STO.

TOMAS NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
HUMSS II
AMSTERDAM

___________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS

AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
__________________________________________________

COMPILATION OF
LEARNINGS

SUBMITTED TO:

Mr. Beverly G. Villarino

I. INTRODUCTION

It can’t be denied that religion has a significant influence in our daily

lives. Our beliefs, lifestyle, culture, and practices all play a role in how our
community and our world is formed. Religion varies from place to place, and so
does the society and people who believe in a particular religion. Oftentimes, the
predominant religion of a particular place greatly affects the way of life of the
same people. These religions differ in doctrines and core beliefs but the effect
on the people belonging in such religion are relatively strong.
There are many religions existing today. From the arid western frontier
began Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the vast Indian subcontinent came
Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism, and Mahayana Buddhism from South Asia. In
the east originated Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism. These are some of
the world’s greatest religion. Studying these religions is important to understand
how certain beliefs and practices influences the effects it has on the people and
more importantly – understanding ourselves.
For the first semester of the year, we have studied about these religions,
their doctrines, origin, history, and nature. In this paper, the main concept of
these beliefs will be tackled. Learning about these religions has given us major
insights and added understanding of the world that will be very useful in our
daily lives.
II. CONTENTS
A. ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
i. Judaism
ii. Christianity
iii. Islam

B. DHARMIC RELIGIONS
i. Hinduism
ii. Theravada Buddhism
iii. Mahayana Buddhism

C. DAOIC RELIGIONS
i. Confucianism
ii. Daoism
iii. Shintoism
A. ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

JUDAISM
Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people, comprising the
collective religious, cultural and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish
people. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the
covenant that God established with the Children of Israel. It is an ancient
monotheistic religion that traces its origin as an organized belief system during
the Bronze Age in West Asia.
The origin of the Jewish people and the beginning of Judaism are recorded
in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch. The Pentateuch is
composed of the five books written by Moses, these are Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
As a religion, Judaism has three notable patriarchs,
namely, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These biblical
patriarchs are the physical and spiritual forebears of the
Jewish people. The patriarchs are depicted as nomads in
the bible. According to tradition, Abraham’s original
name was “Abram” who was born in the city of Ur of
the Chaldeas around 1800 B.C.E. The name was
changed and it meant “father of many nations.”
Jews call their God as Yahweh. The Jewish people
have been called the “people of the book” in reference
to the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh or Mikra ) that has been
the authority, guide, and inspiration of the many forms
of Judaism that has evolved throughout the different periods of time in various
places.
According to Moshe Ben Maimon, the minimum requirements of Jewish
belief as listed in his thirteen principles of faith are as follows:
1. God exists. 7. Moses’ prophecies are true, and Moses was
2. God is one and unique. the greatest of the prophets.
3. God is incorporeal. 8. The written and oral Torah were given to
4. God is eternal. Moses.
5. Prayer is to be directed to 9. There will be no other Torah.
 10. God knows the thoughts and deeds of
God alone and to no other. men
6. The words of the prophets are 11. God will reward the good and punish the
true. wicked.
12. The Messiah will come.
13. The dead will be resurrected..
HALAKHA
Jewish people follow a set of rules and practices that govern their everyday
living. Collectively called halakha which translates as the “the path that one
walks,” these are Jewish religious laws derived from the “Written Torah” and
“Oral Torah” including the 613 mitzvot.
SYNAGOGUES
Synagogues are Jewish temples of worship that jews use to fellowship that
contain separate rooms designed for different activities such as praying and
studying.
SUBDIVISIONS
Judaism has three present-day movements that emerged in response to the
modern and secular culture of Europe and America. These are Reform,
Orthodox, and Conservative Judaism.
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism is considered the most liberal expression of Judaism that
subjects religious laws and customs human judgement. Members of this
denomination sought to adhere to the original teachings of Judaism while
allowing some changes in their traditions. For example, services were permitted
to be conducted in mixed Hebrew and English, no longer conducted solely in
Hebrew language. Moreover, women were also accorded equality in terms of
sitting together with men in synagogues and allowing them to become rabbis
unlike in other denominations.
Orthodox Judaism
Is the most traditional of modern Judaism that adheres to the authority of the
entire Torah as given to Moses by God at Mount Sinai. The Torah or Pentateuch
is the sole authority that must be strictly followed until the present time. As it
considers itself the sole and genuine heir to the Jewish tradition, it rejects all
other Jewish movements as undesirable deviations to the original teachings.
Conservative Judaism
Largely developed in the 20th century, Conservative Judaism seeks to
conserve the traditional elements of Judaism while at the same time allowing for
modernization that is less radical than Reform Judaism.
SYMBOLS
Like all other religions, Judaism also has its own symbols that
represents different meanings of the Jewish faith.
The star of David of the Jewish people symbolizes martyrdom
and heroism.
Other Jewish symbol include the Menorah and Chai.

Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and
teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the
Messiah (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by
God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of
messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.
Followers of Christianity are called Christians. As of 2010, there are more
than 2 billion Christians in the world, which make up more than 30% of the
world’s population of 6.9 billion.
Symbols
The symbols shown in the side are the most common
symbols associated with Christianity. The cross
symbolizes Jesus Christ’s victory over sins when he died
for humanity’s redemption and salvation.
Meanwhile, the fish symbol is as old as humanity
itself for it was used by persecuted Christians as a secret
sign when meeting other Christians. Because Christians
were threatened by Romans at that time, they had to make
a secret code to avoid persecution. Thus, when meeting
other strangers on the way, a Christian would draw one
arc of the fish outline, and if the strangers draws another
arc to complete the fish, then they are safe in each other’s
company.
Deity/God
 Christianity is a monotheistic religion and it believes in one God. God is
seen as the creator and maintainer of the universe and is believed to be
omnipotent (all-powerful). God is also scared, moral, unchangeable,
compassionate, graceful, and timeless.
Christians also believe in the Holy Trinity, which means that God is
composed of three persons: God the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy
Spirit.
Sacred Scriptures
Every religion has a sacred scripture that contains all the beliefs and practices
of a particular religion. The Bible is considered the sacred scripture of
Christianity.
The Old Testament
It is also called the Hebrew bible. It is composed of 39 books which are
arranged in three parts: the first five books are considered “the Law” or Torah
which may refer to guidance or instruction. Later, these books were later called
Pentateuch, which were attributed to Moses.
The New Testament
Is composed of 27 books and is composed of two sections: The Gospels
which tell the story of Jesus and the Letters, written by various Christian leaders
to serve as guides to early Christian community.
The Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments, also called Decalogue, are a set of laws given by
God to the people of Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses. It is central to the
belief of Christians. The commandments are as follows:
1. I am the Lord thy God, thou shalt not have any strange gods before Me.
2. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
3. Remember to keep holy the Sabbath day.
4. Honor thy father and mother.
5. Thou shalt not kill.
6. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
7. Thou shalt not steal.
8. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
9. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife.
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s goods.

Subdivisions
Christianity is divided into many different groups called denominations. The
first Church was not an organization, but Jesus' apostles and friends. He said in
Matthew 18:19-20: "Again I say unto you, that if two of you shall agree on
earth as touching anything that they shall ask, it shall be done for them of my
Father which is in heaven, for where two or three are gathered together in my
name, there am I in the midst of them."
The first Christian organization was the Catholic Church, which eventually
broke into different denominations especially in the 1500s as a result of Martin
Luther and John Calvin. Christianity is divided between Eastern and Western
theology. In these two divisions there are six branches: Catholicism,
Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Oriental Orthodoxy, and
Assyrians. Restorationism is sometimes considered the seventh branch.
The major Protestant denominational families are:
Adventists
Baptists
Congregationalists
Lutherans
Methodists
Pentecostals
Presbyterians

Protestant denominations are separate from each other and have split several
times. Theology of each denomination is determined by the local church
councils or governing bodies.
There has always been a group of Jewish believers, Jews by birth who have
accepted Jesus as Messiah, who continue to practice some of their Jewish
religious customs while worshipping as Christians.
ISLAM
Islam is an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one
God, and that Muhammad is a messenger of God. It is the world's second-
largest religion with over 1.9 billion followers or 24.4% of the world's
population, commonly known as Muslims.
Symbols
The crescent moon and star Although Islam has no symbol
doctrinally associated with it, the symbol of the crescent
moon and star (hilal in Arabic) is now widely used to
symbolize Islam. This symbol has no religious
significance in Islam and Muslims do not hold the crescent
and star to be holy or sacred. The crescent represents
progress and the five pointed star, light and knowledge.
The moon is the appointed sign of times, seasons, fast and feast, and governs
the Islamic calendar. The five points of the star can represent the five pillars of
Islam, the essential elements of the Muslim faith.
History
The history of Islam concerns the political, social, economic and
developments of Islamicate civilization. Most historians believe that Islam
originated in Mecca and Medina at the start of the 7th century CE,
approximately 600 years after the founding of Christianity. Muslims, however,
believe that it did not start with Muhammad, but that it was the original faith of
others whom they regard as prophets, such as Jesus, David, Moses, Abraham,
Noah and Adam.
The Qur’an
The Quran: literally, ‘that which is often recited.’ A
web of rhythm and meaning, the words of which throb
through Muslim worship and which, at every point in
the believer’s life.
The Quran represents the fountainhead of Divine
guidance for every Muslim. Its revelation to the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his
practical implementation of the revelation, completed
God’s blessing for humanity, in providing us with a
belief and value system that is valid for all times. It
confirms the revelations given to earlier Prophets,
though these might not be accessible to us, in the form they were originally
revealed. The most sublime language and a rational message that directly
appeals to the human heart have caused this Divine book to move nations and
civilizations. It will continue to guide those who turn to God with a sincere
heart, for all times.

The Five Pillars of Islam

The most important Muslim practices are the Five Pillars of Islam. The Five
Pillars of Islam are the five obligations that every Muslim must satisfy in order
to live a good and responsible life according to Islam.
The Five Pillars consist of:
Shahadah: sincerely reciting the Muslim profession of faith
Salat: performing ritual prayers in the proper way five times each day
Zakat: paying an alms (or charity) tax to benefit the poor and the needy
Sawm: fasting during the month of Ramadan
Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca
Why are they important?
Carrying out these obligations provides the framework of a Muslim's life, and
weaves their everyday activities and their beliefs into a single cloth of religious
devotion.
No matter how sincerely a person may believe, Islam regards it as pointless to
live life without putting that faith into action and practice.
Carrying out the Five Pillars demonstrates that the Muslim is putting their faith
first, and not just trying to fit it in around their secular lives.

SUBDIVISIONS
Like all other religions, Islam has sects, which vary how these sects interpret
the sacred scripture of Qur’an.
Sunni Islam, also known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jamā'h or simply Ahl as-
Sunnah, is the largest denomination of Islam. The word Sunni comes from the
word sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Sahaba
and the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. In many countries, overwhelming
majorities of Muslims are Sunnis, so that they simply refer to themselves as
"Sunnis" and do not use Muslim as a label.
The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to
lead the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, however they approve
of the private election of the first companion, Abu Bakr. Sunni Muslims regard
the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and
Ali ibn Abi Talib) as "al-Khulafā'ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided
Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of caliph may be attained
democratically, on gaining a majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the
position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions started by
the Umayyads and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there
has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world.
Shia Islam
Is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising 10–20% of the total
Muslim population. Although a minority in the Muslim world, Shia Muslims
constitute the majority of the Muslim populations in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and
Azerbaijan as well as significant minorities in Syria, eastern Africa, south Asia,
and Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Persian Gulf.
In addition to believing in the authority of the Quran and teachings of
Muhammad, Shia believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the
"People of the House"), including his descendants known as Imams, have
special spiritual and political authority over the community and believe that Ali
ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams
and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of
the first three Rashidun caliphs.
Sufism
Is Islam's mystical-ascetic dimension and is represented by schools or orders
known as Tasawwufī-Ṭarīqah. It is seen as that aspect of Islamic teaching that
deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual
aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making
use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.
B. DHARMIC RELIGIONS

HINDUISM
Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or way of life, widely practiced
in the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. Hinduism has been
called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer
to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond
human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various
Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu
synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the end of the
Vedic period (1500 to 500 BCE), and flourished in the medieval period, with
the decline of Buddhism in India.
Symbols
The OM
The OM represents the letters A U M in Hindi,
which is the sound of the sun. A – to create, U – to
preserve, M – to destroy. The three letters represent
the trinity of God in Hindu Dharma (Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva). They also represent the states of
wakening, dream and deep sleep and the three planes
of existence: heaven, earth and the netherworld.
Sacred Scriptures
The Vedas, or “Books of Knowledge,” are the foremost sacred texts in
Hinduism. These books, written from around 1200 BCE to 100 CE, began with
four vedas, or mantras: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
These expanded over time to include Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
The Vedas
These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus.
They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to
India by the Aryans. Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars
direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth.
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds,
maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally.
Contents of the Vedas
The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four
parts which are arranged chronologically.

The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of
praise to God.
The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of
Hinduism.
The Samhitas
Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of
1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic
sacrifices.
Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date
the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat
down beside their teachers. (upa = near, ni = down, shad = sit). These texts
developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by
providing believers with philosophical knowledge.The major Upanishads were
largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse.
Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century.
Originally they were in oral form. The early Upanishads are concerned with
understanding the sacrificial rites. Central to the Upanishads is the concept of
brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the
Mahabharata, the world's longest poem. Composed between 500 BCE and 100
CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata.
 It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the
remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than
shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important
place within the Hindu tradition. The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a
dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his charioteer.
Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches
of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives.
He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna,
must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not
destroy the soul. Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all
paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God.
SUBDIVISIONS
Most practicing Hindus belong to a denomination or sect of Hinduism,
which is a small sub-set of a larger tradition. The most famous of these sects,
and those with the largest following, are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and
Smartism. The sects typically focus on bhakti, or devotion, to one deity.
Vaishnavism: Devotion to Vishnu
Vaishnavism is, by far, the sect with the most followers worldwide. It is not
surprising since Vaishnavas, the adherents to this sect, worship primarily the
preserver god Vishnu. Vishnu manifested himself in many forms in the world,
including as the ever-popular Krishna, a youthful, blue-skinned god associated
with compassion. Vaishnavas typically worship his consort, Lakshmi, as well.
The couple is often depicted sitting or lying on a giant thousand-headed serpent
that is floating on the ocean of the universe.
Shaivism: Devotion to Shiva
Shaivism is the second largest branch of Hinduism. This might seem strange
since the followers, Shaivas, worship Shiva, the god of destruction. His title is
not as simple as it seems, though. Shiva is not a malicious destroyer, but a
transformer. He acts as balance to the creation and preservation already part of
the Hindu trimurti, or trinity, which consists of Brahma and Vishnu as well.
Shaivas, however, believe that Shiva created everything
Shaktism: Devotion to the Great Goddess
While the major Hindu sects focus on bhakti to gods in the trimurti, Shaktism
focuses on worship of the ''Great Goddess'' and her many forms. She is typically
called ''Devi,'' though ''Shakti'' is another common name and what gives the sect
its name. Adherents to this tradition hold the Devi Mahatmyh, or ''Greatness of
Devi,'' text sacred. Shaktas believe the Great Goddess was created to kill a
buffalo-headed demon who was terrorizing the universe, but could not be killed
by a man; so a woman was created, showing that femininity was not equivalent
with weakness.

THERAVADA BUDDHISM
Theravada Buddhism ("doctrine of the elders") is the oldest and most
orthodox of Buddhism's three major sects. Regarded as the belief closest to the
one taught by The Buddha himself, it is based on the recollections of The
Buddha's teachings amassed by the Elders—the elder monks who were
Buddha's companions. Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Sri Lanka,
Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar (Burma) and the Mekong Delta areas of
Vietnam. It is sometimes called 'Southern Buddhism'.
Theravada Buddhism stresses spirituality, the enlightenment of the individual,
self-discipline, the importance or pure thought and deed, the importance of the
monastic life and the strict observance of the ancient Vinaya code It has distinct
roles for monks and lay people, emphasizes that each individual is responsible
for his or her salvation and takes the position that only monks are capable of
reaching nirvana. Theravada Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to
the original teachings of the Buddha. However, it does not necessarily over-
emphasize these teachings in a conservative, fundamentalist way, rather they are
viewed as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having merit of
their own.
In the name 'the doctrine of the elders' - the elders refers to senior Buddhist
monks. This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the
original teachings of the Buddha. However, it does not over-emphasize the
status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way - they are seen as tools to help
people understand the truth, and not as having merit of their own. [Source:
BBC]
Theravada Buddhism was one of 18 schools that existed in centuries after The
Buddha's death. It spread from India to Sri Lanka and then to Southeast Asia
and remained close to the original Pali canon. The other 17 schools disappeared
when Muslims swept into northern India and destroyed the Buddhist
monasteries that existed there. Theravada Buddhism is sometimes referred to in
a somewhat dismissing way as Hinayana (‘Lesser Vehicle’) Buddhism by
Mahayana Buddhists.
By the third century B.C., Buddhism had spread widely in Asia, and
divergent interpretations of the Buddha's teachings had led to the establishment
of several sects. The teachings that reached Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka)
were given in a final written form in Pali (an Indo-Aryan language closely
related to Sanskrit) to religious centers there in the first century A.D. and
provided the Tipitaka (the scriptures or "three baskets"; in Sanskrit, Tripitaka)
of Theravada Buddhism. This form of Buddhism reached what is now Thailand
around the sixth century A.D. Theravada Buddhism was made the state religion
only with the establishment of the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai in the thirteenth
century A.D.

Symbols
The eight-spoked dharmachakra. The eight spokes
represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.

Sacred Scriptures
The Four Noble Truths are a contingency plan for dealing with the
suffering humanity faces -- suffering of a physical kind, or of a mental nature.
The First Truth identifies the presence of suffering.
The Second Truth, on the other hand, seeks to determine the cause of
suffering. In Buddhism, desire and ignorance lie at the root of suffering. By
desire, Buddhists refer to craving pleasure, material goods, and immortality, all
of which are wants that can never be satisfied. As a result, desiring them can
only bring suffering. Ignorance, in comparison, relates to not seeing the world
as it actually is. Without the capacity for mental concentration and insight,
Buddhism explains, one's mind is left undeveloped, unable to grasp the true
nature of things. Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from this
ignorance.
The Third Noble Truth, the truth of the end of suffering, has dual
meaning, suggesting either the end of suffering in this life, on earth, or in the
spiritual life, through achieving Nirvana. When one has achieved Nirvana,
which is a transcendent state free from suffering and our worldly cycle of birth
and rebirth, spiritual enlightenment has been reached. The Fourth Noble truth
charts the method for attaining the end of suffering, known to Buddhists as the
Noble Eightfold Path.
The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right Understanding, Right
Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right
Mindfulness and Right Concentration. Moreover, there are three themes into
which the Path is divided: good moral conduct (Understanding, Thought,
Speech); meditation and mental development (Action, Livelihood, Effort), and
wisdom or insight (Mindfulness and Concentration).

Karma
Contrary to what is accepted in contemporary society, the Buddhist
interpretation of karma does not refer to preordained fate. Karma refers to good
or bad actions a person takes during her lifetime. Good actions, which involve
either the absence of bad actions, or actual positive acts, such as generosity,
righteousness, and meditation, bring about happiness in the long run. Bad
actions, such as lying, stealing or killing, bring about unhappiness in the long
run. The weight that actions carry is determined by five conditions: frequent,
repetitive action; determined, intentional action; action performed without
regret; action against extraordinary persons; and action toward those who have
helped one in the past. Finally, there is also neutral karma, which derives from
acts such as breathing, eating or sleeping. Neutral karma has no benefits or
costs.

The Cycle of Rebirth

Karma plays out in the Buddhism cycle of rebirth. There are six separate
planes into which any living being can be reborn -- three fortunate realms, and
three unfortunate realms. Those with favorable, positive karma are reborn into
one of the fortunate realms: the realm of demigods, the realm of gods, and the
realm of men. While the demigods and gods enjoy gratification unknown to
men, they also suffer unceasing jealousy and envy. The realm of man is
considered the highest realm of rebirth. Humanity lacks some of the
extravagances of the demigods and gods, but is also free from their relentless
conflict. Similarly, while inhabitants of the three unfortunate realms -- of
animals, ghosts and hell -- suffer untold suffering, the suffering of the realm of
man is far less.

The realm of man also offers one other aspect lacking in the other five
planes, an opportunity to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana. Given the sheer
number of living things, to be born human is to Buddhists a precious chance at
spiritual bliss, a rarity that one should not forsake.
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the Great Vehicle, is the form of
Buddhism prominent in North Asia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea,
and Japan. Arising out of schisms—about both doctrine and monastic rules—
within Indian Buddhism in the first century C.E., the Great Vehicle considers
itself a more authentic version of the Buddha's teachings. The Mahayana
accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada tradition (what they derisively call
the Hinayana, or "lesser vehicle), but also have a vast corpus of philosophical
and devotional texts.
The most distinctive teaching of the Mahayana is that the great compassion
that is an inherent component of enlightenment is manifest in bodhisattvas
(enlightenment beings); these beings postpone nirvana (final enlightenment) in
order to assist and guide those beings still suffering in the cycle of rebirths.
They employ what the Mahayana calls "skillful means," which is the ability to
know the particular mental and emotional capacity of each individual, and to
deliver guidance appropriate to those capacities. The Mahayana developed a
vast pantheon of bodhisattvas, Buddhas, and other powerful beings, and a
complex array of devotional and meditational practices directed toward them.
As the Mahayana moved beyond India, it took typically adopted distinct local
cultural characteristics; thus the Mahayana pantheon in China is significantly
different than that found in India, or that in Japan.
Sacred Scriptures
The Tripitaka (The Three Baskets) is recognized as a holy book in
Mahayana Buddhism. It was compiled orally but was written down in
the 3rd century B.C.E. It is made up of three part: Vinaya Pitaka
(Discipline Baskets), Sutra Pitaka (Discourse Basket), and
Abhidharma Pitaka (Special Teachings). The first basket (Vinaya
Pitaka), contains the rules for monks. The second basket (Sutra
Pitaka), is dedicated to all the teachings and sermons of the Buddha.
And the final basket (Abhidharma Pitaka), contains poems and stories
about Buddha and his past lives.
The Sutras are the sacred books of Mahayana Buddhism, compiled
in the 2nd century B.C.E. The Lotus Sutra is very important to the
Mahayana sect. It discusses that Buddhahood (enlightenment) can be
achieved by anyone. The Lotus Sutra enabled lay people to practice
Buddhism and established that not only those who chose a monastic
path could achieve Nirvana.

Subdivisions
Mahayana Buddhism is not a single group but a collection of Buddhist
traditions: Zen Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism are all
forms of Mahayana Buddhism.
Theravada and Mahayana are both rooted in the basic teachings of the
historical Buddha, and both emphasise the individual search for liberation from
the cycle of samsara (birth, death, rebirth...). The methods or practices for doing
that, however, can be very different.
The Bodhisattva
Mahayana talks a great deal about the bodhisattva (the 'enlightenment
being') as being the ideal way for a Buddhist to live.
Anyone can embark on the bodhisattva path. This is a way of life, a way of
selflessness; it is a deep wish for all beings, no matter who they are, to be
liberated from suffering.
The Boddhisattva Vow
However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them.
However inexhaustible the defilements are, I vow to extinguish them.
However immeasurable the dharmas are, I vow to master them.
However incomparable enlightenment is, I vow to attain it.
The Trikaya - the three bodies of Buddha
Mahayana Buddhism says that there are three aspects of Buddhahood, which it
describes by regarding Buddha as having three bodies (trikaya):
Dharmakaya: Buddha is transcendent - he is the same thing as the ultimate truth.
Sambhogakaya: Buddha's body of bliss, or enjoyment body.
Nirmanakaya: Buddha's earthly body - just like any other human being's body.

Enlightened Beings
After buddhas, the most important beings in Mahayana
iconography are bodhisattvas. The word bodhisattva means
"enlightenment being." Very simply, bodhisattvas are
beings who work for the enlightenment of all beings, not
just themselves. They vow not to enter Nirvana until all
beings enter Nirvana together.
The bodhisattva is the ideal of all Mahayana Buddhists.
The bodhisattva's path is for all of us, not just the beings in
the statues and pictures. Mahayana Buddhists take
Bodhisattva Vows to save all beings.
Transcendent Bodhisattvas
The bodhisattvas found in art and literature are sometimes called
transcendent bodhisattvas. They are beings who have realized enlightenment but
who remain active in the world, appearing in many forms to help others and
lead them to enlightenment. They are venerated and called upon for help in time
of need.
The bodhisattvas of literature and art can be thought of as allegorical
representations of the activity of enlightenment in the world. In Buddhist tantra
practice, the bodhisattvas are archetypes of perfect practice to be emulated and,
eventually, to become. For example, one might meditate on the image of the
Bodhisattva of Compassion in order to become a vehicle for compassion in the
world.
From a Buddhist perspective, most people confuse "identity" with "reality."
But in Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism in particular, nothing has an
intrinsic identity. We "exist" as distinct beings only in relation to other beings.
This is not to say that we don't exist, but that our existence as individuals is
conditional and relative.
 If our identities as individual beings are, in a sense, illusory, does that mean
we're not "real"? What's "real"?
Bodhisattvas manifest where they are needed in many forms. They might be
bums or babies, friends or strangers, teachers, firemen, or used car salesmen.
They might be you. Whenever needed help is given without selfish attachment,
there is the hand of the bodhisattva. When we see and hear the suffering of
others and respond to that suffering, we are the hands of the bodhisattva.

C. DAOIC RELIGIONS

CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical
philosophy rather than a religion. In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient
religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent
ideals of traditional Chinese society. It was what sociologist Robert Bellah
called a "civil religion," (1) the sense of religious identity and common moral
understanding at the foundation of a society's central institutions. It is also what
a Chinese sociologist called a "diffused religion"; (3) its institutions were not a
separate church, but those of society, family, school, and state; its priests were
not separate liturgical specialists, but parents, teachers, and officials.
Confucianism was part of the Chinese social fabric and way of life; to
Confucians, everyday life was the arena of religion.

The founder of Confucianism, Master Kong

(Confucius, 551-479 B.C.E.) did not intend to found
a new religion, but to interpret and revive the
unnamed religion of the Zhou dynasty, under which
many people thought the ancient system of religious
rule was bankrupt. The dominant view of the day,
espoused by Realists and Legalists, was that strict
law and statecraft were the bases of sound policy.
Confucius, however, believed that the basis lay in Zhou religion, in its rituals
(li). He interpreted these not as sacrifices asking for the blessings of the gods,
but as ceremonies performed by human agents and embodying the civilized and
cultured patterns of behavior developed through generations of human wisdom.
They embodied, for him, the ethical core of Chinese society. Moreover,
Confucius applied the term "ritual" to actions beyond the formal sacrifices and
religious ceremonies to include social rituals: courtesies and accepted standards
of behavior-- what we today call social mores. He saw these time-honored and
traditional rituals as the basis of human civilization, and he felt that only a
civilized society could have a stable, unified, and enduring social order.

The Life of Confucius

Life of Confucius – The History of K’ung the Master
The life of Confucius begins with a man named K’ung Ch’iu who was born
in northeastern China in 551 BC. It was a time when China was being sliced
into feudal states by the warlord “princes” who raised armies, waged battles,
oppressed slave laborers, and heavily taxed subjects. Ch’iu was a self-educated
youth, raised by a poor family in the state of Lu. In his teenage years, he had an
administrative position with the local noble, managing his agricultural accounts.
It was here that Ch’iu started developing a passion for ethical philosophy.
As an adult, Ch’iu left his homeland and began wandering from state to state
in China. His ambition was to share his philosophy with the ruling princes,
believing that these powerful leaders had an obligation to lead their people with
virtue. Rather than leading for power, control, money, or ego, the princes of
China must understand their higher purpose, which was to do “right” and lead
by selfless example.
Over the years, Ch’iu was (understandably) rejected by the entrenched
warlords. However, during his travels, Ch’iu (understandably) won the hearts of
the oppressed people. He ultimately returned to his home state and started an
informal school where he taught his principles to a growing number of
followers. He taught in areas of ethics, leadership, history, psychology, and the
arts. His strategy was to train-up young men in virtuous education and then
watch them take positions in government throughout China, where they could
have a true impact on transforming the land.
As a teacher, Ch’iu became known as K’ung Fu-tzu (K’ung the Master). He
trained many “disciples” over the years, and helped install many of them in state
government positions. The Master viewed political systems as the broadest way
to apply his transformational ethics across China. By the time he died in 478
BC, K’ung Fu-tzu was considered, alongside Buddha, as one of the two greatest
ethical minds in the East.
At a time when Aeschylus and Socrates were spawning the ethical
philosophies of the Greek world, and Haggai and Zechariah were encouraging
the Jews to return to Jerusalem, K’ung Fu-tzu (later Latinized as “Confucius”)
was popularizing a philosophy of ethical humanism that would have a huge
impact on the social, political, and philosophical structure of China for years to
come.

Sacred Scriptures
The Five Classics (wujing) and Four Books (si shu) collectively create the
foundation of Confucianism. The Five Classics and Four Books were the basis
of the civil examination in imperial China and can be considered the Confucian
canon. The Five Classics consists of the Book of Odes, Book of Documents,
Book of Changes, Book of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The
Four Books are comprised of the Doctrine of the Mean, the Great Learning,
Mencius, and the Analects. From the Han to the early Song, the Five Classics
grew into thirteen classics. In the early Song, however, scholars focused on the
original Five Classics again. By the mid-Song, however, the Analects, Mencius,
Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean began gaining importance and by the
early fourteenth century, the Four Book were the texts for the civil
examinations.
The Four Books is a guide for moral self-cultivation. According to the Great
Learning, the key to moral self-cultivation is learning, or the investigation of
things. Through the investigation of things, one comes to understand the
principle in all things, which allows one to better comprehend the world.
Through this moral self-cultivation, one's li (principle) and qi (psychophysical
stuff) are in harmony, leading to consistent moral behavior. Zhu Xi prescribed
that The Great Learning be the first of the Confucian Classics read, as the
message contained in The Great Learning would orient scholars to think about
the value of their studies.
Daoism or Taoism
Is a philosophical or religious tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes
living in harmony with the Tao (Dao; literally: 'the Way'). The Tao is a
fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it
denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that
exists. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and
social order, but is similar in the sense that it is a teaching about the various
disciplines for achieving "perfection" by becoming one with the unplanned
rhythms of the universe called "the way" or "dao".Taoist ethics vary depending
on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize wu wei (action
without intention), naturalness, simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures:
compassion, frugality, and humility.
Symbols
Yin and yang is a concept of dualism in ancient Chinese
philosophy, describing how seemingly opposite or
contrary forces may actually be complementary,
interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world,
and how they may give rise to each other as they
interrelate to one another.
The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew
its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang, and was deeply
influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the I Ching, which
expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behavior in
accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The "Legalist" Shen Buhai (c.
400 – c. 337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a
realpolitik of wu wei. The Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings
attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist
tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi.
Sacred Scriptures
The Taode jing and Zhuangzi are polemical texts; that is, they criticize or
mock other popular views, especially those of Confucius. Other texts that
engaged in the early debates about the way, or path, from a point of view that
would later be identified with "Taoism" include the Liezi, a text similar in style
to the Zhuangzi and containing some of the same material, and the Neiye, which
concerns self-cultivation practices. The Neiye is a chapter in the Guanzi, a text
that would be now classified as "Legalist," but also contains Taoist and
Confucian ideas.

All of these texts were written sometime during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
(770-221 B.C.E.). When Qin Shihuangdi unified all Zhou territories as well as
lands beyond the boundaries of the Zhou empire to form the Qin empire (221-
206 B.C.E.), one of the totalitarian measures he undertook to solidify his power
was to order the burning of all books. Although the original texts may have
been hundreds of years older, most of the editions that are now available are
recreations dating from the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) or later.
The Dao
According to Laozi, the Dao, which is the essential concept and creative
principle in Daoism, existed long ago. It is undetectable, indistinct, and
idefinable. It is the foundation of all being, the way in which nature and the
universe exist. Everything comes from this is why the Dao is called “The
Mother.”
The De
Means virtue or proper adherence to Dao, is another basic concept in Daoism
it encourages inaction in nature and advocates the quiet and passive nature of a
person o that the Dao, or the creative principle in the universe, may act through
them without interference. For Daoist, inaction means a person’s outward
actions and emptiness is the corresponding inner state, which also means
“absence of desire.”
Moral Practices
 The common view of Daoism is that it encourages people to live with
detachment and calm, resting in non-action and smiling at the vicissitudes of the
world (Livia Kohn, Cosmos and Community).
Contrary to this common view, Daoists through the ages have developed
various forms of community and proposed numerous sets of behavioral
guidelines and texts on ethical considerations. Beyond the ancient philosophers,
who are well-known for the moral dimension of their teachings, religious Daoist
rules cover both ethics, i.e., the personal values of the individual, and morality,
i.e., the communal norms and social values of the organization. They range
from basic moral rules against killing, stealing, lying, and sexual misconduct
through suggestions for altruistic thinking and models of social interaction to
behavioral details on how to bow, eat, and wash, as well as to the unfolding of
universal ethics that teach people to think like the Dao itself.

About eighty texts in the Daoist canon and its supplements describe such
guidelines and present the ethical and communal principles of the Daoist
religion. They document just to what degree Daoist realization is based on how
one lives one's life in interaction with the community-family, religious group,
monastery, state, and cosmos. Ethics and morality, as well as the creation of
community, emerge as central in the Daoist religion.

Shintoism
Indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. The word Shintō, which
literally means “the way of kami” (generally sacred or divine power,
specifically the various gods or deities), came into use in order to distinguish
indigenous Japanese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into
Japan in the 6th century CE. Shintō has no founder, no official sacred scriptures
in the strict sense, and no fixed dogmas, but it has preserved its guiding beliefs
throughout the ages.
In ancient times small
states were gradually formed
at various places. By the
middle of the 4th century
CE, a nation with an
ancestor of the present
Imperial Household as its
head had probably been established. The constituent unit of society at that time
was the uji (clan or family), and the head of each uji was in charge of
worshiping the clan’s ujigami—its particular tutelary or guardian deity. The
prayer for good harvest in spring and the harvest ceremony in autumn were two
major festivals honouring the ujigami. Divination, water purification, and
lustration (ceremonial purification), which are all mentioned in the Japanese
classics, became popular, and people started to build shrines for their kami.

Sacred Scriptures
The holy books of Shinto are the Kojiki or 'Records of Ancient Matters' (712
CE) and the Nihon-gi or 'Chronicles of Japan' (720 CE). These books are
compilations of ancient myths and traditional teachings that had previously been
passed down orally.
Kojiki
As one of the most important text on Shintoism, Kojiki is composed of three
books: the first is the age of kami, which narrates the mythodology, while the
second and third books discuss the imperial lineage. The Kojiki is an important
source book for ceremonies, customs, divination, and magical practices of
ancient Japan. It includes myths, legends, and historical accounts of the imperial
court from the earliest days of its creation up to the reign of Empress Suiko.
Much of Shintō thought is based on interpretations of the mythology contained
in the Kojiki. It was written using Chinese characters to represent Japanese
sounds, inasmuch as no means of recording Japan’s developing spoken
language had yet been devised. The religious and ethical values of the Kojiki
were rediscovered and reevaluated by Moto-ori Norinaga (1730–1801), who
wrote the complete “Annotation of the Kojiki” in 49 volumes. The Kojiki was
first translated into English in 1882.
Nihongi
The Nihon Shoki, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the
second-oldest book of classical Japanese history. The book is also called the
Nihongi. It was a sequel of sorts to the Kojiki ('Record of Ancient Things').
Compiled in 712 CE by the court scholar Ono Yasumaro, the earlier work also
described the mythology of the Shinto gods and the creation of the world. Not
necessarily an accurate historical record, the Kojiki was principally
commissioned to establish a clear line of descent from the ruling emperors of
the 7th and 8th century CE back to the Shinto gods and the supreme sun
goddess Amaterasu. The Nihon Shoki was designed to address some of the
discrepancies in its predecessor and to reassert the genealogies of some of the
clans (uji) neglected in the Kojiki, the latter work having greatly favoured the
Yamato clan. The Nihon Shoki, therefore, repeats many of the myths of the
Kojiki but often from a different view point and with changes in details. Like
the earlier work, songs and poems are regularly inserted into the prose. The
work, again like the Kojiki, drew on now lost texts (from Japan, China, and the
kingdom of Baekje in Korea) and oral accounts making it an invaluable source
of life in ancient Japan and its mythology.

Shrine and home worship

Torii arch and wide staircase full of people climbing up to the Tosho Gu
shrine, a collection of buildings with gold-painted roofs. People arriving to
worship at Tosho Gu shrine, Nikko. Shinto worship is highly ritualised, and
follows strict conventions of protocol, order and control. It can take place in the
home or in shrines. Although all Shinto worship and ritual takes place within
the patterns set when the faith was centralised in the 19th century, there is much
local diversity.
In keeping with Shinto values, Shinto ritual should be carried out in a spirit
of sincerity, cheerfulness and purity.
Shinto worship and the senses
Shinto ritual is intended to satisfy the senses as well as the minds of those
taking part, so the way in which it is carried out is of huge importance. Shinto
ceremonies have strong aesthetic elements - the setting and props, the sounds,
the dress of the priests, and the language and speech are all intended to please
the kami to whom the worship is offered.
Private and public worship
Although Shinto worship features public and shared rituals at local shrines,
it can also be a private and individual event, in which a person at a shrine (or in
their home) prays to particular kami either to obtain something, or to thank the
kami for something good that has happened.
Worship at home
 Many Japanese homes contain a place set aside as a shrine, called a kami-
dana (kami shelf), where they may make offerings of flowers or food, and say
prayers. The kami-dana is a shelf that contains a tiny replica of the sanctuary of
a shrine, and may also include amulets bought to ensure good luck (or absorb
bad luck). A mirror in the centre connects the shelf to the kami.
If a family has bought a religious object at a shrine they will lay this on the
kami-dana, thus linking home to shrine.
Worship at a shrine
There is no special day of the week for worship in Shinto - people visit
shrines for festivals, for personal spiritual reasons, or to put a particular request
to the kami (this might be for good luck in an exam, or protection of a family
member, and so on).

Worship takes place in shrines built with great understanding of the natural
world. The contrast between the human ritual and the natural world underlines
the way in which Shinto constructs and reflects human empathy for the
universe. The journey that the worshipper makes through the shrine to the
sanctuary where the ritual takes place forms part of the worship, and helps the
worshipper to move spiritually from the everyday world to a place of holiness
and purity. The aesthetics (or to put it over simply, the 'look') of the shrine
contribute substantially to the worship, in the way that the setting of a theatre
play contributes significantly to the overall drama.
Although Shinto rituals appear very ancient, many are actually modern
revivals, or even modern inventions.

III. OTHER INSIGHTS

The Nature of Religion
Religion in nature, is a belief. People rely solely on faith to do or perform
certain practices without knowing the guarantee of the effects of these rituals.
The typical dictionary definition of religion refers to a “belief in, or the worship
of, a god or gods” or the “service and worship of God or the supernatural.”
However, many writers and scholars have noted that this basic “belief in god”
definition fails to capture the diversity of religious thought and experience.
Edward Burnett Tylor defined religion as simply “the belief in spiritual beings.”
He argued, in 1871, that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a
supreme deity or judgment after death would exclude many peoples from the
category of religious and thus “has the fault of identifying religion rather with
particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them.” He
also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies.
The Importance of Religion
The range of influence by which religion affects millions of people is
strong. Religion gives moral guides and practices that people follow in pursuit
of goodness. Thus, religion guides people to the right way. This in effect allows
people to be in harmony and build a progressive community.
The Influence of Religion
The influence of religion is observably strong. Religion affects our daily
lives, thus, acting as a strong doctrine strictly followed by some. This range of
influence is very evident in how we take into consideration the spiritual
background of a person, group, or entity for example, a candidate for office.

IV. CONCLUSION

Religion has a very strong impact on our daily lives. From our food, choice
of clothing, and overall lifestyle, religion holds a firm grip on how we come into
terms in living our life.
It is important that we understand religion. Understanding how religion
affects the people around us will give us better understanding of how different
people live with different beliefs. Doing this will help us learn to live in
harmony in spite of our differences in beliefs.
Sources
Books
Ong, Jerome A. (2016). Introduction to world religions and belief systems: Vibal Group, Inc.
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(accessed October 10, 2019)
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