units and devices [7, 14, 19]. This task is interesting in case we do not have a
simulator or simulation and modeling program like Hysys Aspen to solve this
operation. In the framework of modeling the desalination unit, we use the ASTM D
341-2003 standard is based on Walter’s equation and proposes the dependence of
the kinematic viscosity of crude oil (hydrocarbon):
lg lg ðν þ 0, 8Þ ¼ a þ b lgT, (6)
a ¼ lg lg ðν1 þ 0, 8Þ b lgT 1 (7)
11
Feedstocks ton/h % mass Products ton/h % mass
1. Oil emulsion, including: 140.0000 100.0000 1. Stable oil, including: 138.1589 98.6849
• Oil 138.6000 99.0000 • Desalted oil 138.0897 98.6355
• Water 1.4000 1 • Water 0.06916 0.0495
2. Surfactants (Demulsifiers) 0.0004 0.0003 2. Drainage water 15.0032 10.7191
3. Water processing 14.0000 10 3. Loss 0.8383 0.5988
(freshwater)
Total 154.0004 110.0003 Total: 154.0004 110.0003
Table 2.
The material balance of electrostatic desalter.
h i
lgðν1 þ0, 8Þ
lg lgðν2 þ0, 8Þ
b¼ , (8)
lg TT21
where ν – viscosity, cSt, T is the absolute temperature, K; a and b are the

constants determined by two known values of viscosity ν1 and ν2 at temperatures,
respectively, T1 and T2. The empirical formula of formula Filonov – Reynolds is
more convenient for analytical solutions:
1 χ
μt ¼ C μto (9)
C
where.
1
χ¼ ; (10)
1 þ αðt to Þ lg C μto

νt, νo – Dynamic viscosity of the oil at temperatures t and to, respectively, mPas;
α and C are empirical coefficients.
3
If νo ≥ 1000 mPa s, then C ¼ 10, 1=mPa s; α ¼ 2:52 10 1=°C; (11)
3
If 10 ≤ νo < 1000 mPa s, then C ¼ 100, 1=mPa s; α ¼ 1:44 10 1=°C; (12)
3
If νo < 10 mPa s, then C ¼ 1000, 1=mPa s; α ¼ 0:76 10 1=°C: (13)
1
x¼
½1 þ 0:76 ð90 100Þ log ð1000 0:0014144Þ
1
ν= 1000 ð1000 0:0014144Þx ¼ 7.05510 4
In modeling of electrostatic desalter to determine his maximum performance
and the required number of devices for desalting crude oil.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2λ
ECritical ¼θ , v=cm, (14)
ϕd
The interaction between water droplets can be increased by increasing the

electric field strength, Е.
U
EReal ¼ , v=cm (15)
l
12
For to determine the E-Critical and E-Real for the desalter with the following
data. Water content in oil – 1%; λ (interfacial surface tension) = 12 dyn/cm; d (the
diameter of the droplets) = 1.5 10–2.55 m or 4.22810 1 cm; φ (dielectric constant of
the emulsion) = 2; l (distance between electrodes) = 20 cm; U (voltage of the
electrodes) = 22000 v.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 12
ECritical ¼ 382 ¼ 2035:1 V=cm:
2 4:228 10 1
22000
EReal ¼ ¼ 1100 V=cm:
20
E-Real < E-Critical, consequently, the dispersion of droplets will not. The elec-
trostatic desalter receives crude oil, the amount of Q = 162 m3/h with temperature
900С (preheat). ρ90 crude oil = 838.4 kg/m3, ρ90Н20 = 965.3 kg/m3, the kinematic
viscosity of crude oil μoil crude = 7.055 10 4 m2/s, the diameter of the globules of
water – 1.510–2.55 meter. The residence time of the emulsion in the apparatus –
30 minutes is applied to the device volume 96 m3, which length – 10.19 m, diam-
eter – 3 m. The maximum surface deposition: S ¼ D L ¼ 10:19 3 ¼ 30:57 m2.
The efficiency of the electric desalter depends on the values S/V, where S – the
average area of the horizontal section of the device, m2; V – the volume of the
device, m3. For effective sludge must be met the condition τ ≥ τW , where τ - oil
residence time in the apparatus, h; τW – time required for precipitation of water
droplets, an hour.
hEm
τ¼ , (16)
U Em
where hEm – the height of the emulsion layer in the apparatus, m; UEm – the
velocity of the crude oil flow during its lower flow, m/h.
hEm hEm
τW ¼ ¼ , (17)
U Real U water U wo
where Uwater – deposition rate of water droplets in a stationary medium, m/h;

Uwo – real deposition rate of water droplets in the rising oil flow, m/h.
U water U wo ≥ U Em or U Water ≥ 2 U Em : (18)
The linear velocity of the oil in the electrostatic desalter must be at least 2 times
less than the calculated rate of water droplet deposition. The deposition rate is
calculated using the Stokes formula [7, 25]:
d2 g ρH2 O ρcrudeoil

U Water ¼ m=s, (19)
18 μcrudeoil ρcrudeoil
where d – diameter of water drops, m; ρH2O, ρ crude oil – the density of water and
oil, kg/m3.
μcrude oil – kinematic viscosity of oil at sludge temperature, m2/s.
2
1:5:10 2, 552 9:81 ð965:3 838:4Þ

U Water ¼ m=s
18 7:055 10 4 838:4
13
Uwater = 0.0021 m/s.
It is necessary to check the Reynolds number (Re) by the formula:
d
RU Water : (20)
νcrudeoil
The condition must be met:

4
10 ≤ Re ≤ 0:4 (21)
2,55
1:5:10
R0:00208974 7:05510 4 =0.0125, Re < 0.4
hEm is the height of the emulsion level in the devices, m = meter
hEm ¼ 0:75 D h1 , (22)
where h1 the distance from the bottom of the electric Hydrator to the oil-water
interface. We choose h1 = 0.75 m UEm – the velocity of the oil flow during its
lower flow, m/h, hEm ¼ 0:75 3 0:75 ¼ 1:69 m
hEm
U Em ¼ (23)
τ
U Em ¼ 1,0:75
69
¼ 2:25m/h = 6.259 10 4
m/s.
Knowing the Uw, determine the Uwo and the required cross-section of the elec-
tric dehydrator (S). The actual deposition rate of water droplets in the rising oil
stream will be:
UReal ¼ U water U Em (24)
3 4
UReal ¼ 2:08 10 6:259 10 ¼ 1:464 10 3 m/s.
The performance of the desalter:
J ¼ UReal S, m3 =s (25)
J ¼ 1:464 10 3
30:57 ¼ 0:045 m3/s = 161.3 m3/h.
The number of devices (N):
Q
N¼ , (26)
J
where Q – the quantity of emulsion supplied to the unit, m3/h; J – The

performance of the desalter, m3/h.
The required number of parallel running for the electrostatic desalter:
162
N¼ ¼ 1:005
161:3
14
1.6.3 Mechanical modeling of electrostatic desalter (theory)
This task is as interesting as the one already solved. In case we do not have a
simulator or simulation and modeling program like Ansys to solve this vital opera-
tion [1, 18, 29, 30]. The calculation of the strength of a cylindrical shell under
internal pressure. The wall thickness is determined by the formula (25).
PD
SR ¼ ; (27)
2 ½σ ϕ P
Permissible internal overpressure.
2 ½ σ ϕ ðS CÞ
½pD ¼ (28)
D þ ð S CÞ
P is the pressure in the device, mPa; SR – the calculated value of wall thickness,
mm; D- intern diameter of the shell, mm; ½σ – permissible voltage, mPa (depends
on the steel grade and operating temperature).
The steel grade is chosen depending on the properties of the processed medium.
For butt and t-shaped double-sided seams performed by automatic welding, the
coefficient of the strength of the weld ϕ ¼ 1, for the same manual stitches, φ = 0.9.
Increase taking into account corrosion C is determined by the formula:
С ¼ V T, (29)
V is the rate of corrosion (usually take 0.1–0.2 mm/year); T – the service life of
the device (usually take 10–12 years). For materials resistant to the processed
medium, in the absence of data on permeability, it is recommended to take
C = 2 mm. Condition for reliable operation Р < ½PD must be observed.
The choice of corrosion resistance of materials is made concerning this environ-
ment is resistant to corrosion.
S ≥ SR þ C (30)
The wall thickness calculated using this formula is rounded up to the nearest
standard sheet thickness (4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20 mm). The calculation of shells
loaded with external over-pressure consists in determining the permissible external
pressure since the wall thickness of the shell was determined earlier. Permissible
external pressure:
½Р р
ffi,
½ppp ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (31)
½Р р 2
1þ ½РЕ
½Pр durability allowable pressure corresponding to the strength condition:
2 ½σ ϕ ðS CÞ
½PD ¼ : (32)
D þ ðS CÞ
i – coefficient of stability (for the operating conditions of i = 2.4), lR – the

estimated length of the shell.
HD
lR ¼ l 2 h0 þ , (33)
3
15
E is the modulus of elasticity. l = length of the cylindrical part of the corpus; h0 –

the height of the bottom flanging, HD – the height of bottom edge. Allowable
pressure of conditions of stability within the limits of elastic deformation:
6 2 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
18 10 D 100 ðS CÞ 100 ðS CÞ

Е
½РE ¼ (34)
i lR D D
Condition for reliable operation ½РЕ ≤ ½ppp must be observed.
1.6.4 Resolution example based on our electrostatic desalter
P – pressure in the device, mPa = 1.1; D-inner diameter of the shell, mm = 3000.
The increase in corrosion C is determined by the formula (27).
С = 0.2 20 = 4 mm
V is the rate of corrosion (usually take 0.1–0.2 mm/year); T – the service life of
the device (usually take 10–12 years), but we take 20 years. For materials resistant
to the processed medium, in the absence of data on permeability, it is recommended
to take C = 2 mm. According to the table of corrosion resistance of materials, we
choose the steel grade 316Ti, S31635-USA (ASTM/AISI), or 1.4571,
X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2-Germany (DIN/WNr). ½σ = 168.6 mPa. The coefficient of the
strength of the weld is assumed ϕ ¼ 1. The service life is 20 years. The corrosion
rate is 0.2 mm/year. Increase taking into account corrosion C = 4 mm.
1:13000
SR= 2168:61 1:1 = 9.819 mm.
S = 9.819 + 4 = 13.819 mm.
The wall thickness calculated using this formula is rounded up to the nearest
standard sheet thickness (4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20 mm). We assume S = 14 mm.
½pD = 23451 ð14 4Þ

3000þð14 4Þ = 1.12 mPa.
Condition for reliable operation Р < ½P (1.1 mPa < 1.12 mPa) observed.
The calculation of shells loaded with external over-pressure consists in deter-
mining the permissible external pressure since the wall thickness of the shell was
determined earlier.
½Pр the allowable pressure corresponding to the strong condition.
2 168:6 1 ð14 4Þ
½Pр ¼ ¼ 1:12
3000 þ ð14 4Þ
E is the modulus of elasticity, i – coefficient of stability (for the operating

conditions of i = 2.4), lR – the estimated length of the Desalter. Е = 1.86105 mPа;
l = 10,190 mm; HD = 1500 mm; h0 = 25 mm.
1500
lR ¼ 10190 2 25 þ ¼ 10640mm
3
Allowable pressure of conditions of stability within the limits of elastic defor-

mation:
16
h i2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1810 6 5
3000 100ð14 4Þ 100ð14 4Þ
½РЕ ¼ 1:8610
2:4 10640 3000 3000 = 0.0252 mPa
Permissible external pressure:
1:12
½ppp ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi =0.0252 mPa.
1:12 2
1þð0:0252319 Þ
Condition for reliable operation ½РE ≤ ½ppp (0.0252 mPa ≤ 0.0252 mPa) observed.
1.7 Summary
The desalting and dewatering of crude oil take begins on the oil fields. This
operation is part of the processing of crude oil, and a good pre-treatment of crude
oil implies:
• degassing – removal of gases from crude oil;
• dewatering – removal of water from crude oil.
If the desalting of crude oil is carried out qualitatively, the oil has almost no
harmful effect on the equipment. Most of the impurities that cause corrosion of the
metal are in the remains of formation water. Therefore, the fundamental task of
desalting is to remove water drops from the oil. This is a fairly complex process,
because the water in crude oil is in the form of droplets with a size quantity often.
The improvement and appreciation of the oil pretreatment process level are char-
acterized by:
• providing effective sludge at high viscosity and density of oil through the use
of a sump with intermediate partitions of variable height;
• increasing the degree of dehydration and desalination of oil due to effective

washing with water from salts;
• improving the efficiency of the sump and improving the quality of the
prepared oil due to more complete and qualitative removal of the intermediate
layer from it, as well as due to a more uniform distribution of fluid flow rates
when entering the sump and its cross-section;
• ensuring uniform receipt of production of wells for the installation of oil

treatment and prevention of failures of its work through the use of the
reservoir;
• improving the performance of the electrostatic desalter, that is, expanding the
range of workloads, improving the efficiency of desalination and dehydration,
as well as reducing the cost of oil pre-treatment.
The poor pre-treatment (desalting process) of crude oil can lead to considerable
extra costs. We are talking about the high cost of transportation if the product is not
cleared of unnecessary substances that give it extra volume and weight as well as
financial investments in equipment. After all, oil, which is not derived from salt,
can very quickly damage the pipeline. The requirements for the oil content of the
17
water and especially for chlorides more stringent on the refineries. The oil content
of water before processing must be no more than 0.1% of the mass and for salts-no
more than 5 mg/l [3, 31]. These related requirements using much more expensive
equipment (columns, heat exchangers, reboilers, etc.). Also, these the requirements
induce to reduce the energy consumption, to reduce the corrosion of the equip-
ment, to increase the life of the catalysts, improves the quality of the petroleum
products. If these requirements not performed, the oil is necessarily subjected to
desalting and dehydration at the electric desalting plant (electrostatic desalter). The
surfactants are added if the crude oil contains a lot of suspended solids. The crude
oil is heated usually to a temperature of 50 to 90°C to reduce viscosity and surface
tension for easier mixing and separation of water.
2. Atmospheric Distillation Unit (ADU)
2.1 Introduction
The distillation is heating a liquid solution or mixture of liquid stream to produce

steam, and then collecting and condensing that steam. In the simplest case, the
products of the distillation process are limited to the upper distillate and the bot-
tom, the composition of which differs from the feed. Thus, the major purpose of
distillation is the separation or splitting into two or more products from a feed [32].
The distillation or rectification is one of the oldest and most common methods of
chemical separation [33]. Historically, one of the most famous uses is the produc-
tion of spirits from wine. More simply, in other words, the target of distillation is
usually to remove the light component from the heavy component mixture, or vice-
versa, to separate the heavy product from the light component mixture [32]. One of
the components of crude oil refining is distillation, therefore a stage of refining. Oil
refining is a rather complex technological process that begins with the transporta-
tion of oil from the field to refineries. The fractionation or distillation column exists
in practically all oil refining technologies through reforming, thermal cracking,
hydrocracking, etc. [20]. Before receiving the petroleum products common to
users, the oil goes through several stages before becoming a finished product. Some
of these stages are [1, 9, 20, 21]:
• pre-treatment of crude oil;
• distillation atmospheric and vacuum;
• catalytic reforming, isomerization;
• alkylation, visbreaking, coking;
• catalytic cracking, hydrocracking;
• treatment of petroleum products (hydrotreatment, desulphurization, etc.)
2.2 Description and characteristics crude distillation unit (CDU)
The oil emulsion is a complex mixture of naphthenic, paraffin, aromatic carbo-

hydrates, which have different molecular weight and boiling point, and sulfur,
oxygen, and nitrogen organic compounds. At distillation receive a big range of oil
products and semi-products. The principle of the process is based on the difference
18
between the initial boiling point of the components. As a result, the oil is divided
into fractions up to fuel oil and tar and even base oil. The distillation of oil can be
carried out [34]:
• Single evaporation or flash vaporization
• Multiple evaporations
• Gradual evaporation
The single evaporation of oil is a one-step separation technique. The single

evaporation process involves heating the oil to increase the temperature and
enthalpy to the true boiling point (TBP) of the vapor-liquid mixture. The process of
multiple evaporations is a sequence of single evaporation with a gradual increase in
the heating temperature. Distillation by gradual evaporation is a slight change in the
oil’s state with every single evaporation. The main devices in which the distillation
of oil are distillation columns, reboilers, furnaces, etc. [1].
The difficulty of separating crude oils is mainly determined by the volatility of
the key components or by the difference in the boiling point of the key components
[34]. The closer the relative volatility is to one per mole, the more plates or plates
are needed and more irrigation is needed to achieve the same purity of distillate
and residue. For key components, two adjacent components are taken for key
components, one belonging to the distillate, the other to the residual product.
The relative volatility of these adjacent components and their proportion in crude
oil are the main criterion determining the difficulty of sufficiently clear separation
from crude oil [34]. More the tangent of the angle of inclination of the TBP
increase, the easier the separation conditions are. The wider the crude oil TBP
intervals, more the distillate and the residue obtained during the process are clean.
As we all know, crude oil from the bowels of the Earth contains salt as dissolved salt
in a tiny drop of water that forms water into an emulsion [1, 9]. This water cannot
be completely separated by gravity or mechanical means. The deep separation
of water from the emulsion occurs with electrostatic at the plant, before the
distillation process [20].
After desalting process, the crude oil is heated in heat exchangers or reboilers
(preheating of crude oil). Of course, preheating is not sufficient, since the oil must
be partially evaporated to the extent that all products except atmospheric residues
must be in the vapor phase when the oil enters the atmospheric column. Thus, the
furnace is required to raise the temperature between 330 and 385°C depending on
the components of oil [35]. The partially evaporated crude oil is transferred to the
flash zone column located at a point below the distillation column and above what is
called the stripping section. The main distillation column is generally up to 50 m
with a 30–50 valve [34]. The size of the column is determined by the number of
plates and the amount of steam. Besides, the amount of steam is determined by the
content of crude oil in volatile elements or compounds. As a result, the rising steam
in huge amounts and at top flow rates, requires a large diameter column above the
flash zone [1, 34]. At the bottom of the section, water vapor is injected into the
column to remove the atmospheric residue of any light hydrocarbon and reduce the
partial pressure of hydrocarbon vapors in the flash zone [20]. This causes the true
boiling point of hydrocarbons to decrease and causing more hydrocarbons to boil
and raise the column to eventually thicken and removed as lateral flows. As hot
vapors grow from the flash zone, they ascend into the column through the plates to
the upper zone of the column [36]. A portion part of the light fraction of naphtha or
gasoline returns to the column in the form of reflux. This reflux allows controlling
19
the quality of the distillate and the pressure in the column. The main products of
atmospheric petroleum distillation are [33]:
• Gas
• Gasoline (35–200°C)
• Kerosene (220–275°C)
• Diesel or gas oil (200–400°C)
• Atmosphere residue (above 350°C).
The distillation process is carried out in columns with plates inside and it is as
follows: hot vapors, rising on the column, in contact with the cooler liquid (reflux)
flowing down. There is a cooling of the vapors, hence condensation; a transition
from vapors to liquid. This is the process of mass transfer and heat exchange; the
contact efficiency is provided by the plates. Most of the side currents (light frac-
tions) pass through the striping section, where they are again dispersed to control
their starting and ending boiling point, while the liquid is heated, the low boiling
components evaporate [36]. The temperature and pressure have a great influence
on the processes (movement of fluids) due to the plates inside the column [32]. The
distillation plates are designed to create close contact between Steam and liquid
during the grinding process. Mainly apply grid, groove, cap, s-shape, valve, and
other types of plates. The design of the plates, besides the close contact between
steam, and liquid must ensure sufficient performance of the column, have a low
hydraulic resistance to the flow of steam. For example, the movement of vapors in
distillation columns depends on the types of plates shown in Figures 9 and 10 [32].
The materials used in the design are also of great importance because they influence
the metal capacity of structures, ease of assembly, and cleaning.
2.3 Description of the distillation column and its operation
The distillation is designed to separate gas and liquid mixtures comprising two or
more components or fractions. We can classify distillation columns according to
various characteristics [32, 34]:
• by technological application;
• by an internal device (plates) ensuring contact between the steam and the
liquid;
• columns of atmospheric vacuum.
Figure 9.
The types of plate in the column: (a) cap, (b) grid, (C) valve.
20
Figure 10.
The movement of steam and liquid flows on the cap plates.
The quality of distillation depends on the number of plates in the column and the
amount of irrigation. The speed of movement of vapors in the column and the
distance between the plates is great significance. The design of distillation plates is
important in the column’s performance. Thus, under practical conditions, the heat
exchange between steam and liquid on the plate does not reach the equilibrium
state, so the concept of plate efficiency (energy conversion efficiency) was intro-
duced. It depends on the design and operating conditions and usually varies
between 0.4 and 0.8 [32]. The distillation column comprises three (3) zones: the
separation zone, the crude supply (feeding zone), and the heating zone. The feeding
zone is generally below the separation zone. However, in some columns like the
stripping columns, the feeding zone is located in the upper area of the column. Also,
we can say that the separation zone in this type of column is non-existent. In short,
this type of column is a column stabilization.
In oil refining, the first oil separation process is very often operated with com-
plex columns or main columns [20]. The oil is sent to the atmospheric distillation
column and after the desalination process. The oil is supplied to the feeding area in
the form of steam, liquid, or vapor-liquid mixture. This area is called evaporative.
Above the entrance (feeding zone) to the oil is the separation zone of the column,
and below-the heating zone. In the evaporation zone of the column, there is single
evaporation of the oil heated long before in the furnace or the heat exchanger. The
purpose of atmospheric distillation is the primary separation of various “Fractions”
of hydrocarbons: fuel gases, liquefied petroleum gas, naphtha, kerosene, diesel fuel,
and from the bottom of the distillation; the atmospheric residue (heavy hydrocar-
bon residue). The residues from the atmospheric distillation column or atmospheric
residues are sent to the vacuum distillation column. The atmospheric residues in the
vacuum column (under the vacuum condition) and temperatures above 400°C give
new fractions (heavy gasoil) [1, 32].
2.4 The plates for distillation columns of oil plants
In oil refining, a fairly large number of plate types are widespread; new
types are being developed. This situation is explained by the desire to develop
more productive and economic plates than those used previously. The choice of
the types of plate depends on a load of steam and liquid, the physical properties
of steam and liquid [34]. In order to ensure optimal conditions for the operation
of columns in various technological processes, it is necessary to use plates of
different designs [32]. In atmospheric columns, steam and liquid charges are
moderate. While in vacuum columns, large vapor loads and small liquid loads
are observed, that is low volumetric expenditures of liquid and high linear
velocities of vapors. Thus, for some varieties of columns, several types of plates are
21
recommended, depending on the particular conditions of operation and use of these

columns. These operating conditions of the column provide a comparative assess-
ment of the different types of plates under these operating conditions as shown
in Table 3. The comparison is carried out on the following characteristics and
indicators [34]:
• efficiency;
• operating stability range;
• hydraulic resistance;
• ability to work on contaminated raw materials;
• cost (or weight) of the column.
As already noted above, there is a multitude of types of plates. Then we will talk
about the most frequent plates in oil plants.
2.4.1 The lattice or grid plates
The plates with holes, usually have holes on 3/16 inch to 1 inch. Pairs come out of
the holes to get a multi-hole effect. The Steam or vapor velocity prevents liquid
from passing through the holes. The number and size of the hole are based on the
fall of steam in the column. The fluid flow is transported down the tower using
triggers, a dam, and a bypass device on the side of the plate. The Minimum capacity
sieve tray capacity is about 70% [30].
2.4.2 The cap plates
The cap plate is a “classic” plate, although it is still very widespread nowadays, it
is gradually replaced by plates of other, more effective types. The dominant part of
the cover plate is a steel disc (or cover plate) with holes for steam pipes. Usually
provided with slots for passing steam, the steam will be in contact with the liquid
bubble formed on the next tray. It can operate at low steam and liquid velocities
[36] (less than 2 gallons per minute per foot of average flow width). The fittings are
welded to the disc. Above the nozzles, caps with a diameter of 60 or 80 mm are
installed. Caps have slots with a height of 15; 20 or 30 mm.
Types columns or application Plates types Restrictions on column

diameter
AVDU units or CDU C or S-shaped plates No
Atmospheric distillation of CDU or ADU, with C or S-shaped plates No

including stripping
Valve plates No less 3 m
Jet plates Not over 3.2 m
Vacuum distillation of CDU or VDU Jet plates with bumpers No
Any installation, especially if there is no reliable Cap plates No

design data
Table 3.
Types of plates common in refining oil plants.
22
2.4.3 The valve plates
The valve plates are mainly used in CDU or AVDU and gas plants. The dominant
element of the plate is a valve of round or rectangular shape that closes the holes at
the base of the plate of appropriate shape. Structurally, the valve is made so that it
cannot be raised to a certain height. The arrangement of the valves of round shape
on the plane of the plate is the same as the plugs on the cap plate. The valve plate is
used that rises with increasing steam velocity and then decreases as the stream
velocity decreases, which stops the liquid from flowing. The valve can be round or
rectangular, with or without a frame. The disk rises with an increase in the velocity
of steam [30, 36].
2.4.4 The jet plates
The jet plate consists of a flat sheet, on which there are offset slots made in the
form of a tongue with the cut-out part bent upwards. All slots are bent at a side
angle. The plate has a drainage device of the usual design, but does not have a drain
bar at the outlet of the liquid from the plate [32].
2.5 Examples of material balances of crude distillation unit and with its major
blocks or units like the furnace
2.5.1 Determination of the yield (material balance) of the furnace
The role of the furnace is to heat the oil to a temperature in the range of
330–385°C in order to achieve a vapor-liquid balance before the distillation
column [1, 7, 25, 29]. The most popular furnace in the Russian Federation is the
tube furnace, as shown in Figure 11. The tube furnace is a unit designed to heat
and force chemical processes inside the chamber, which are achieved by using the
heat generated when fuel is burned. To calculate the heat balance of the atmo-
spheric column, it is necessary to determine the heat of the furnace by the vapor
phase and the liquid phase, therefore determine the material balance of the furnace.
For example, the furnace material balance we used Bonga crude and the following
data [25]:
• the temperature at the entrance of raw materials into the convection chamber
t1 = 250°C;
• the temperature at the outlet of raw materials in the convection chamber

t2 = 380°C;
• the pressure at the exit of the furnace, p = 2 bars;
• the data of the molar and mass composition of desalted crude are presented in
Table 4.
We use the method of gradual approximation to calculate the percentage of the

top product’s distillate, with the Eq. (35).
X Cmoli
Fn ðemolÞ ¼ (35)
i
1 þ emol ðK i 1Þ
23
Figure 11.
Cross-sectional with heat exchange chamber of a tube furnace.
Where, Cmol-molar composition of the upper product (distillate); emol- the

mole fraction of the distillate; Ki-phase equilibrium constant of components i under
conditions. The graph 0r Figure 12 shows the proportion of distillation through the
formula (33) of Bonga crude – 138158.9 kg/h.
From the graph (Figure 12) we determine that the molar fraction of distillation is
emol = 0.855. The molar composition of the liquid is also found by the formula (36).
Y i ¼ Ki Y i, (36)
The mass fraction of distillation is calculated by the formula (37):
MsrP
emas ¼ emol , (37)
MsrC
where MsrP is average molecular weight of the vapor phase; MsgC is average
molecular weight of feedstocks.
Molecular masses are calculated according to the rule of additivity (38):
24
Components kg/kmol kg/h % mass Mole fraction Steam
C2H6 30 22.11 0.02 0.00 1028.85
C3H8 33 388.23 0.28 0.01 404.90
Iso-C4H10 58 563.69 0.41 0.01 135.04
N-C4H10 58 886.98 0.64 0.02 126.43
Iso-C5H12 72 124.34 0.09 0.00 85.12
N-C5H12 72 31.78 0.02 0.00 84.19
75–105 95.1 4863.19 3.52 0.08 103.15
105–125 107.72 3550.68 2.57 0.05 25.25
125–145 118.72 4738.85 3.43 0.06 19.53
145–165 130.52 9035.59 6.54 0.10 15.72
165–185 143.12 2528.31 1.83 0.03 12.51
185–205 156.52 5526.36 4.00 0.05 9.84
205–225 170.72 5567.80 4.03 0.05 7.66
225–245 185.72 7046.10 5.10 0.06 5.88
245–265 201.52 4324.37 3.13 0.03 4.47
265–285 218.12 6769.79 4.90 0.05 3.35
285–305 235.52 7046.10 5.10 0.04 2.47
305–325 253.72 8469.14 6.13 0.05 1.80
325–345 272.72 15017.87 10.87 0.08 1.30
345–375 297.6 21456.08 15.53 0.11 0.92
>375 443.91 30132.46 21.81 0.10 0.58
H2O 18 69.08 0.05 0.01 0.05
Table 4.
Data of the molar and mass composition of desalted crude.
Figure 12.
Graph of the vapor-liquid state isotherm.
X
MsrP ¼ Mi Y i (38)
Accordingly, MsrР = 180.54; MsrC = 206.77. emas = 0.747.

The amount of steam and liquid mG phases is determined by the formulas
(39), (40):
25
mP ¼ F emas, (39)
mG ¼ F ð1 emasÞ, (40)
where F (feedstock) is the exiting flow from the electrostatic desalter, and
entering the tube furnace.
The mass of the vapor phase = 103,104 kg/h, the mass of liquid
phase = 35054.88 kg/h. The mass composition of crude oil, vapor, and liquid phase
after furnace are presented in Table 5.
2.5.2 Examples of material balance of atmospheric distillation unit (ADU)
The production capacity of the atmospheric distillation unit for processing crude
oils is 1,159,200 tons/year, with an initial load of 140 kg/h. This material balance as
shown in Table 6 was made based on the physicochemical characteristics of Bonga
crude oil and the typical CDU model without the K-1 oil topping column.
Components Feedstock Products
Crude oil composition Vapor phase composition Liquid phase composition
kg/h % mass kg/h % mass kg/h % mass
C2H6 22.11 0.02 22.10 0.02 0.05 0.00
C3H8 388.23 0.28 388.05 0.38 1.47 0.00
Iso-C4H10 563.69 0.41 562.91 0.55 4.85 0.00
N-C4H10 886.98 0.64 885.67 0.86 8.16 0.00
Iso-C5H12 124.34 0.09 124.07 0.12 1.37 0.00
N-C5H12 31.78 0.02 31.71 0.03 0.35 0.00
75–105 4863.19 3.52 4827.44 4.68 135.74 0.00
105–125 3550.68 2.57 3517.01 3.41 112.85 0.00
125–145 4738.85 3.43 4683.13 4.54 169.45 0.00
145–165 9035.59 6.54 8902.49 8.63 368.15 0.01
165–185 2528.31 1.83 2481.17 2.41 118.91 0.00
185–205 5526.36 4.00 5394.59 5.23 303.92 0.01
205–225 5567.80 4.03 5396.30 5.23 362.68 0.01
225–245 7046.10 5.10 6762.91 6.56 550.50 0.02
245–265 4324.37 3.13 4095.48 3.97 410.07 0.01
265–285 6769.79 4.90 6293.92 6.10 787.63 0.02
285–305 7046.10 5.10 6384.01 6.19 1014.91 0.03
305–325 8469.14 6.13 7401.03 7.18 1519.84 0.04
325–345 15017.87 10.87 12475.46 12.10 3365.64 0.10
345–375 21456.08 15.53 16251.21 15.76 6314.27 0.18
>375 30132.46 21.81 6154.41 5.97 19501.56 0.56
H2O 69.08 0.05 68.95 0.07 2.51 0.00
Total 138158.9 100 103,104 100 35054.88 100
Table 5.
The material balance of tube furnace.
26
Feedstocks ton/year % Products ton/year %

mass mass
1. Oil emulsion 1,159,200 99.56 1. Gases (LPG) 4938.72 0.42

2. Chemical 3.48 0.00 2. Fractions 35–145 69109.88 5.93
agent 3. Fractions 145–230 125052.05 10.74
(demulsifiers) 4. Fractions 230–320 201243.36 17.28
3. Water 115.92 0.01 5. Fractions 320–350 231212.84 19.86
processing The target products. (sum. fractions) 631556.87 54.25
(freshwater) 6. Associated product (Atmospheric 413475.76 35.51
4. Water vapor 4968 0.43 residues)
7. Drainage water 119254.770 10.24
Total 1164287.39 100 Total 1164287.39 100
Table 6.
The material balance of atmospheric distillation unit with operating time 340 days by year (365 days
20 days) ∙ 24 h = 8280 h.
2.6 Crude distillation unit (CDU) used in Russia compared to the typical model
Based on the evaluation of the concept of the technological scheme for the
construction of a technological scheme of crude distillation unit at refineries in
Russia. The topping column K-1 in most cases is a simple design as shown in
Figure 13 [28], although it fractionates the crude oil into the many components like
ethane, light gasoline, etc.. There are schemes in which light gasoline is displayed
under the distillate in the top of the column, and heavy gasoline on the side flanks of
the column. The topping column K-1 collects 50–60% of the potential of light
gasoline. The residues of column K-1 are therefore the raw material of the main
atmospheric column. The composition of this raw material is weighted in such a
way that an excessively high feed temperature is required, permissible temperature
(380°C). The singularities of the topping column K-1 operation are as follows
[1, 28]:
• The low yield of rectified gasoline (5–15% of the mass of the column load)
makes it difficult to collect the gasoline fraction from the oil;
• Extremely high liquid loading in the heating zone of the pre-evaporation

column due to the low steam load worsens the conditions for steaming light
fractions from the residue under the action of hot jet reflux;
Figure 13.
Possible schemes of operation with oil topping column K-1. (a) Column K-1 with back topped crude.
(b) Column K-1 with heavy gasoline and back topped crude. (c) Column K-1 without back topped crude.
27
• The relatively small enthalpy of crude oil (220°C) introduced into the column
does not create sufficient heat flow for distillation, therefore, it is necessary to
introduce additional heat in the form of hot jet reflux;
• Maintaining high pressure in the column to ensure air and water condensation
of light gasoline fractions in condensers-refrigerators (separators).
The purpose of this column is to extract from the oil the remains of dissolved gas
(if the oil has not been stabilized) and a light gasoline fraction with a boiling point
of 85°C. After atmospheric residue of K-2 shipped to the vacuum column K-5 for to
obtain vacuum distillates (heavy gasoil) and tar. In order to illustrate our argument,
a typical P&ID flow diagram process of the atmospheric distillation unit in Russian
refineries is presented in Figure 14.
2.7 Summary
A general technological approach to the atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) can

be described as below [28].
The oil topping column K-1:
• Top temperature, °С – no higher than 245;
• Low temperature, °С – no higher than 150;
Figure 14.
The typical P&ID flow diagram process of atmospheric distillation unit at refineries in Russian Federation.
28
• Pressure, bar – no more than 3.0.
The typical products of K-1 are;
• Gases
• Light straight run naphtha (light gasoline or light naphtha)
• Heavy gasoline (or military jet fuel)
• Topped crude
The main atmospheric column K-2:
• Top temperature, °С – no higher than 350;
• Low temperature, °С – no higher than 150;
• Pressure, bar – no more than 1.4.
The typical products of K-2 are:
• Heavy gasoline (or military jet fuel)
• Kerosene (light distillate or jet fuel)
• Middle distillates or light gas oil (LGO) – Diesel
• Heavy distillates – atmospheric gas oil (AGO) or heavy gas oil (HGO)
• Crude column bottoms -atmospheric residue or topped crude
The distillation processes are the processes of oil separation into more or less
homogeneous fractions without chemical conversion of its constituent substances.
The process of separation of liquid substances by their boiling temperatures is
atmospheric and vacuum. The atmospheric distillation can be carried out in the
following ways:
• With a single separation – furnaces and separation of distillate in one (main)

distillation column k-2;
• Double separation in two distillation columns- in the pre-evaporation column

k-1 with separation of light gasoline fractions and the main column-2;
• Gradual separation.
The oil topping column K-1, in atmospheric distillation, collects 50–60% of the
potential of light gasoline from oil [28]. Otherwise, the composition of oil for the
atmospheric column K2 is so weighted that an excessively high supply temperature
is required, permissible temperature (380°C). The oil topping column K-1 is espe-
cially important in the general crude distillation unit technology in Russia. We
know that the choice of flow process technology is dictated by the physicochemical
properties of the oils and their compounds. Indeed, the choice of structure of
29
Types of Crude distillation unit with K-1 Crude distillation unit

CDU without K-1
Advantages • Flexibility of technology for adaptation on any • Simplicity of construction

crude oil compares to those with k-1
• Increased reliability with more products (range of • Known technology is widely
products more) used
• Stabilization of oil for K-2 (main column) • Reasonable project cost
• Increased durability and viability of the • Less scrap metal
equipment by avoiding the overload of k-2 (main
column)
Disadvantages • The increase in the complexity of the design • Modeling more stringent for
• The increase in the cost of the project to determine oil
• More scrap metal • No flexibility of technology
for adaptation on any crude
oil
• Not enough products
Table 7.
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of different types of technology.
atmospheric vacuum distillation units or atmospheric distillation units is deter-

mined by the characteristics of crude oil. Finally, according to our studies, the
distillation unit with the oil topping column K-1, is more flexible and versatile,
which on the whole allows processing any feedstock. Table 7 shows the conclusions
on the different types of atmospheric distillation [28].
3. Conclusion
The crude oil is a complex mixture of paraffin, naphthenic, aromatic, and other
hydrocarbons with different molecular masses and boiling temperatures. Also, the
oil contains sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen-containing organic compounds. There-
fore, to obtain from oil commodity products for various purposes, apply methods of
separation of oil into fractions or groups of hydrocarbons. The modern dewatering-
desalting processes are designed with electrostatic desalter only by horizontal
geometry design: Atmospheric and atmospheric-vacuum. The horizontal design of
electrostatic desalter has a lot of advantages, such as a large area of electrodes and,
accordingly, a larger amount of oil per unit section of the device, a lower vertical
speed of the moving oil flow, which provides favorable conditions for water sedi-
mentation, as well as implementing processes with higher pressure and tempera-
ture. The electrostatics desalters are characterized by:
• More favorable conditions for the deposition of water drops;
• Specific performance, 3 times higher than vertical and ball structures in the
presence of low specific gravity and lower cost of the device;
• Simplicity of design, a small amount of electrical equipment, ease of

installation, availability of maintenance and maintainability;
• Ability to work with high pressure and temperature parameters.
However, the pretreatment of crude oil is not only concerned with its desalting and
dewatering, but also with its degasification and packaging into a semi-product under
the standard like ASTM D 1250-97, API Petroleum Measurement and GOST R 51858.
30
The distillation processes are the processes of oil separation into more or less
homogeneous fractions (cups) without chemical conversion of its constituent sub-
stances. The process of separation of liquid substances by their boiling temperatures
is atmospheric and vacuum. The oil distillation via single and multiple evaporations.
In industrial conditions, the processes are carried out on the equipment of continu-
ous action. During the single-evaporation distillation, the oil is heated to a certain
temperature and all fractions that have passed into the vapor phase are collected.
The distillation of the oil by multiple evaporations consists in that the oil is first
heated to a temperature allowing to separate the light gasoline fraction. Then the
crude without the fraction of light gasoline is heated to a higher temperature, and
fractions that boil at about 375°C (that is, fractions of heavy gasoline, jet fuel, and
diesel fuel) are also collected. In the residue from distillation, atmospheric residues
are obtained. The atmospheric residues are distilled under vacuum, from which the
lubricating oil fractions are obtained. Finally, the tar is obtained as residues from
vacuum distillation. In other words, oil is consistently heated three times, each time
separating the vapor phase from the liquids. The resulting steam and liquid phases
are subjected to rectification in columns. Thus, industrial processes of oil distillation
are based on a combination of distillation with single and multiple evaporations and
subsequent rectification of the steam and liquid phases. We want to emphasize that
this is the case, we use the K-1 oil topping column. However, if the process is
executed without column k1, the same process is shorter and with the results
already mentioned above. In the distillation column, there are distillation plates on
which the vapors rising along the column are in contact with the flowing liquid
(reflux). Reflux is created due to the fact that part of the upper product returns to
the liquid state to the upper plate and flows down, enriching the rising vapors with
low-boiling components. One of the ways to increase the concentration of high-
boiling components in the residue from oil distillation is to introduce an evaporator
into the lower part of the distillation column. As such, you can use water vapor,
inert gas (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, petroleum gas), gasoline vapor or kerosene. The
water vapor is most widely used as an evaporator for oil refining. Its presence in the
distillation column reduces the partial pressure of hydrocarbons, and therefore their
boiling point. As a result, the lowest-boiling hydrocarbons in the liquid phase, after
single evaporation, pass into a vaporous state and, together with water vapor, rise
up the column. In many literatures, it is recommended to use super-heated water
vapor and enter it into the column with a temperature equal to the temperature of
the feedstock or slightly higher. Usually, the water vapor used after steam pumps
and turbines at a pressure of 2–3 bar is superheated in a tube furnace and introduced
into a column with a temperature of 350–450°C. The use of wet vapor steam is not
practiced, since its temperature and pressure are interrelated, for example, when
introducing a column of 350°C, its pressure is equal to 170 bar. Besides, with
increasing pressure, the cost of saturated water vapor increases sharply, so it is not
economical to use it. If the wet vapor steam enters a column of low-pressure
saturated water vapor, for example, 10 bar and, accordingly, with a temperature of
180°C, then part of the heat will go to heat it.
Abbreviation
GOST Russian Interstate-standard

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
NF EN ISO French Norms European Norms International Organization for
Standardization
ρ90 density at 90°С
31
μoil crude kinematic viscosity of crude oil

AVDU atmospheric-vacuum distillation unit
ADU atmospheric distillations unit
CDU crude distillation unit
Refinery petroleum refinery plant
VDU vacuum distillation unit
K1 oil topping atmospheric column
K2 main atmospheric column
TBP true boiling point
t/h ton/hour
kg/h kilogram/hour
WV water Vapor
P&ID piping and instrumentation diagram
Author details
Serge-Bertrand Adiko1* and Rifat Radisovich Mingasov2
1 National University of Oil and Gas, Gubkin University, Moscow,

Russian Federation
2 Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russian Federation
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
32
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Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)

Keywords: demulsifiers, crude oil, desalting process, desalter, electrostatic

1. Pre-treatment of crude oil

groups: hydrophilic (lipophobic) and hydrophobic (lipophilic). The hydrophobic

1.2 Description of the crude oil and demulsifier

1.2.1 Oil emulsion

An emulsion is a suspension of small droplets of a liquid (water) in a second

1.2.2 The demulsifier (surfactant)

• The velocity of separation of water from oil;

• Quality of destruction of emulsions (fullness of water separation);

• Reliability in changing production conditions;

• The demulsifier must have a good quality/price or cost/efficiency ratio.

1.3 Mechanisms and devices of process of dehydration-desalination

• Advanced separators-vertical flow, horizontal unit with advanced electrostatic

• Desalting device-vertical flow, horizontal device with improved capabilities of

• Field separator-electrostatic coagulator, horizontal apparatus of electrostatic

• Electromechanical separators-a horizontal device that is characterized by a

The selection criterion of devices, it is recommended to consider the following

• properties of formation fluid and its quantity;

• the resistance of emulsion;

• pressure into the device;

1.4 The salts in crude oil

CaCl2 þ 2H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2 þ 2HCl (1)

CaCl2 þ 2NaOH ! CaðOHÞ2 þ 2NaCl (3)

1.5 Description of dewatering of oil emulsions with electrostatic desalter

• The stable insulating regime, this regime is characterized by very high

• The semiconductor, this regime is independent of the presence of water in the

• Conductor, relatively stable. The regime, however, it disappears by sufficient

1.5.1 Description of electrostatic desalter and its process

1.5.2 Desalting processes at a refinery

1.6 Example of modeling of electrostatic desalter at refinery

The electrostatic desalter volume 96 m3, which length-10 m, diameter –3 m.

1.6.1 Materials balances of electrostatic desalter

• the temperature at the entrance of feedstocks into the electrostatic desalter,

• the temperature at the outlet of feedstocks in the electrostatic desalter,

Indicators Methods Units of measure Values

Water content NF EN 9029 % mass 1

Total acid number ASTM D 664 mg KOH/g 0.619

Sulfur content NF EN 8754 % m/m 0.254

API ASTM D1298 — 29

Kinematic viscosity at 100°C ASTM D445 cSt 1.9

Freezing point NF EN ISO 3016 °C 17

status “ Expense “ is similar to the desalting- dewatering process. 140 t of emulsion

138:0897 t 99:95% mass: (4)

The amount of water X is 0.0691 t.

1.6.1 Modeling of the desalting process with electrostatic desalter

a ¼ lg lg ðν1 þ 0, 8Þ b lgT 1 (7)

Feedstocks ton/h % mass Products ton/h % mass

Total 154.0004 110.0003 Total: 154.0004 110.0003

where ν – viscosity, cSt, T is the absolute temperature, K; a and b are the

The interaction between water droplets can be increased by increasing the

where Uwater – deposition rate of water droplets in a stationary medium, m/h;

U water U wo ≥ U Em or U Water ≥ 2 U Em : (18)

Uwater = 0.0021 m/s.

½Pр durability allowable pressure corresponding to the strength condition:

Condition for reliable operation ½РЕ ≤ ½ppp must be observed.

½pD = 23451 ð14 4Þ