Method for Prediction of

Flexible Pipe Deflection

M-25 Third Edition

1.1.1
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
Technical Service Center
Denver, Colorado February 2019
Mission Statements
The U.S. Department of the Interior protects America’s
natural resources and heritage, honors our cultures and
tribal communities, and supplies the energy to power our
future.

The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage,

develop, and protect water and related resources in an
environmentally and economically sound manner in the
interest of the American public.
Method for Prediction of
Flexible Pipe Deflection
M-25 Third Edition

U.S. Department of the Interior February 2019

Bureau of Reclamation
 BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
Technical Service Center, Denver, Colorado
Water Conveyance Group

Method for Prediction of Flexible

Pipe Deflection
M-25 Third Edition
February 2019

Report modified by.

Linda M Bowles, P.E.

Civil Engineer, Water Conveyance Group

Technical Approval by.

vsl C `fie,
Wylid C. Duke, P.E.
Civil Engineer, Water Conveyance Group

Pee vieW by:

-11
`o Tin cy~ ~..
Timothy P BrownTP.E.
Civil Engineer, Water Conveyance Group

REVISIONS

Date Description m
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m 0.
a ~ ¢ aQ
Contents
Page

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................1
2. Deflection of Flexible Pipe...............................................................................3
3. Reclamation Deflection Equation ....................................................................5
3.1 Deflection ...............................................................................................6
3.2 Time-Lag Factor, Tf ...............................................................................8
3.3 Earth Loads ............................................................................................8
3.4 Live Loads .............................................................................................9
3.5 Pipe Stiffness Factor, EI/r3 ...................................................................10
3.6 Design Factor, Fd .................................................................................11
3.7 Modulus of Soil Reaction, E ...............................................................14
3.8 Compaction of Embedment .................................................................14
3.9 Stiffness of Trench Wall ......................................................................15
3.10 Determination of Combined E ............................................................16
4. Allowable Long-Term Deflections ................................................................19
5. CLSM .............................................................................................................21
6. Flexible Pipe 10 Inches in Diameter and Smaller ..........................................23
7. Bibliography ...................................................................................................25

Appendices
A Example Calculations
B Pipe Deflection for Standard Installation Method
C Reclamation Deflection Equation Development
D Design Factor (Fd) Variations
E Live Loads (WL)

Tables
Table Page

1 HS-20 Live Loads for Rigid Pavement (lb/in2) ...........................................9

2 HS-20 Live Loads for Flexible Pavement (lb/in2) .......................................9
3 Railroad Live Loads (lb/in2) ........................................................................9
4 Typical Modulus of Elasticity Values (E) .................................................10
5 Embedment Material Parameters ...............................................................12
6 Native Trench Wall Material Parameters ..................................................13
7 Values for Soil Support Combining Factor, Sc ..........................................17
8 En Based on SPT Test [14]........................................................................17
9 E’n Based on CPT Test [14] .......................................................................17

i
Tables (continued)
Table Page

10 Allowable Pipe Deflections .......................................................................19

11 Pipe Stiffness Factor (EI/r3) .......................................................................24
12 Dimension Ratio Required for PVC and HDPE Pipe ................................24

Figures
Figure Page

1 Trench terminology. .....................................................................................1

2 CLSM trench details for Material Type 1. .................................................21
3 CLSM trench details for Material Type 2. .................................................22
4 Flexible pipe 10 inches and smaller. ..........................................................23

ii
Foreword
This is the third edition of the Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection.
The first edition, released May 1, 1997, was prepared by Amster K. Howard
(soils specialist), Leo A Kinney, Jr. (pipe specialist), and Richard P. Fuerst (pipe
specialist). The equations and tables were based on the research of Amster
Howard and documented in 1981. The second edition was released in
December 2013 and was updated by Richard P. Fuerst to use the ATV formula,
instead of a table, to determine the correction factor (Sc). In addition, the
E’ tables were updated based on additional testing by Amster Howard, and the
manual was rearranged for better presentation of the material. The third edition
removes the ATV formula and restores the correction factor (Sc) table, updates
the examples, and makes other minor corrections.

iii
1. Introduction
One of the design considerations for flexible pipe is the deflection of the pipe due
to dead and live loads on the pipe. Currently, there are various methods for
estimating pipe deflection and various parameters for each method. This manual
states the method used by the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation), discusses the
use of the method, and gives example calculations that apply the method.

There are two basic types of pipe: rigid and flexible. A flexible pipe is generally
a pipe that can deflect without structural distress to the pipe or to any coating or
lining. Types of flexible pipes used by Reclamation are steel, ductile iron,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), bar-wrapped
concrete cylinder (old Reclamation designation PT), and fiberglass. The
discussions in this report pertain only to flexible pipe.

Terminology used to describe a typical pipe trench cross section differs across
various manuals, guides, and standards. Reclamation terminology is illustrated in
figure 1. “Bedding” is the soil on which the pipe is laid, and the “embedment” is
the soil placed between the sides of the pipe and the trench wall. For flexible
pipe, Reclamation typically uses embedment between the bottom of the pipe to a
height of 0.7 of the outside diameter (OD) of the pipe. Embedment that may be
required above 0.7 OD is not relied upon for deflection control but, rather, local
standard requirements, corrosion protection, or buckling issues.

Figure 1. Trench terminology.

For pipes that are 10 inches in diameter and smaller, the embedment around the
pipe may be uncompacted (see section 6).

1
2. Deflection of Flexible Pipe
The deflection of flexible pipe is the decrease of the vertical diameter of the pipe
(and corresponding increase in horizontal diameter) due to load on the pipe. The
deflection is expressed in terms of percentage as follows:

change in diameter
percent pipe deflection = × 100 (Equation 2.1)
pipe diameter

or:

ΔY (%) = percent vertical deflection

Load on a buried pipe is created by placing backfill soil over the top of the pipe
and any surcharge and/or live load on the backfill surface over the pipe. Flexible
pipe is designed to transmit the load on the pipe to the soil at the sides of the pipe.
As the load on the pipe increases, the vertical diameter of the pipe decreases and
the horizontal diameter increases. The increase in horizontal diameter is resisted
by the stiffness of the soil at the sides of the pipe.

For the design of structural members, the strain or deformation of an element of

the material being used can be determined from the ratio of the load or stress on
the member to its modulus of elasticity (strain = stress/modulus of elasticity).
The modulus is either known for the material or determined by laboratory tests.

The deflection of a buried conduit can be predicted in a similar fashion. The

cross-sectional ring deflects according to the ratio of the load on the ring to the
modulus of elasticity of the material. The material modulus, however, is more
complicated because a soil-structure interaction takes place. The material
modulus becomes a combination of the structural elastic modulus (stiffness) of
the pipe and the modulus (stiffness) of the soil, so that:

load on the pipe

% pipe deflection = × 100 (Equation 2.2)
pipe stiffness factor + soil stiffness factor

Several variations of this relationship are used to predict the deflection of a buried
flexible pipe. The most common variation is the Iowa Formula [1]1 [2],
developed by Professor M.G. Spangler of Iowa State University. Reclamation
uses the Reclamation Equation, which is a variation of the Iowa Formula. The
Reclamation Equation incorporates modifications to the Iowa Formula based on
field and laboratory tests, as well as studies on buried flexible pipe. A discussion
of the use and background of the Reclamation Equation can be found in
reference [3] and in Appendix C, “Reclamation Deflection Equation
Development.”

1
Numbers in brackets refer to references at the end of this report.

3
3. Reclamation Deflection Equation
The Reclamation Equation is used to predict the average long-term vertical
deflection of flexible pipe.

The Reclamation Equation is written as follows:

Tf 0.07γh + 10WL
∆Y(%) = (Equation 3.1)
EI
+ 0.061Fd E
r3
Where:

ΔY (%) = percent vertical deflection

Tf = time-lag factor, dimensionless
0.07 = combination of conversion factor and bedding constant, square
feet per square inch per linear inch (ft2/in2 per linear inch)
γ = backfill unit weight, pounds per cubic feet (lb/ft3)
h = depth of cover, ft
WL = live load, pounds per square inch (lb/in2)
E = modulus of soil reaction, lb/in2
Fd = design factor, dimensionless
EI/r3 = pipe stiffness factor, lb/in2 per linear inch

Note: The original Iowa formula, and later variations, express load on the pipe
with unit pounds per linear inch of pipe instead of lb/in2 as used in Reclamation’s
Equation.

The pipe stiffness factor, EI/r3, can be calculated or obtained from manufacturer's
literature. The depth of cover, h, can be determined from the drawings and
specifications, the backfill unit weight, γ, from soil reports, and the live load, WL,
from design data.

The values for E vary according to soil type and density of embedment material,
level of ground water obtained from drill logs, trench width, and trench wall
stiffness. The time-lag factor, Tf, and design factor, Fd, are discussed in
sections 3.2 and 3.6, respectively.

The equation was developed based field tests with cover depths of 50 ft or less,
where cover is the distance between the top of the pipe and the constructed
ground surface over the pipe.

5
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

3.1 Deflection
Deflection is a decrease in the vertical diameter of a pipe. The value ΔY (%) is
the average long-term vertical deflection of the pipe and is the final expected
change in vertical diameter divided by the nominal pipe diameter, expressed
as a percentage.

A flexible pipe changes shape several times during the installation of a pipeline.
Generally, the pipe is considered to deform from a perfect circle to an ellipse due
to loading. The largest diameter changes usually occur along the vertical
diameter and the horizontal diameter, with the vertical diameter change slightly
larger than the horizontal diameter change. Performance of the pipe is typically
measured by the change in the vertical diameter (a vertical line from invert to
crown) divided by the original inside diameter of the pipe, expressed as a percent.

The shape of a flexible pipe is rarely a perfect circle. The mass of the pipe will
cause the pipe to deflect (sag). The amount of deflection depends on the stiffness
of the pipe and the type of pipe.

In addition to the initial out-of-roundness, placement and compaction of the soil

beside the pipe can cause elongation (an increase in the vertical diameter) of the
pipe. The elongation is dependent on the pipe stiffness, the type of compaction,
the percent compaction, and whether or not the pipe is strutted [4].

The deflection due to backfill load, live load, and time creates the critical change
in pipe diameter, and this is the deflection that is defined and calculated by the
method discussed in this report.

Experience has shown that deflection of any flexible pipe can be much higher
than predicted by calculation if all design assumptions are not achieved.
This requires that the in situ soil conditions, materials selected as
embedment, methods and equipment used for compaction, and the care
taken during installation be monitored and inspected for compliance with the
specifications.

The Reclamation Equation specifically calculates the percent deflection, vertical

deflection, initial deflection, long-term deflection, and average deflection. These
terms are defined below.

Percent deflection: The percent deflection is the change in vertical diameter

divided by the nominal diameter, expressed as a percentage. The “change in
diameter” is the difference between the original pipe diameter and the pipe
diameter measured at the end of some subsequent event, such as placement of
backfill over the pipe or the passage of time.

6
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Vertical deflection: Vertical deflection is the change in the vertical diameter

of the pipe. Vertical deflection is calculated because this value is larger than
the horizontal deflection and is easier to measure.

Initial deflection: Initial deflection is the deflection occurring on the day the
backfilling over the pipe is completed.

Long-term deflection: Long-term deflection is the “final” deflection of the

pipe. Although flexible pipe apparently never ceases deflecting (the longest
time measurement has been 22 years) [5], there is a point at which the
increase in deflection becomes insignificant, and this can be considered the
“long-term deflection.” The long-term deflection may be very different than
the initial deflection, depending on the embedment and native trench
materials. For weak soils (low E’ values), most of the deflection occurs soon
after installation, whereas for stiffer soils (high E’ values), the pipe deflection
is more gradual.

Average deflection: Average deflection is the average of the pipe vertical

deflections that occur along the pipeline. Deflections can vary from point to
point along the pipe due to construction variations such as compaction and
differences in soil unit weight, moisture, stiffness of the native material,
embedment, bedding and backfill materials, and varying trench dimensions.

For pipe installed in soils that are uncompacted or have moderate degrees of
compaction, the vertical deflection along the pipe can vary plus or minus
2 percentage points from the average. For pipe installed with a high degree of
compaction, the vertical deflection along the pipe can vary plus or minus
1 percentage point from the average. Variation is also dependent upon the
stiffness of the pipe. The higher the pipe stiffness factor, the less variability in
deflection occurs along the pipeline. If the pipe stiffness factor (EI/r3) is
greater than the soil stiffness factor (0.061 E), the variability can be assumed
as negligible.

Specific points along the pipeline will have higher or lower deflections than
the average because of the inherent variability of construction materials and
methods. The difference between the average and maximum deflection is
only of concern if the calculated average deflection is close to the allowable
deflection, and the allowable deflection is a critical value because of cleaning
equipment, lining equipment, etc. In that case, the soil stiffness or pipe
stiffness factor may need to be increased to ensure that the maximum
deflection is less than the allowable deflection.

7
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

3.2 Time-Lag Factor, Tf

The time-lag factor, Tf, is used to calculate the increase in deflection of a flexible
pipe with time. A flexible pipe continues to deflect over time for two reasons:

1. Increase in the soil load on the pipe.

2. Consolidation of the soil at the sides of the pipe.

Table 5, which appears later in this report, gives values of Tf for use in the
Reclamation Equation. The values are the ratio of long-term deflection to the
initial deflection. The initial deflection is the deflection on the day the backfill
was completed. For calculating initial deflections, a Tf value of 1.0 should be
used.

Saturation of the embedment, defined as when the pipeline is below the water
table, reduces the stiffness of soils which contain significant fines (silts and clay
particles). If the embedment soil will be below the level of the water table, the
time-lag factor from table 5 should be doubled for embedment constructed of soils
using Class III or IV (soils that contain more than 12 percent fines). This is also
true of the native material when it is used in the combined E’ equation. If
unsaturated native soils have more than 12 percent fines, and where the water
table can rise above the pipe due to irrigation or ground water fluctuations,
consider increasing the time-lag factor.

Note: The time-lag factor, as used in the Reclamation Equation, is not the same
as the deflection lag factor used by Spangler in the Iowa Formula [1]. The
deflection lag factor reflects the increase in deflection from the time the
maximum load on the pipe is achieved, not from the time of final backfilling
over the pipe [6]. The maximum load is usually reached about 3 to 6 months
following final backfilling due to soil settlement and moisture changes in the
backfill over the pipe. Spangler reported values of deflection lag of 1.0 to 1.5. If
his data is reevaluated in terms of time-lag, the increase in deflection that he
reported over time is about 200 percent, or a time-lag factor of 2.0.

3.3 Earth Loads

The dead load on the pipe is represented by 0.07 γh, which assumes a prism load
on the pipe. The prism load is the weight of a column of soil that is the width of
the pipe (outside pipe diameter) for the full height of the backfill for a 1-ft unit
length of pipe. The value, γ, is the unit weight of the soil placed over the pipe,
including the water in the soil (wet unit weight). If the water content of the soil
will change, the maximum anticipated unit weight value should be used. When
γ is not known, a value of 120 lb/ft3 can be used for design purposes. In areas
where trench material will be compacted to 95-percent compaction over the top of
the pipe, wet soil unit weights may reach 135 lb/ft3. Soils containing a significant

8
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

amount of gravel, cobbles, or boulders can have a unit weight much higher than
120 lb/ft3 and should be evaluated. The depth of cover, h, is the vertical distance
from the top of the pipe to the ground surface over the pipe.

Note: While there are other methods of calculating the load on a pipe, the
prism load must be used with the values shown in tables 5 and 6 because the
values were developed assuming a prism load.

3.4 Live Loads

Appendix E, “Live Loads (WL),” includes a complete explanation of the designs
for highway and railroad loadings. Tables 1, 2, and 3 summarize the live loading
pressures (WL), and the values include the live load pressures plus the
recommended impact factors.

Table 1. HS-20 Live Loads for Rigid Pavement (lb/in2)

Depth WL Depth WL
(ft) (lb/in2) (ft) (lb/in2)
2 11.1 5 3.2
2.5 8.5 6 2.5
3 6.7 7 2.0
4 4.3 8 1.6

Table 2. HS-20 Live Loads for Flexible Pavement (lb/in2)

Depth WL Depth WL
(ft) (lb/in2) (ft) (lb/in2)
2 16.8 5 2.5
2.5 11.5 6 1.6
3 7.6 7 1.1
4 4.2 8 0.9

Table 3. Railroad Live Loads (lb/in2)

Depth WL Depth WL
(ft) (lb/in2) (ft) (lb/in2)
2.5 16.7 7 8.8
3 15.8 8 7.6
4 13.9 9 6.5
5 12.1 10 5.6
6 10.4 20 2.2

9
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

3.5 Pipe Stiffness Factor, EI/r3

Pipe stiffness factor, EI/r3, represents the resistance to deformation solely by the
pipe (without any soil support). In most cases, the pipe stiffness factor has very
little influence on the pipe deflection because the soil stiffness factor is much
greater. Considering the magnitude of the variations that can occur in the load on
the pipe and in the soil stiffness, the use of nominal values for E, I, and r provides
sufficient accuracy for the Reclamation Equation. Table 4 shows typical values
for E. The values for PVC and HDPE are for solid wall pipe only.

Table 4. Typical Modulus of Elasticity Values (E)

Pipe type E (lb/in2)
HDPE 28,250 *
PVC 400,000 **
Steel 29,000,000 ***
Ductile iron 24,000,000
Bar-wrapped concrete cylinder 4,000,000 ****
Fiberglass Varies *****
* PE3408 and PE4710 material at 73 degrees Fahrenheit (ºF)
(long-term E).
** Class 12454 Material.
*** American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) A1011 or
A1018, Grade 36.
**** Cement mortar lining and coating. Use transformed section
for steel cylinder and bars.
***** Pipe stiffness may be determined by the parallel plate test
or be provided by the manufacturer.

The pipe stiffness factor is the product of the modulus of elasticity, E, of the pipe
wall material (lb/in2) and the moment of inertia, I, (inch4/inch) of a unit length of
pipe divided by the mean pipe radius, r, (inches) cubed. For a unit length of
straight wall pipe of homogeneous material, the moment of inertia is equal to
t3/12 where t is the wall thickness. The EI value may be found using assumed or
empirical values for E and t, or EI can be determined by conducting parallel plate
tests on a section of pipe as defined in American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) D2412. During the test, deflections due to line loads on the top and
bottom of the pipe are measured, and EI is calculated using either:

Pr 3 Pr 3
EI = 0.149 (Equation 3.2) or EI = 0.136 (Equation 3.3)
∆Y ∆X

Where:

P = load per linear inch

r = pipe radius, inches
ΔY = vertical deflection, inches
ΔX = horizontal deflection, inches

10
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

In the parallel plate tests, the pipe deforms elliptically with the horizontal
deflection (theoretically about 91 percent of the vertical deflection).

The correlations between pipe stiffness factor and other published expressions are
as follows:

1. For fiberglass pressure pipe, a pipe stiffness (PS) is calculated and

published for the various diameters and wall thicknesses. The pipe
stiffness factor can be determined from the pipe stiffness using the
following expression:

EI
= 0.149 PS (Equation 3.4)
r3

Where:

PS = the value P/ΔY from a parallel plate test, with P equal to the
force necessary to deflect the pipe 5 percent.

Example: If a fiberglass pipe has a pipe stiffness of 18 lb/in2 from manufacturer’s

literature, then the EI/r3 = 0.149 (18) = 2.682 lb/in2

2. The stiffness of PVC and HDPE pipe is usually stated in terms of the
Dimension Ratio (DR) (sometimes referred to as the Standard Dimension
Ratio [SDR]), which is equal to the ratio D/t where “D” is the average
outside pipe diameter, and “t” is the minimum pipe wall thickness. The
pipe stiffness factor can be determined from the DR using the following
expression [7]:

EI 2E
3
= (Equation 3.5)
r 3(DR − 1)3

Example: For a PVC pipe with a DR ratio of 18, the EI/r3 would be
2 (400,000) / 3 (18-1)3 = 54.3 lb/in2

3.6 Design Factor, Fd

Each E value in tables 5 and 6 is a typical value (i.e., for each category of soil
type and classification, about one-half of the measured deflections were higher,
and about one-half were lower, than the deflection predicted using the E value
shown). To reduce the possibility that the actual deflection will exceed the
predicted value, a design factor, Fd, is applied to Eb and listed in table 5.

11
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table 5. Embedment Material Parameters

Percent compaction of embedment
(Eb)
Moderate
Soil Soil classification of embedment ( 85 to High
Class (USCS) Uncompacted <95% C) ( 95% C)
CRUSHED ROCK: Eb = 1000 Eb = 6000

Not more than 25% passing 3/8-inch sieve and Fd = 0.67 Fd = 1

I not more than 12% fines; maximum size not to
exceed 1½ inches. Tf = 2 Tf = 2

Sat. Tf = 2 Sat. Tf = 2
CLEAN COARSE-GRAINED SOILS: Eb = 500 Eb = 2000 Eb = 4000

Sands, gravels with 12% or less fines GW, GP, Fd = 0.67 Fd = 0.75 Fd = 1
II SW, SP, or any soil beginning with one of these
symbols (i.e., GP-GM). Does not apply to SP Tf = 1.5 Tf = 2 Tf = 2
soils with ≥ 50% fine sand (passing No. 40
sieve). Treat as ML soils. Sat. Tf = 1.5 Sat. Tf = 2 Sat. Tf = 2
SANDY OR GRAVELLY FINE-GRAINED SOILS: Eb = 200 Eb = 1000 Eb = 2500

Silts and clays with 30% or more coarse-grained Fd = 0.5 Fd = 0.67 Fd = 0.75
particles CL, ML (or CL-ML, CL/ML, ML/CL).
III Tf = 1.5 Tf = 2 Tf = 2
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS WITH FINES:
*Sat. Tf = 3 *Sat. Tf = 4 *Sat. Tf = 4
Sands, gravels with more than 12% fines GC,
GM, SC, SM, or any soil beginning with one of
these symbols (i.e., SC/CL).
FINE-GRAINED SOILS: Eb = 100 Eb = 400 Eb = 1500

Silts and clays with less than 30% coarse- Fd = 0.5 Fd = 0.67 Fd = 0.75
IV grained particles CL, ML (or CL-ML, CL/ML,
ML/CL). Tf = 1.5 Tf = 2 Tf = 2

*Sat. Tf = 3 *Sat. Tf = 4 *Sat. Tf = 4

HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE FINE-GRAINED Soils with medium to high plasticity or with
SOILS: significant organic content
V
CH, MH, OH, OL, or any soil containing one of No data available
these symbols (i.e., CL/CH).
Not Recommended

12
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table 6. Native Trench Wall Material Parameters

Trench wall soil Stiffness of trench wall (En)
classification Slight Moderate High
(USCS) (< 85% C) ( 85 to < 95% C) ( 95% C)
HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE En < 500
FINE-GRAINED SOILS:
Material Type 3
CH, MH, OH, OL.
Peat, swamps, bogs, or
other unsuitable material
FINE-GRAINED SOILS: En = 200 En = 500 En = 1500

Silts and clays with less Material Type 3 Material Type 2 Material Type 2
than 30% coarse-grained
particles CL, ML (or CL-ML,
CL/ML, ML/CL)
SANDY OR GRAVELLY En = 400 En = 700 En = 2500
FINE-GRAINED SOILS:
Material Type 3 Material Type 2 Material Type 1
Silts and clays with 30% or
more coarse-grained
particles CL, ML (or CL-ML,
CL/ML, ML/CL)

COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
WITH FINES:

Sands, gravels with more

than 12% fines GC, GM,
SC, SM, or any soil
beginning with one of these
symbols (i.e., SC/CL)
CLEAN COARSE-GRAINED En = 700 En = 1000 to 2000 En = 4000
SOILS:
Material Type 2 Material Type 2* Material Type 1
Sands, gravels with 12% or
less fines GW, GP, SW, SP,
or any soil beginning with
one of these symbols
(i.e., GP-GM). Does not
apply to SP soils with ≥ 50%
fine sand (passing No. 40
sieve). Treat as ML soils.
ROCK, SANDSTONE, Not applicable En >> 4000
SHALE:
Material Type 1
Highly cemented soils, etc.
Notes:
*En = 1000 for normally consolidated sands and 2000 for overconsolidated sands.
E is shown as lb/in2.
C is compaction (ASTM D698 and D7382) from in-place density.

13
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

The design factor effectively reduces the E value. Using the design factor values
shown in table 5, there is a 95-percent probability that the actual pipe deflection
will not exceed the predicted value by more than 0.5 percentage points.

Appendix D, “Design Factor (Fd) Variations,” discusses other circumstances in

which different sets of design factor values should be used.

3.7 Modulus of Soil Reaction, E

The E value represents the composite resistance of the soil beside the pipe to
outward movement of the pipe wall. E is based on the width of the trench, the
embedment material (Eb), and the trench wall material (En). Therefore, the type
of soil and the percent compaction or density of both the embedment and trench
wall materials must be determined, and the appropriate value must be used in the
Reclamation Equation. Table 5 gives the Eb values for the embedment, which
vary significantly based on the type of soil (USCS) and the percent compaction.
Table 6 gives the En values for the native trench wall stiffness.

E is an empirical number based on measured deflections of many actual pipe

installations [3] [8] [9]. Eb does not vary with depth based on an evaluation
of the empirical data [10].

3.8 Compaction of Embedment

The soil stiffness (Eb) parameters vary according to the percent compaction of the
embedment soil. The percent compaction is determined by comparing the density
of the embedment soil to a maximum density from a standardized laboratory test.
“Percent compaction” is used for cohesive soils (generally, soils containing more
than 12% fines) as described in ASTM D698. Percent compaction is the ratio,
expressed as a percentage, of: (1) dry unit weight of a soil, to (2) maximum dry
weight obtained in a laboratory compaction test (ASTM D653). Percent
compaction is also used for cohesionless soils. Percent compaction compares the
in-place field density to both a minimum and maximum density from laboratory
tests. The laboratory test for cohesionless soils is described in ASTM D7382.
The maximum density is based on a vibratory hammer test and represents the
most effective method to increase the density of the soil. Soils containing
between 5 and 12 percent fines must be evaluated using both methods, and the
method that results in a higher in-place density should be used.

14
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

3.9 Stiffness of Trench Wall

The performance of flexible pipe depends on the resistance of the soil at the sides
of the pipe. This side soil support results from the combination of the embedment
soil and the trench wall soil. The width of the trench, to prevent excessive
deflection, depends on the firmness of the embedment soil relative to the firmness
of the trench wall material.

Previously, Reclamation determined the width of the trench based on a

comparison of the compacted select material embedment stiffness and the trench
wall material stiffness. This resulted in three possible trench widths (see
Appendix B, “Pipe Deflection for Standard Installation Method”). For weak
trench walls, a trench width of five pipe diameters was required. Reclamation
now uses a composite E for design which accounts for any difference in stiffness
(see section 3.10). The composite E method may result in reduced trench widths.

The new composite E method is based on the relative stiffness of the embedment
material stiffness and the trench wall material. The En value of the in situ trench
wall material at the level of the pipe springline must be determined. Native trench
materials have an inherent structural stiffness, which is shown by a Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) blow count of 5 or greater, except when the trench
excavation is in a swamp, peat bog, or other unsuitable material classification
listed in table 6. The En can also be determined using the soil classification and
percent compaction of the native material in the trench wall evaluated during
investigations.

The material types are categorized below:

Material Type 1: Based on SPT, Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT), or in-place

field density tests, the trench wall material has an En ≥ 2500. Minimum
clearance between the pipe and the trench is all that is required.

Material Type 2: Based on SPT, CPT, or in-place field density tests, the
trench wall material has an En ≥ 500 and En < 2500. The trench width will
vary depending on the deflection requirements and the ratio of the stiffness
between the embedment material and the trench wall material.

Material Type 3: When the trench walls are extremely soft (En < 500) and
provide minimal pipe support.

When Material Type 3 soil conditions are identified prior to construction, design
methods can be used to avoid a five pipe diameter wide trench. These methods
are:

15
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

1. Specify only rigid pipe on an improved foundation.

2. Increase the pipe stiffness factor (EI/r3) by increasing the wall thickness or
increasing the thickness of mortar coatings, or both. Note: The haunch
area still requires compaction.

3. Encase the pipe in reinforced concrete (foundation bearing pressures must

be examined).

4. Use a composite E value.

3.10 Determination of Composite E

To determine the composite E for a buried pipe, separate E values for the native
soil, En, and the embedment soil, E'b, must be determined and then combined
using the following equation:

E= Sc E'b (Equation 3.6)

Where:

E = composite modulus of soil reaction, lb/in2

Sc = soil support combining factor (table 7)
Eb = modulus of soil reaction of the pipe embedment (table 5)

The composite E combining factors in table 7 are based on work by

Leonhardt and the Abwassertechnishce Vereinigung e.V. (ATV) A 127 formula
[11]. The values in table 7 are the inverse of the values used in the German
standard (ATV 2000). The values in table 7 are similar to the ones used in
AWWA M23, PVC Pipe – Design and Installation Manual [12]; and
AWWA M55, PE Pipe – Design and Installation Manual [13]. See Appendix A,
“Example Calculations.”

To use table 7 for Sc values, the following numbers must be determined:

En = modulus of soil reaction of native soil at pipe elevation (table 6, 8, or 9)

B = trench width at pipe springline, inches
D = outside pipe diameter, inches

16
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table 7. Values for Soil Support Combining Factor, SC [14]

E'n/E'b B/D = 1.5 B/D = 2 B/D = 2.5 B/D = 3 B/D = 4 B/D = 5
<0.1 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00
0.2 0.30 0.45 0.70 0.85 0.92 1.00
0.4 0.50 0.60 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00
0.6 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.00
0.8 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.00 1.00
1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.5 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 1.00
2.0 1.50 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00
3.0 1.75 1.45 1.30 1.20 1.08 1.00
>=5.0 2.00 1.60 1.40 1.25 1.10 1.00
Notes: E’ n values should be obtained from tables 6, 8, or 9, depending on how data was
obtained. In-between values of Sc may be determined by straight line interpolation from
adjacent values. For values of E'n/E'b less than 0.1, use 0.1 Sc factors.

Table 8. En Based on SPT Test [14]

N60 value from SPT test (blows/foot)
Soil description and
classification - USCS 0-4 5 10 20 30 ≥ 50
Clays and silts with <30% sand/gravel: CL, ML 0 500 750 1250 1500 2500
Sandy silts, clays with ≥ 30% sand: sCL, sML 0 700 1000 1500 2000 3000
Silty or clayey sand: SM, SC
Normally consolidated sands: SP, SP-SM, SP-SC 0 1000 1500 2500 3000 5000
Overconsolidated sands: SP, SP-SM, SP-SC 0 2000 3000 4000 5000 8000
Gravels, soils with gravel: GW, GP, GM, GC 0 Results unreliable; use another test method

Table 9. Values of En for Native Soils [14]

qu (ton/ft2) En
(ASTM D2166 Description lb/in2
> 0 - 0.25 Very soft 200
0.25 - 0.50 Soft 700
0.50 - 1.00 Medium 1500
1.00 - 2.00 Stiff 3000
2.00 - 4.00 Very stiff 5000
> 4.00 Hard > 5000
Note: ton/ft2 = tons per square foot

17
4. Allowable Long-Term Deflections
The predicted long-term deflection should be compared to the allowable
long-term deflections for each pipe type, as shown in table 10. If the predicted
deflections exceed what is allowable, then the soil stiffness or the pipe stiffness
must be increased. If the pipe stiffness (EI/r3) value for the pipe is small
compared to the soil stiffness (0.061FdE) value, increasing the pipe wall
thickness may be very expensive compared to increasing the trench width or
embedment compaction. Increasing the thickness of mortar coatings on
bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe and steel pipe has been used to increase the
pipe stiffness for some cases. The mortar coating thickness for steel pipe,
however, should not exceed 2 inches due to handling and durability concerns.

Table 10. Allowable Long-Term Pipe Deflections

Allowable long-term
Type of pipe vertical deflection¹ (ΔY)
Factory cement-mortar-lined and/or cement-mortar-coated 3 percent
steel pipe
Flexible lined and coated steel pipe 5 percent
Flexible coated and cement-mortar-lined, in-place steel pipe 5 percent
Fiberglass pipe 5 percent
PVC pipe 5 percent
Ductile iron pipe 3 percent
Polyethylene pipe Varies based on DR²
C303 bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe (72 inches D/40 percent
maximum diameter) [15]
¹ The deflection allowed by some pipe manufacturers may be different and should be compared to
the above numbers. Special designs (e.g., casing pipe) may require smaller allowable values than
those defined in the above table.
² Allowable deflections for HDPE pipe [13]:
7.5% for DRs ≥ 21
6.0% for DRs ≥13.5 and < 21
5.0% for DR 11
4.0% for DR 9
3.0% for DR 7.3

19
5. CLSM
Reclamation specifications allow for pipe to be constructed using controlled low
strength material (CLSM) for embedment. CLSM is often referred to in other
publications and documents as flowable fill, soil-cement slurry, controlled density
fill, soil-crete, or flowable mortar.

The designated trench wall material type determines how the CLSM installation
method can be used. For Material Type 1, the trench is excavated so that a
minimum annular space (usually around 3 inches) exists between the pipe and the
in situ soil (as illustrated in figure 2). CLSM is used to fill the space between the
pipe and the native soil to ensure complete contact between the pipe and the soil;
thus, the sidewall support for the pipe to resist deflection will come only from the
in situ trench wall material, not from the CLSM. Because the width of CLSM is
small, it does not provide any side support for the pipe, and the deflection
must be calculated using the E value corresponding to the native soil.

Note: When excavation is in rock where blasting is required, the minimum

space between the pipe and rock should be at least 6 inches.

Figure 2. CLSM trench details for Material Type 1.

CLSM compressive strength for typical Reclamation designs is normally between

50 and 150 lb/in2 at 7 days. This compressive strength is not the same as the E.
For a CLSM with a 50-lb/in2 compressive strength, the E is assumed to be 4000.
If the load on the pipe occurs before the CLSM has reached design strength, an
E of 3000 can be used when the compressive strength reaches 30 lb/in2.

21
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

As shown in figure 3, in Material Type 2, the CLSM can be used in the haunch
area of the pipe, and compacted embedment material (or CLSM) can be used in
the area beside the pipe from 0.25 to 0.70 of the OD of the pipe. The required
trench width at springline can be determined by using the Eb and En to compute
the combined E for the given design conditions. See section 3.10.

Figure 3. CLSM trench details for Material Type 2.

The CLSM installation method could be used when the native material is
designated as Material Type 3, but the installation required to retain the CLSM in
a swamp or peat bog, for example, could be very expensive.

CLSM can be used at road crossings to provide quick restoration of the road. If
the long-term strength is higher than 150 lb/in2, the CLSM will not be easily
excavated. If CLSM is used for backfill, CLSM must also be used for the
bedding and the embedment.

A 1-foot layer of CLSM over the pipe can be used to protect the pipe from road
equipment blades that cause gradual degradation of the road base.

Application and practice for proper pipe installation in support of trench design
assumptions can be found in Pipeline Installation 2.0 by Amster Howard [16].

22
6. Flexible Pipe 10 Inches in Diameter
and Smaller
As shown in figure 4, the soil for flexible pipe that is 10 inches and smaller in
diameter can be uncompacted beside the pipe for the following reasons:

1. Compaction of soil around small pipe is difficult.

2. The wall thickness of small diameter pipe required for handling or for
internal pressure is usually so large, the pipe is quite stiff in relation to the
soil; thus, the pipe stiffness influence in the deflection equation is much
larger than the soil stiffness influence, and the soil stiffness does not
contribute significantly to preventing excessive deflection.

Figure 4. Flexible pipe 10 inches and smaller.

For some flexible pipe types, especially PVC and HDPE, the pipe stiffness (wall
thickness) for diameters 10 inches and smaller may have to be increased over the
minimum required for internal pressure to keep the deflection below the allowable
amount.

Pipe types have different allowable long-term deflections based on the material
type (see table 10).

Table 11 shows the pipe stiffness factor required for pipe when the pipe
embedment and the trench wall native soil are assumed to provide minimal
support or E for various allowable deflections.

23
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table 11. Pipe Stiffness Factor (EI/r3)

Allowable deflection (%)
7.5 6 5 4 3
Earth cover
(ft) E' Tf Fd Required pipe stiffness factor
5 100 1.5 0.5 5.35 7.45 9.55 12.7 17.95
10 100 1.5 0.5 13.75 17.95 22.15 28.45 38.95
15 100 1.5 0.5 22.15 28.45 34.75 44.2 59.95
20 100 1.5 0.5 30.55 38.95 47.35 59.95 80.95
Note: Wheel loads (W L) are assumed to be zero.

For PVC and HDPE pipe, the wall thickness changes with pipe diameter and,
therefore, provides a constant DR for all diameters. Based on the allowable
deflection for each pipe type, the required DR to prevent excessive deflection,
without embedment support, for PVC and HDPE is summarized in table 12.

Table 12. Dimension Ratio Required for PVC and HDPE Pipe
Cover height (ft)
Pipe type
5 10 15 20
PVC 25 25 18 18
HDPE 13.5 9 7.3 –

Ductile iron and steel pipe have minimum wall thicknesses based on handling or
manufacturing requirements; therefore, the wall thickness does not necessarily
change with the pipe diameter. Ductile iron has minimum pipe wall thicknesses
that provide sufficient stiffness, where the pipe embedment and the trench wall
native soil are assumed to provide no support, to prevent excessive deflection.

The minimum steel pipe thickness suggested by pipe manufacturers for

4-inch- through 8-inch-diameter pipe is 0.1046 inch. This minimum pipe wall
thickness would provide sufficient stiffness to prevent excessive deflection where
the pipe embedment and the trench wall native soil are assumed to provide no
support. Ten-inch-diameter pipe will require a minimum wall thickness of
0.1345 inch to prevent excessive deflection under these conditions. This includes
steel pipe with or without mortar lining or coating.

Note: Bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe is not typically produced in

diameters less than 12 inches.

24
7. Bibliography
[1] Spangler, M.G., 1941. “The Structural Design of Flexible Pipe Culverts,”
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 153, Ames, IA.

[2] Watkins, R.K., and M.G. Spangler, 1958. “Some Characteristics of the
Modulus of Passive Resistance of Soil: A Study of Similitude,”
Highway Research Board Proceedings. Vol. 37, p. 576-583,
Washington DC.

[3] Howard, A.K., 1981. “The USBR Equation for Predicting Flexible Pipe
Deflection,” Proceedings of the International Conference on
Underground Plastic Pipe. American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), New Orleans, LA, March.

[4] Howard, A.K., 1981. “Diametral Elongation of Buried Flexible Pipe,”

Proceedings of the International Conference on Underground Plastic
Pipe. ASCE, New Orleans, LA, March.

[5] Howard, A.K, 1995. “Time-Deflection Field Test of 120-cm Steel,

Fiberglass, and Pretensioned Concrete Pipe,” Proceedings of ASCE
Conference Advances in Underground Pipeline Engineering. Second
International Conference, Seattle, WA, June.

[6] Howard, A.K., 2009. “Deflection Lag, Load Lag and Time Lag of Buried
Flexible Pipe,” ASTM Symposium Plastic Pipe and Fittings Yesterday,
Today, and Tomorrow. Atlanta, GA, November.

[7] PVC Pipe Association, 2012. Handbook of PVC Pipe Design and
Construction. Fifth Edition, p. 7.18, Dallas, TX.

[8] Howard, A.K., 1977. “Modulus of Soil Reaction Values for Buried Flexible
Pipe,” Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division. Vol. 103,
No. GT 1, ASCE, p. 33-43, January.

[9] Howard, A.K., 2006. “The Reclamation E Table, 25 Years Later.” Plastic
Pipe XIII International Conference, Washington, DC, October.

[10] Howard, A.K., and B.C. Howard, 2008. “A Discussion of E Versus

Depth,” Proceedings Pipelines. ASCE Conference, Atlanta, GA, July.

[11] German Association for Water, Wastewater, and Waste, 2000. Static
Calculation of Drains and Sewers. German Standard ATV-DVWK-A
127E, ISBN 3-934984-16-9, August.

25
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

[12] AWWA, 2002. M23, PVC Pipe – Design and Installation Manual. Second
Edition, American Water Works Association.

[13] AWWA, 2006. M-55, “PE Pipe – Design and Installation,” Manual of
Water Supply Practices. American Water Works Association, p. 52.

[14] Howard, A.K., 2009. “Composite E (Modulus of Soil Reaction),”

Proceedings Pipelines. ASCE Conference, San Diego, CA, August.

[15] AWWA, 2008. M9, Concrete Pressure Pipe. Third Edition, American
Water Works Association.

[16] Howard, A.K, 2015. Pipeline Installation 2.0. Second Edition. Relativity
Publishing.

[17] AASHTO, 2010. LRFD1 Bridge Design Specifications. American

Association of State Highway Transportation Officials.

[18] American Concrete Pipe Association, 2007. Design Data 3. October.

1
LRFD = Load and Resistance Factor Design

26
Appendix A

Example Calculations
A-1
A pipeline has a maximum depth of cover of 10 feet, and the native soil is a sandy
lean clay, CL (contains more than 30 percent coarse-grained particles), with an
average in-place density of 96-percent compaction. The pipe is 90-inch-diameter
steel pipe with a 1/2-inch wall thickness and a flexible coating and lining. The
live load equals 0. What would be the predicted deflection for the flexible pipe if
the native soil was used as the embedment material? The native material will be
compacted to 90-percent compaction and will be above the water table.

Predicted Vertical Deflection

Tf 0.07γh + 10WL Equation 3.1

∆Y(%) =
EI
+ 0.061Fd E
r3

Using table 6,1 En = 2500.

Using table 5, Eb = 1000.

Tf = 2. (from table 5)
γ = 120 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) (assumed since no soil data is
available)
E = 29 x 106 pounds per square inch (lb/in2) (E for steel; see table 4)
h = 10 feet

t3 0.53
EI E(12 ) (29 X 106 )( 12 )
= = = 3.315 lb/in2
r3 r3 453

Assume the CL material has a safe slope of 1:1. Assuming a bottom trench width
for a 90-inch-diameter pipe is ID + 3 feet or 10.5 feet. This gives a trench width
(B) at springline of 18 feet at springline:

B/D = 18/7.5 =2.4

Live load (WL) = 0

1
All tables referred to in this appendix appear in the main body of this report.

A-1
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

h = 10 feet
Fd = 0.67 (from table 5)

Using table 7 and interpolating between values:

Sc = 1.225

E = 1.315(1000) = 1225 Equation 3.6

2(0.07)120(10) + 0 168
∆Y(%) = = = 3.15%
3.315 + 0.061(0.67)1225 53.38

The predicted deflection, 3.15% percent, is less than the allowable value of
5 percent (table 10), so the pipe design would be acceptable for deflection.

A-2
Percent Compaction Required

From example calculation A-1, the pipe stiffness (EI/r3) is 3.315 lb/in2 based on a
minimum pipe wall thickness (0.50 inch) required for handling or internal
pressure. Could the percent compaction of the embedment be reduced?

Try uncompacted embedment. From table 5, Eb = 200.

B/D = 18/7.5 =2.4

𝐸′𝑛 2500
= = 12.5
𝐸′𝑏 200

Using table 7 and interpolating between values:

Sc = 1.44

E = 1.44 (200) = 288 Equation 3.6

1.5(0.07)120(10) + 0 126
∆Y(%) = = = 10.41%
3.315 + 0.061(0.5)288 12.099

No, the predicted value is greater than the 5-percent allowable deflection.

A-2
 Appendix A: Example Calculations

A-3
What is the required pipe stiffness factor for 10-inch polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipe?

Solve Equation 3.1 for pipe stiffness factor:

EI Tf 0.07γh + 10WL
3
= − 0.061Fd E
r ∆Y(%)

Assume the following:

E = 100 lb/in2
Fd = 0.5
Tf = 1.5
γ = 120 lb/ft3
h = 20 feet
ΔY = 5% allowable (table 10)
WL = 0.0 for 20 feet of cover (table 2)

EI 1.5 (0.07) 120 (20) + 0

3
= − 0.061(0.5)100 = 50.4 − 3.1 = 47.3
r 5

PVC comes in Dimension Ratios (DR) or Standard Dimension Ratios (SDR) of

18, 21, 25, 26, and others. Using the equation:

EI 2E
3
= (Equation 3.5)
r 3(DR − 1)3

3 2Er 3
DR = √ +1
3EI

3 2(400,000)
DR = √ + 1 = 18.8
3(47.3)

The equivalent DR would be 18.8. Because a pipe with a DR of 18 is stiffer than

the 18.8 required, a PVC pipe with a DR of 18 should be specified.

A-3
Appendix B

Pipe Deflection for Standard

Installation Method
Note: This appendix is taken from the first edition of M-25, “Method for
Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection,” completed by the Bureau of Reclamation
on May 1, 1997, with a revision date of March 1, 2000. It outlines past practice
by Reclamation for pipe installation. Contributors to the first edition of M-25
include Amster K. Howard, Soils Specialist; Leo A. Kinney, Jr., Pipe Specialist;
and Richard P. Fuerst, Pipe Specialist. This appendix is intended for reference
only.

For the standard installation method stated in earlier Reclamation guide

specifications, only one soil type and one degree of compaction of the embedment
are described for flexible pipe with diameters of 12 inches and larger. This design
used the trench wall material that was as firm as (or firmer than) the embedment
material at E’ ≥ 3000. The selected combination of soil and compaction ensures
that buried flexible pipe will not deflect more than 3 percent (up to 20 feet of
cover). Live loads were assumed to be zero.

The embedment soil must be clean, cohesionless, free-draining material

containing 5 percent fines or less if compacted by saturation and vibration (or
≤ 12% if compacted using other methods), not more than 25% passing the No. 50
sieve, and having a maximum particle size not exceeding ¾ inch (100% passing
the 3/4-inch sieve). Fines are defined as particles that would pass a No. 200 sieve.
Soils meeting this description would be classified according to the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS) as Poorly Graded Sand (SP), Well Graded Sand
(SW), Poorly Graded Gravel (GP), or Well Graded Gravel (GW), or any
borderline soil with these symbols (e.g., GP/SP). The soil must be compacted to a
minimum of 95% Compaction.

Calculation of Percent Deflection

For calculating the predicted deflection, the following values were obtained from
table B-1, which was used for previous designs:

E = 3000 pounds per square inch (lb/in2)

Tf = 2.5 (Previous editions of M-25 used the conservative value of 2.5)
Fd = 1.0
WL = 0

The value of EI/r3 is assumed to be 0, or the worst case where pipe stiffness is
negligible compared to soil stiffness.

B-1
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

The wet unit weight of the uncompacted backfill soil over the pipe is assumed to
be 120 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).

Predicted Vertical Deflection

Tf 0.07γh + 10WL 2.5(0.07)120 h + 0

∆Y(%) = = = 0.115h
EI 0 + 0.061(1.0)3000
3 + 0.061Fd E
r

Where: h = height of cover, feet

For “A” pipe H = 5 and ∆Y = “A” pipe is pipe with 5 feet of cover or less
“B” 10 0.58% “B” pipe >5 feet but ≤10 feet of cover, etc.
“C” 15 1.15%
“D” 20 1.73%
2.30%

The lowest maximum allowable long-term deflection for any type of pipe
(except bar-wrapped concrete cylinder) is 3 percent (see Table 10, “Allowable
Long-Term Deflections”). Even if the deflection is 0.5 percent higher than
predicted (see Appendix D, “Design Factor (Fd) Variations”), the resulting
deflection for 20 feet of cover is still less than the minimum allowable deflection
of 3 percent.

The allowable deflection for bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe is

“D/40” percent where D is the pipe diameter in inches. The pipe stiffness factor,
EI/r3, for bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe, however, is large enough that when
the deflection for the most flexible bar-wrapped concrete cylinder pipe under
20 feet of cover is calculated, the resulting deflection is still less than is allowable.

These calculations are based on the premise that the appropriate trench for Trench
Types 1, 2, or 3 is constructed.

The performance of flexible pipe depends on the resistance of the soil at the sides
of the pipe. This side soil support results from the combination of the embedment
soil and the trench wall soil. The width of the trench depends on the firmness of
the embedment soil relative to the firmness of the trench wall material. If the
trench walls are as firm as (or firmer than) the embedment, only a minimum
amount of compacted embedment is needed between the pipe and the trench
walls. If the trench walls are very soft and easily compressible, all of the side soil
resistance must come from the embedment. Accordingly, three material types are
specified for trenches giving the minimum distance between the pipe and the
trench wall measured at the springline of the pipe, as shown in figure B-1.

B-2
 Appendix B: Pipe Deflection for Standard Installation Method

Figure B-1. Flexible pipe clearance.

The trench types are designated 1, 2, or 3 as follows:

Trench Type 1 - The trench walls are about as firm as (or firmer than) the
compacted embedment soil. Minimum clearance between the pipe and the
trench is all that is required. The E of the trench wall material should be
at least 80 percent of the E of the embedment soil.

Trench Type 2 - The trench walls are softer than the compacted
embedment. A width of one pipe diameter of compacted embedment is
required between the pipe and the trench walls at the springline of the pipe
(total trench width = three pipe diameters). The E of the trench wall
material should be between 30 and 80 percent of the E of the embedment
soil.

Trench Type 3 - The trench walls are extremely soft and are considered
not able to provide any support. A width of two pipe diameters of
compacted embedment is required between the pipe and the trench walls
(total trench width = five pipe diameters). The E of the trench wall
material would be less than 30 percent of the embedment soil.

B-3
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

To determine the trench design, the E of the in situ trench wall material at the
level of the pipe springline must be determined. To determine the E, the soil
classification and degree of compaction (percent compaction or percent relative
density) of the native material in the trench wall must be determined during
investigations.

The trench design thus depends on the relative stiffness of the compacted
embedment and the trench wall as indicated by the E value. Because the standard
installation method used by Reclamation provides a compacted embedment with
an E of 3,000 lb/in2, the material types are evaluated in Reclamation guide
specifications relative to this E value.

The trench types related to Reclamation's standard installation method are as

follows:

Trench type E' of the trench wall material

1 2500 lb/in2 or greater
2 1000 to 2000 lb/in2
3 below 1000 lb/in2

Table B-1 shows the E values and the corresponding trench for different trench
types for easy reference.

The designated trench type determines whether or not the controlled low strength
material (CLSM) installation method can be used.

Trench Type 1 - A minimum annular space is required between the pipe and the
in situ soil, and the in situ soil thus provides the soil support for the pipe.

Trench Type 2 - CLSM is used in the haunch area of the pipe, and one pipe
diameter of compacted select material (or CLSM) is required between the side of
the pipe and the trench wall.

Trench Type 3 – The trenches are very seldom constructed because they require a
total trench width of five pipe diameters at the pipe springline, which may require
an excavation or a spoil pile that may go outside the right-of-way; require
scrapers instead of backhoes; or require other equipment of a size not normally
used for pipe construction.

When Trench Type 3 soil conditions are identified prior to construction, design
methods can be used to avoid the five-pipe-diameter-wide trench. These methods
are:

B-4
 Appendix B: Pipe Deflection for Standard Installation Method

1. Specify only rigid pipe.

2. Increase the pipe stiffness factor (EI/r3) by increasing the wall thickness or
increasing the thickness of mortar coatings, or both.

3. Encase the pipe in reinforced concrete.

4. Use a combined E' for other than standard Reclamation installation

methods.

Table B-1. Selection of Trench Type for Compacted Embedment E' = 3000 (for reference only)
Degree of compaction of trench walls
Slight Moderate High

Trench wall soil classification < 85% P  85 to < 95% P  95% P

(USCS) < 40% RD  40 to < 70% RD  70% RD
Highly compressible fine-grained soils: Trench Type 3
(trench wall E' << 100)
CH, MH, OH, OL
Peat, swamps, bogs
Fine-grained soils: Trench Type 3 Trench Type 3 Trench Type 2
(trench wall (trench wall (trench wall
Soils with medium to no plasticity and E' = 200) E' = 400) E' = 1500)
with less than 30% coarse-grained
particles CL, ML (or CL-ML, CL/ML,
ML/CL)
Sandy or gravelly fine-grained soils: Trench Type 3 Trench Type 2 Trench Type 1
(trench wall (trench wall (trench wall
Soils with medium to no plasticity E' = 400) E' = 1000) E' = 2500)
and with 30% or more coarse-grained
particles CL, ML (or CL-ML, CL/ML,
ML/CL)

Coarse-grained soils with fines:

Sands, gravels with more than

12% fines GC, GM, SC, SM,
or any soil beginning with one of
these symbols (i.e., SC/CL)
Clean coarse-grained soils: Trench Type 3 Trench Type 2 Trench Type 1
(trench wall (trench wall (trench wall
Sands, gravels with 12% or less E' = 700) E' = 2000) E' = 3000)
fines GW, GP, SW, SP, or any soil
beginning with one of these
symbols (i.e., GP-GM)
Rock, sandstone, shale: Trench Type 1
(trench wall E' >> 3000
Highly cemented soils, etc.
Note: % P = % Proctor, % RD = % relative density, E' = shown as lb/in2

B-5
Appendix C

Reclamation’s Deflection Equation

Development
The deflection equation used by Reclamation is a variation of the modified Iowa
Formula [2].1 The significant differences are:

• Predicts vertical deflection in percent rather than horizontal deflection in

inches.

• Can be used to predict deflection occurring immediately after backfilling

over the pipe (initial deflection) rather than the deflection that occurs
when the maximum backfill load is attained after several months.

• Relates the long-term deflection to the initial deflection by use of a

time-lag factor.

• Uses a prism load on the pipe rather than the Marston load theory. The
Marston load theory uses soil characteristic values that are usually not
readily available. The prism load was used to develop the E.

• Uses a design factor to reduce the E value to compensate for the variation
between actual and predicted deflection.

• A bedding constant of 0.1 is used. The research work by Amster Howard

derived the E values using a bedding constant of 0.1. [8]

The modified Iowa Formula [2] is given as:

Dl K Wr 3
∆X =
EI + 0.061E r 3 Equation C.1

Where:

ΔX = horizontal deflection of pipe (inches)

Dl = deflection lag factor, dimensionless
K = bedding constant, dimensionless
W = load per unit of pipe length (pounds per linear inch of pipe)
r = radius (inches)
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe (pounds per square inch [lb/in2])

1
Numbers in brackets refer to references that are contained in Section 7, “Bibliography,” of the
main report.

C-1
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

I = moment of inertia of cross section of pipe wall (inch4 per linear inch of
pipe)
E = modulus of soil reaction (lb/in2)

Changes can be made progressively as follows:

1. The terms are rearranged so that the pipe properties are together and
substituting W = WE + WL with the deflection lag factor only applied to
the earth load.

In this form, the modified Iowa Formula can be represented as:

K (𝐷𝑙 WE + WL )
∆X =
EI
+ 0.061E
r3

Where:

load on the pipe

∆X =
pipe stiffness factor + soil stiffness factor

WE = prism earth load per unit of pipe length (pounds per linear inch of pipe)
WL = live load per unit of pipe length (pounds per linear inch of pipe)

2. The prism load is used instead of the Marston load. The prism load is the
weight of a column of earth above the pipe with the width equal to the
outside pipe diameter and expressed in pounds per linear inch.

WE = γ hDL (conversion/linear inch)

Where:

γ = unit weight of soil, pounds per cubic feet (lb/ft3)

h = cover over pipe, feet
D = pipe diameter, inches
L = 1 linear inch

ft 3 12 in 1ft 2
conversion = × = per linear inch
1,728 in3 ft 144 in2

lb 1 ft 2
WE = γ ( 3 ) h (ft) D(in) L(in) per linear inch
ft 144 in2
γ h lb
= ( ) D (in) per linear inch
144 inch

C-2
 Appendix C: Deflection Equation Development

The equation is rearranged to express the deflection in percent:

γh
∆X Dl K (144) + KWL
=
D EI
+ 0.061E
r3

3. Next, ΔY is substituted for ΔX and then divided by the pipe diameter and
multiplied by 100 to express the deflection in percent:

Dl Kγh
∆Y ( 144 ) + KWL
× 100 = × 100
D EI
+ 0.061E
r3

4. Time-lag factor (Tf) replaces the deflection lag factor (Dl), and the
bedding constant (K) is set at 0.1:

Tf 0.07 γh + 10WL
∆Y% =
EI
+ 0.061E
r3

5. A design factor (Fd) is included with the E’ variable as described in

section 3.6 and in appendix D:

Tf 0.07 γh + 10WL
∆Y% =
EI Equation C.2
+ 0.061𝐹𝑑 E
r3 (Equation 3.1)

C-3
Appendix D

Design Factor (Fd) Variations

A design factor, Fd, is included, so the equation can be used for different
purposes, depending on the design requirements. The various cases are Case A,
Case B, and Case C as described below. Table 5 in the main part of this report
gives Case B values. Table D-1 gives the complete set of Fd values. The values
of Fd vary with the soil classification and the percent compaction. Values of Fd
are given for three cases, which are described below.

Case A is used for comparing actual measured deflections against calculated

theoretical deflections. In this instance, Fd equals 1.0 for all soil types and
degrees of compaction. The actual and theoretical deflections should compare
within plus or minus 2 percentage points for the uncompacted condition, within
plus or minus 1 percentage point for moderate degrees of compaction, and within
plus or minus 0.5 percentage point for high degrees of compaction [8].1

Case B is used for design purposes and selected to give a predicted deflection that
has a 95-percent deflection probability that the actual installed pipe average
deflection will not exceed the predicted values by more than 0.5 percentage
points. Case B values of Fd are used when the actual deflection can be equal to,
or less than, a value representing the theoretical deflection plus 0.5 percentage
point, or:

Desired actual ΔY (%) = theoretical ΔY (%) + 0.5%

Case C may also be used for design purposes. Values of Fd for Case C should be
used when deflection is a critical criterion for a pipeline design. Use of Case C
values should result in an actual deflection equal to, or less than, the calculated
theoretical deflection.

For Bureau of Reclamation purposes, Case B is used, and these are the Fd values
shown in table 5. Using these values, there is a 95-percent probability that
actual average deflection will be equal to, or less than, predicted (figure 2 in
reference [3]) and, if more than the predicted value, the actual deflection will
never be more than 0.5 percentage point greater than the predicted value.

1
Numbers in brackets refer to references that are contained in Section 7, “Bibliography,” of the
main report.

D-1
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table D-1. Values of Fd for Use in Reclamation Equation

Percent compaction of embedment
Soil classification of embedment Uncompacted Moderate High
(USCS) (< 85% C) ( 85 to < 95% C) ( 95% C)
CRUSHED ROCK: Fd for Fd for

Not more than 25% passing 3/8-inch A = 1.0 A = 1.0

sieve and not more than 12% fines;
maximum size not to exceed 3 inches B = 0.67 B = 1.0

C = 0.5 C = 0.75
CLEAN COARSE-GRAINED SOILS: Fd for Fd for Fd for

Sands, gravels with 12% or less A = 1.0 A = 1.0 A = 1.0

fines GW, GP, SW, SP, or any soil
beginning with one of these B = 0.67 B = 0.75 B = 1.0
symbols (i.e., GP-GM)
C = 0.5 C = 0.67 C = 0.7
SANDY OR GRAVELLY Fd for Fd for Fd for
FINE-GRAINED SOILS:
A = 1.0 A = 1.0 A = 1.0
Silts and clays with 30% or more
coarse-grained particles CL, ML, B = 0.5 B = 0.67 B = 0.75
(or CL-ML, CL/ML, ML/CL)
C = 0.3 C = 0.5 C = 0.6
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS WITH
FINES:

Sands, gravels with more than

12% fines GC, GM, SC, SM,
or any soil beginning with one of
these symbols (i.e., SC/CL)
FINE-GRAINED SOILS: Fd for Fd for Fd for

Silts and clays with less than A = 1.0 A = 1.0 A = 1.0

30% coarse-grained particles CL, ML
(or CL-ML, ML/CL, CL/ML) B = 0.5 B = 0.67 B = 0.75

C = 0.3 C = 0.5 C = 0.6

HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE Soils with medium to high plasticity or with
FINE-GRAINED SOILS: significant organic content

CH, MH, OH, OL, or any soil No data available

containing one of these symbols
(i.e., CL/CH) Not Recommended
Note: USCS = Unified Soil Classification System, % C = percent compaction.

D-2
Appendix E

Live Loads (WL)

General
There are many types of live loads, but the two most common live loads used in
design are highway (HS-20)1 and railroad (E80) loads.

Highway Live Loads

Highway loads should be determined separately for the two types of roadway
pavements: rigid and flexible. Rigid pavements would constitute reinforced
concrete pavements, and flexible pavements would include bituminous pavements
and dirt and gravel surfaces. The essential difference between the two types of
pavements is how they distribute the load over the subgrade. Rigid and flexible
pavements are designed to distribute the load over the subgrade; however,
because the modulus of elasticity of the rigid pavement is much greater than the
foundation material, a major portion of the load bearing capacity is derived from
the concrete slab. Dirt or gravel surfacing provides the least amount of load
distribution over the pipe; therefore, it is a worst case for design. American
Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) considers
flexible bituminous pavements as unpaved surfaces, and they should be designed
as dirt or gravel roads.

Loads for pipe under rigid pavements are calculated in accordance with
AASHTO’s 2010 LRFD2 Bridge Design Specifications [17] methods outlined in
section 3.6.1.2.6. Loads for pipe under flexible pavements, including dirt and
gravel surfacing, are calculated using the Boussinesq’s theory.

Impact Factors
The range of impact factors applied to the static load will vary with the type of
pavement. For rigid pavement, the impact factors are the lowest. Flexible
pavements are next lowest, and dirt or gravel will produce the highest impact
factors.

1
AASHTO uses a HL-93 loading, which consists of the HS-20 truck loading plus a lane loading.
2
LRFD = Load and Resistance Factor Design
E-1
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Highway Live Loads on Rigid Pavement

A typical design case for a highway with rigid pavement assumes a
two-lane concrete paved road with an AASHTO HS-20 truck centered in each
12-foot-wide lane (figure E-1). The diameter of pipe at a given depth
will determine the actual load on the pipe (i.e., a larger pipe will be influenced by
four wheels at a given depth, as opposed to a smaller pipe, which would only be
affected by two wheels). Two wheels from passing trucks will give the greatest
load, and this load case should be used for rigid pavement design. The pipe may
be perpendicular or parallel to the direction of truck travel, or any intermediate
position. Other design truck loads can be specified as required by project needs
and local practice. The rigid pavement is assumed to distribute the load evenly
over the tire contact area and through the soil below on the slope indicated in
figures E-2 and E-1. The tire contact length can be calculated using AASHTO’s
2010 LRFD [17], which yields a length of 10.0 inches and a width of 20 inches
(based on a wheel load of 16,000 pounds) and an impact factor of 33 percent at
the surface and dissipating to zero at 8 feet of depth.

The live load (WL) for two passing trucks can then be calculated using the
following formula:

P If
WL =
144 L1 L2 Equation E.1

Where:

WL = live load on pipe, pounds per square inch (lb/in2)

P = 32,000 pounds (HS-20 axle load)
If = impact factor = 1.33 at road surface
= 1.17 for 4.0 feet
= 1.00 for 8.0 feet
h = depth of cover to top of pipe, feet (≥ 2 feet)
L1 = AL1 = 0.83 + 1.15 h
L2 = AL2 = 4 + 1.67 + 1.15 h, for 2 feet < h < 3.8 feet
L2 = AL2 = 6 + 4 + 6 + 1.67 + 1.15 h, for h > 3.8 feet

Note: This formula is only applicable for depths greater than 2 feet.

For special circumstances with depths of covers of less than 2 feet, the distance
between the inside edges of the tires is 4 - 1.667 or 2.33 feet; therefore, only one
wheel should be used to determine the live load. Therefore:

P = 16,000 pounds (HS-20 wheel load)

Impact factor = 1.29 for a depth of 1 foot

E-2
 Appendix E: Live Loads (W L)

L1 = 0.83 + 1.15h
L2 = 1.67 + 1.15h

The live load can be computed independent of pipe diameter (lb/in2) and results in
live loads shown in table E-1.

Figure E-1. Two HS-20 trucks located in adjacent lanes.

Figure E-2. Distribution of HS-20 live load through fill.

E-3
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table E-1. HS-20 Live Loads for Rigid Pavement (lb/in2)

Depth W L*
(ft) AL1 AL2 If P (lb/in2)
0 0.833 1.667 1.33 16000 106.7
1 1.983 2.817 1.29 16000 25.7
2 3.133 7.967 1.25 32000 11.1
2.5 3.708 8.542 1.23 32000 8.5
3 4.283 9.117 1.21 32000 6.7
4 5.433 22.267 1.17 64000 4.3
5 6.583 23.417 1.12 64000 3.2
6 7.733 24.567 1.08 64000 2.5
7 8.883 25.717 1.04 64000 2.0
8 10.033 26.867 1.00 64000 1.6
*Per AASHTO’s 2010 LFRD [17] for granular fill, assume load
spread angle of 1.15 h.
Note: The Bureau of Reclamation requires a minimum of 5 feet of
cover over pipelines under roads.

Example

Assume: h = 5 feet
If = 1.12
Tire width = 20 inches
Tire length = 10 inches

1. Compute L1, load width (feet) parallel to direction of travel (see

figure E-2).

AL1 = 0.83 + 1.15 h

AL1 = 0.83 + 1.15 (5) = 6.58 feet

2. Compute L2, load width (feet) perpendicular to direction of travel (see

figure E-2).

h  2 feet

Therefore: AL2= ((6 + 4 + 6+ 1.67) + 1.15 h)

AL2 = (17.67 + 1.15 h)
AL2 = (17.67 + 1.15 (5)) = 23.42 feet

P If
WL =
144 L1 L2 (Equation E.1)

E-4
 Appendix E: Live Loads (W L)

3. Compute WL:

Substituting:

WL = 64000 (1.12 / (144 (6.58) (23.42)) = 3.2 lb/in2

Highway Live Loads on Flexible Pavement

The following method for finding the pressure acting on a pipe at a given depth
directly below a surface load is based on the Boussinesq’s equation
(see figure E-3). Please note that this method is valid for any roadway or any
construction equipment wheel load calculation. More complex loading situations
can be analyzed using the more general Boussinesq procedure.

Figure E-3. Distributed load over pipe.

The point pressure on the pipe is found by dividing the rectangular wheel load
area (ABCD) into four subarea rectangles (abcd) which have a common corner, E,
in the surcharge area, and over the pipe. The live load pressure at the surface is
determined when the live load is divided over the four subareas. Each subarea
pressure at depth is calculated by multiplying an influence coefficient, I, from
table E-2, by the live load:

E-5
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

4 Ps = Pa + Pb + Pc + Pd

WL=4 I Ps (Equation E.2)

Where:

WL = live load pressure at point on pipe, lb/in2

I = influence coefficient from table E-2
Ps = distributed live load pressure acting over ground surface, lb/in2 or
wheel load/load area or 16,000 / (10 × 20) = 80 lb/in2

Table E-2. HS-20 Live Loads for Flexible Pavement (lb/in2)

Depth WL
(ft) If I P (lb/in2)
2 1.5 0.035 16,000 16.8
2.5 1.5 0.024 16,000 11.5
3 1.4 0.017 16,000 7.6
4 1.3 0.010 16,000 4.2
5 1.2 .0064 16,000 2.5
6 1.1 .0046 16,000 1.6
7 1.0 .0034 16,000 1.1
8 1.0 .0027 16,000 0.9
Note: Reclamation requires a minimum of 5 feet of cover over pipelines under roads and
other surfaces that will have vehicular travel, such as service yards or parking lots.

Newmark Influence Coefficient

The Newmark influence coefficient is dependent on the dimensions of the
rectangular area and the depth to the top of pipe. Table E-2 gives influence
coefficients in terms relating to figure E-3:

Where:

h = vertical distance from surface to the pipe crown, feet

M = horizontal distance, normal to pipe centerline, from the center of the load
to the load edge, feet
N = horizontal distance, parallel to pipe centerline, from the center of the
load to the load edge, feet

The total load can then be computed by applying an appropriate impact factor.

WL =4 I Ps If (Equation E.3)

E-6
 Appendix E: Live Loads (W L)

The impact factor [13]3 will vary with depth:

If = impact factor = 1.50 for 2.0 feet < h < 3.0 feet
= 1.40 for 3.0 feet < h < 4.0 feet
= 1.30 for 4.0 feet < h < 5.0 feet
= 1.20 for 5.0 feet < h < 6.0 feet
= 1.10 for 6.0 feet < h < 7.0 feet
= 1.00 for ≥ 7.0 feet

For depths less than 2.0 feet, the impact factor should be increased significantly
and will depend on surface material and roughness.

If the footprint of the tire is assumed to be 10 inches by 20 inches, the influence

coefficients (I) can be calculated (see table E-2).

The live load (WL) can be computed independent of pipe diameter (lb/in2) and
results in live loads shown in table E-2.

Example

Determine external load WL (lb/in2) for h= 2 feet on a dirt road:

WL =4 I Ps If (Equation E.3)

Solution of WL requires determining: Ps, I, and If :

For an HS-20 load, a typical tire width is 10 inches by 20 inches.

Therefore, M = 0.42 and N = 0.83.

Ps = 16000 / (10) (20) = 80 lb/in2

For h = 2 feet. If = 1.50

M/h = 0.42/2 = .21 N/h = 0.83/2 = .42

From table E-3: I = .035

Compute WL:

WL = 4 (.035) (80) (1.50) = 16.8 lb/in2

3
Numbers in brackets refer to references that are contained in Section 7, “Bibliography,” of the
main report.
E-7
 Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

Table E-3. Influence Coefficient, I, for Distributed Loads Over a Pipe for Any Tire Footprint
N/h
M/h 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.1 0.005 0.009 0.013 0.017 0.020 0.022 0.024
0.2 0.009 0.018 0.026 0.033 0.039 0.043 0.047
0.3 0.013 0.026 0.037 0.047 0.056 0.063 0.069
0.4 0.017 0.033 0.047 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.087
0.5 0.020 0.039 0.056 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.103
0.6 0.022 0.043 0.063 0.080 0.095 0.107 0.117
0.7 0.024 0.047 0.069 0.087 0.103 0.117 0.128
0.8 0.026 0.050 0.073 0.093 0.110 0.125 0.137
0.9 0.027 0.053 0.077 0.098 0.116 0.131 0.144
1 0.028 0.055 0.079 0.101 0.120 0.136 0.149
1.2 0.029 0.057 0.083 0.106 0.126 0.143 0.157
1.5 0.030 0.060 0.086 0.110 0.131 0.149 0.164
2 0.031 0.061 0.089 0.113 0.135 0.153 0.169
 0.032 0.062 0.090 0.115 0.137 0.156 0.172
N/h
M/h 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 2 
0.1 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032
0.2 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.060 0.061 0.062
0.3 0.073 0.077 0.079 0.083 0.086 0.089 0.090
0.4 0.093 0.098 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.113 0.115
0.5 0.110 0.116 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.137
0.6 0.125 0.131 0.136 0.143 0.149 0.153 0.156
0.7 0.137 0.144 0.149 0.157 0.164 0.169 0.172
0.8 0.146 0.154 0.160 0.168 0.176 0.181 0.185
0.9 0.154 0.162 0.168 0.178 0.186 0.192 0.196
1 0.160 0.168 0.175 0.185 0.194 0.200 0.205
1.2 0.168 0.178 0.185 0.196 0.205 0.209 0.212
1.5 0.176 0.186 0.194 0.205 0.211 0.216 0.223
2 0.181 0.192 0.200 0.209 0.216 0.232 0.240
 0.185 0.196 0.205 0.212 0.223 0.240 0.250

E-8
 Appendix E: Live Loads (W L)

Railroad Live Loads

The loading configuration for an E-80 Cooper railroad loading is a uniformly

loaded rectangle with dimensions 8 feet by 20 feet (figure E-4). The source of
these dimensions is the width of the railroad ties (8 feet) and the spacing between
the drive wheels on the locomotive. Loading is based on the axle weight exerted
on the track by two locomotives and their tenders coupled together in a
doubleheader fashion (figure E-5). For an E-80 loading, the axle load is
80,000 pounds, and there are four drive axles. The entire load is presumed to be
uniformly distributed on the rectangle.

Figure E- 4. Railroad crossing load design.

Figure E-5. Railroad loading for Cooper E-80 locomotives.

E-9
Method for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Deflection

The impact factors for railroads vary differently than for highway loads. The
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association
recommends a linearly variable impact factor that is 40 percent at the bottom of
the railroad ties and zero at 10 feet of cover over the ties [18]. Reclamation
requires a minimum cover of 5 feet between the bottom of the railroad ties and the
top of the pipe at railroad crossings.

The total load can then be computed by applying an appropriate impact factor.

WL =4 I Ps If (Equation E.3)

Where:

If = impact factor
Ps = load = 13.9 lb/in2
I = influence coefficient, from table E-3

This equation is not valid for depths less than 2.5 feet because a minimum cover
is required. Because the footprint of a train is assumed to be the same for all
standard gauge trains, the influence coefficients (I) can be tabulated as shown in
table E-4.

The live load can be computed independent of pipe diameter (lb/in2) and results in
live loads shown in table E-4.

Table E-4. Railroad Live Loads (lb/in2)

Depth If I P WL
(ft) (lb/in2)
2.5 1.3 0.231 320,000 16.7
3 1.28 0.222 320,000 15.8
4 1.24 0.202 320,000 13.9
5 1.20 0.181 320,000 12.1
6 1.16 0.161 320,000 10.4
7 1.12 0.142 320,000 8.8
8 1.08 0.127 320,000 7.6
9 1.04 0.112 320,000 6.5
10 1 0.101 320,000 5.6
20 1 0.039 320,000 2.2
Note: Reclamation requires a minimum of 5 feet of cover over pipelines under railroads.

E-10
 Appendix E: Live Loads (W L)

Example

Determine external load WL (lb/in2) for H= 6 feet beneath a railroad:

WL =4 I Ps If (Equation E.3)

Solution of WL requires determining P, I, and If :

From table E-4, I= 0.161

Ps = 4(80000) / (96) (240) = 13.9 lb/in2

If = 1.16

Compute WL:

WL = 4 (.161) (13.9) (1.16) = 10.4 lb/in2

E-11