11/4/2019

Contact points

• Email address: [email protected]

Academic writing
Dear Professor XY,
Create a message your
Text of email.
readers will remember
Best regards,
Name
04/11/2019

Professors: Literature

Kaechelein, Holger (2011) Shkrim Akademik, Tiranë.

Aida GJIKA, PhD & Etis JORGJI, PhD Lee Davis, Linda (2006) Developing work and Study Skills, Thomson
Learning
Economics Department Harvard Business Essentials (2003) Business Communication (Harvard
Business Essentials Series), Mcgraw-Hill Professional.
University of Tirana, Faculty of Economy

04/11/2019

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About the course Programme content:

• 1. Introduction to the Academic Writing

• Teaching hours: 3 hours /per week; 2 (Lectures), 1 • 2: From the idea to the writing process
(Exercise); • 3: Scientific Methods and techniques
• 4: First steps: The topic and the purpose
• Course aim and objectives: • 5: The use of literature in academic writing
• Students are expected to acquire skills and knowledge • 6: Preparing the draft
necessary for the process of writing a research paper. At the • 7: Plagiarism
end of the course, should be able to critically think and • 8: Citation
analyse different economic problems by developing • 9: Final Adaption
academic writing skills and intergroup communicative skills.
• 10: Communication in Business
• 11: Presentation

Requirements Academic writing is…

• Intermediate exam (20%) • …created by scholars for other scholars
• Class discussions and homework (10%) …focused on issues that matter to other scholars
…offer a balanced point of view (“What is,” 2004).
• Final exam (50%)
• Written paper (20%)

• (3-4 persons in group)

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Goals of Academic Writing

What is academic language?

Academic language is:  Seek truth

the language used in the  Argue a point
classroom and workplace  Propose solutions
the language of text
 Deepen insights
the language assessments
 Clarify a theory
the language of academic
success  Challenge conventional wisdom

the language of power

What is Academic Writing?

Writing

 Writing is a response • Academic writing is Formal

 Writing is linear • No exaggeration (Not: extremely important)
 Writing is recursive • Impersonal (no use of “I am”)
• Direct to the meaning
 Writing is both subject and object
• No final judgment!! Always allow for arguing and accepting
 Writing is decision-making other opinions!!
 Writing is a process, frequently involving
much trial and error

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/pdf/writing.pdf

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WHAT DOES FORMAL WRITING LOOK Characteristics of Academic Writing

LIKE?
• Focus on the issue, not the writer Keeping your
writing objective and impersonal can make it more Purpose
Purpose of academic writing is often to explain, to persuade, or to
convincing. convince your audience of the correctness of your claim on a
certain issue or problem.
• It will be argued that the benefits of sales promotion outweigh the
disadvantages.

• I will argue in this essay that ...

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Recognizing social vs. academic Differences Between Academic and

language Personal Writing
When comparing social and academic language, students should look
for the following differences:
Personal Writing Academic Writing
Informal Language Academic Language
variety of words, more Tells a story Comments, evaluates, analyses
repetition of words
sophisticated vocabulary

sentences start with

sentences start with transition Non-technical vocabulary Subject-specific vocabulary
words, such as “however,”
“and” and “but”
“moreover,” and “in addition”
‘I’ at the centre ‘I’ as observer and commentator
use of slang: “guy,” “cool,” and
No slang Information comes from the Information comes from sources
“awesome”
writers experience and refers to what others say

Personal views and feelings Evidence and arguments

Conventions for citation

Crème P & Lea M, Writing at University, Buckingham, OUP, 1997, p. 105

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Characteristics of Formal Writing

Characteristics of Formal Writing
• Formal Writing is ACCURATE: • Structure and vocabulary are formal;
-Precise evidence is presented. -Full forms are used (What have, cannot...)
-Facts are distinguished from opinions and feelings. -More formal, abstract words with Latin or Greek origins are often
-Sources are carefully used and acknowledged. preferred.
-Sentences are clear and constructed carefully.
-Punctuation marks are accurately used.

Yet informal writing is... Characteristics of Formal Writing

• OFTEN IMPRECISE; • Formal writing is TENTATIVE;
-There are few definite statements.
-A personal viewpoint is expressed.
-Quick conclusions are avoided.
-Statements are not necessarily accurate.
-Facts and opinions are not necessarily distinct.
-Sources are used rarely and carelessly.
-Sentences are shorter, and not so carefully
constructed.
-Dramatic punctuation marks (?, !, ...) are common.

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What is the point of academic

Academic writing at University
writing?
• The language has to be clear, concise and neutral. • The substance of academic writing must be based on solid evidence
• Material is to be well researched. and logical analysis, and presented as a concise, accurate argument.
• Appropriate theories should be used.
• It should be supported by relevant literature. • Academic writing can allow you to present your argument and
analysis accurately and concisely.
• All literature should be correctly acknowledged.

How is it done? Yet in informal writing;

• Aim for precision. Don’t use unnecessary words or • Structure and vocabulary are informal;
waffle. Get straight to the point. Make every word -Short forms and contractions (I’ve, he’s, can’t...) are often used.
count. -Shorter, less formal language is preferred (e.g. phrasal verbs, compound
words, idioms, slang and colloquial language).
• If there is any uncertainty about a particular point,
use cautious language (such as ‘may’, ‘might’,
‘could’, ‘potentially’).
• Unless you are a confident writer, it is best to avoid
over-long sentences and to aim for a mixture of
long and short sentences for variation and rhythm.
• Avoid repeating the same words

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Formal Writing vs. Informal Writing

However, informal writing is ASSERTIVE;
-There are often definite statements and generalizations.
-Conclusions may be drawn from insufficient evidence.
Formal Writing Informal Writing
DISTANT LANGUAGE PERSONAL LANGUAGE

ACCURATE OFTEN IMPRECISE

FORMAL INFORMAL
STRUCTURE and STRUCTURE and
VOCABULARY VOCABULARY
TENTATIVE ASSERTIVE

Pieces of academic writing often

• Use source materials (text books, lectures, articles …)
• Compare and contrast – often relating similarities and differences
between competing ideas
• Use criteria to evaluate evidence
• Create an argument, thesis or story
• Make a decision as to the best option(s)
What are the steps in
• Follow a convention or structure
• Are emotionally neutral, dispassionate.
becoming a good
academic writer?

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When thinking about your

audience…
…consider your
First, know your audience! • language/word choice
Writing for academic readers is a lot different • content
from texting with your kids. • tone

Avoid abbreviations and contractions Avoid slang words and phrases

• Abbreviations and contractions are informal, and are best avoided in Compare the following:
academic writing. For example:
• ‘Department’ should be used instead of the abbreviation ‘dept’. • ‘The individual was sentenced for nicking a bike.’
• ‘Is not’ should be used in place of the contraction ‘isn’t’. • ‘The doctor looked kind of worried when he
reviewed the case notes.’

• ‘The individual was sentenced for stealing a bike’

• ‘The doctor looked slightly worried when he
reviewed the case notes.’

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Avoid conversational terms Be Impersonal

• This totally changed people’s lives’

• Why is ‘totally’ there? • In many academic disciplines, writing in the first person is not
• If it’s a ‘filler’ it can be omitted. acceptable as it is believed to be too subjective and personal. Many
tutors prefer impersonal language to be used in assignments.
• If it’s used for emphasis, a more appropriate word could be used, for
example ‘significantly’ or ‘fundamentally’

Areas of Emphasis Academic Writing Clarity

 There are several specific areas that are very important for writing • Often we mistakenly believe that academic writing involves writing
quality papers. These areas include: many complex sentences and using a lot of fancy words.
 Clarity • One of the main goals of academic writing is to clearly present your
 Semantics points for the reader.
 Conciseness
 Positive phrases • If your paper lacks clarity, your reviewers will have a variety of
 Subordination reactions, from thorough revision for style and clarity to rejection.
 Parallel structure
 Paragraph construction

 Resource: The Elements of Style by William Shrunk Jr. and E.B. White

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Example of Lack of Clarity Example

1. Example • You may often find that there are a number of

• “On the other end of this political-theological, teeter totter is the mostly words contained in your writing that can be safely
secular, liberal, left holding aloft the double barreled, cornucopia of
liberation through ample and accurate education as well as the promise to
eliminated without any kind of danger to your
patients of the provision of healthcare with privacy and respect for meaning whatsoever.
personhood.”
• You may find words that can be eliminated
without any danger to your meaning.
(Beer & McMurrey, 2005, p. 34)

Semantics Examples of Vague Words

1. Example
 You should not use vague words. If a word can be misinterpreted,
then it is not the best word to use. • “Throughout the years death rates have been on the decline and 5 year
survival rates increased. Too vague…It is unclear to what period of time you
are referring.”
 Avoid absolute words (always, very, certain, absolutely…) In
academia, nothing is ever certain. • Throughout the years is not defined. The writer could mean for the last 200
years, the last 50 years or the last 10 years. The reader has no way of
knowing.
 Avoid using professional jargon words too much or just to spice up
the writing. Words in academic fields have precise definitions that 2. Example
are not always commonly recognized or acknowledged in casual
writing or correspondence. • “Textbooks and travel costs make up much of the cost that students
experience at TUH. These expenses make many students try to find ways to
 Beware of becoming “lost in translation” (example abbreviation cut costs.”
translation in two different languages); use labels as accepted in the • Words like “these”, “those”, “their”, etc. should be use with caution. In the
language you are writing. above sentence, it is not clear whether the writer is referring to just the
expenses for textbooks and travel costs or all of the costs of a graduate
education.

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Examples of Absolute Words Examples of Incorrect Words

1. Example
1. Example
• “Children with autism are always victims of bullying.” • Original – “Ritalin effects children’s ability to learn.”
• Words like “proves”, “always”, “all”, “exactly”, and “causes” should be used with • Correct – “Ritalin affects children’s ability to learn.”
extreme caution in academic writing. • e

• Use of sources that provide numerical data/percentages would be appropriate to Effect – noun (outcome, consequence)
provide support for the extent of the problem. Affect- verb (to transform, to change)
1. Example
2. Example • Original – “The choice is between three candidates.”
• “The article written by Smith et al. (2010) proves that children with autism are • Correct – “The choice is between two candidates.” Or “The choice is
victims of bullying.” among three candidates.”

Conciseness Examples of Redundancy

 If a word or phrase can be shortened or even removed without losing the
meaning of your sentence or point, do it. 1. Example

 Conciseness is different than brevity. A 150 page thesis can be concise. • The patient was helped significantly with a new experimental drug.
2. Example
 In order to be concise, you should: • At the conference, the speaker provide free complimentary handbooks on
how to implement evidenced based practice in health care organizations.
 Avoid redundancy

 Avoid unnecessary modifiers

 Avoid circumlocutions

 Avoid filler words

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Examples of Unnecessary Modifiers Examples of Circumlocution

1. Example 1. Example
1. Original: In spite of the fact that
• Original – “Being a professional without some kind of ethical foundation is 2. Better: Although
dangerous.” 2. Example
1. Original: In the majority of instances
• Better – “Being a professional without an ethical foundation is 2. Better: Usually
dangerous.”
3. Example
2. Example • Original: In light of the fact that…
• Original – “Very little children often walk quietly on the tips of their toes.” • Better: “Because…”

• Better – “Young children often tiptoe.”

(however consider the audience to ensure understanding of culture-specific
words)

Examples of Filler Words Positive Phrases

1. Example • As a general principle, convert negative phrases into positive phrases

whenever possible.
• Original – “There is evidence to suggest that studying causes grades to
increase.”
• A positive phrase is usually more concise than a negative phrase.
• Better – “Evidence suggests that studying causes grades to increase.”
• A positive phrase is usually more clear than a negative phrase.
2. Example
1. Original – “Women, who suffer from asthma, have been linked to having
elevated psychological symptoms.”
2. Better – “Women, who suffer from asthma, may have elevated
psychological symptoms.”

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Example of a Positive Phrase Subordination

• Example • Subordination is the restructuring of clauses within other clauses.

• Negative Phrase – “The student was usually not on time.” • Utilizing subordination eliminates a lot of words.
• Better – “The student usually came late.”
• Utilizing subordination usually increases clarity.

Example of Subordination Parallel structure

1. Example
• Original – “The intervention was used to treat autism, and it took five
• Parallelism is repetition of grammatical structures
steps.” • These structures can be simple (single words) or complex (repetition
of complete sentence structures)
• With Subordination – “The intervention was used to treat autism in five
steps.” Or “The five-step intervention was used to treat autism.” Or “The
five-step intervention treated autism.”

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Examples of Parallel Structure Examples of Parallel Structure

• I am not much of an athlete, but I like softball, • The players are excited, eager, and enthusiastic(3 adjectives)
soccer and hockey.( 3 nouns)
• The author wrote skillfully , and quickly.
(2 adverbs)
• Dominic does not have enough time to play soccer, • She fell in love and out of love in a few minutes. (2 prepositional
to join the debating team, and to participate in phrases)
band.(3 infinitive phrases)

• He said that he would meet you at the soccer field

and that you should not be late. (2 noun clauses)

Paragraph Construction Good writing style

 Every paragraph should have one and only one independent idea.
• Use the right word – use a dictionary and a thesaurus.
 A paragraph should always have a beginning, middle and end. • Use short sentences, and long sentences when necessary.
 The beginning introduces your idea with a topic sentence. • Make clear the logic or structure.
 The middle explains your idea with supporting sentences. • Each sentence relates to the one before and after it.
 The end connects your idea to the rest of the paragraph or the section with a • Each paragraph relates to the one before and after it.
concluding sentence. In academic writing, the concluding sentence is typically used
only for long paragraphs.

 Be careful of long paragraphs as they usually contain more than one

independent idea.

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Linguistic accuracy Processes of Writing

• Spelling – use a dictionary and a spell-checker 1 Prewriting

• Grammar – use a guide and a grammar-checker
• Choose the right word – use a thesaurus 2 Planning
3 Searching References
4 Handling References
5 Data Collection and Analysis
6 Writing and Revising Drafts

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Types of Academic Writing Essays

• Coursework • Tend to present an argument

• Reports • Focus on evaluating or analysing theories, past
research by other people and ideas. Rarely include
• Dissertations new or original research.
• Are continuous pieces of prose
• Are meant to be read carefully
• Do not generally include recommendations
• Are mostly used in academic settings

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Reports Essays and reports: similarities

• Present information • Both use formal academic style

• Present data and findings that you have collected

• Have some form of introduction, main body and a conclusion
yourself e.g. in an experiment, survey, case study or
particular experience.
• Contain critical analysis
• Are divided into separate sections
• Their structure means they can be scanned quickly • Are well structured and presented
• Often include recommendations for action.
• Are typical of writing produced in the workplace.

When are reports produced? Academic reports

• Often after a project or investigation. • A report presents the results of an investigation.

• Projects/Investigations can be practical • Reports are highly structured forms of writing.

• Or literature based

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Standard Reports

• Title • Discussion.
• Abstract/ Executive Summary/Overview • Recommendations.
• Introduction • References ( using an appropriate system)
• Background/Scene Setting • Bibliography.
• Literature Review • Appendices.
• Method
• Results/ Analysis

Essay Report Essay Report

Establish a Investigates, presents Sections are
Needs to be read
proposition or and analyzes easily identified
as a whole
responds to a information to help and can be read
question or make decisions or in isolation.
proposition account for decisions. Is a factual and
Has linked and Presents a writers objective
fluent paragraph Has defined opinion or presentation of
structure sections with data.
(sub)-headings interpretation (albeit
and numbering supported with
Uses fluent evidence.) Has a specific
sentence Uses lists and Is aimed at a broad
audience
structure to bullet points for academic audience
appropriate to its
express ideas. clarity and brevity
purposes.

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Essay Report Academic writing is:

 Formal (impersonal, no slang, formal sentence structure)

 Reasoned (critical thinking: how and why)

Ideally, Includes
completely text diagrams,  Impartial (gives a balanced point of view, more than one
based tables and
graphs point of view)

Large amounts of  Logical (ideas flow logically from one to another:

Supporting
information is supporting information signposts, topic sentences and linked paragraphs)
woven into are included in
appendices.  Structured(keeps to the structure of an essay, report etc)
the text

 Supported(evidence and examples, referencing)

Steps in the academic writing process

Academic writing is a process
Analyse the question
Writing is hard work, it takes time and Brainstorm ideas
concentration. Good writers aren’t born that Make a plan to guide research
way, rather they understand that writing is a Do research to get more ideas for your answer
process. It can be broken down into stages
Sort ideas by planning the essay/assignment structure
that make it more manageable.
Write drafts
Prepare references
Edit and proofread

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Tips
• In addition to taking this class, other things you can do
to become a better writer: Good luck with your
•
•
Read, pay attention, and imitate.
Let go of “academic” writing habits (deprogramming step!)
academic writing!
• Talk about your research before trying to write about it.
• Develop a thesaurus habit. Search for the right word rather than settling
for any old word.
• Respect your audience—try not to bore them! "In science, the credit goes to the man who convinces the world,
• Stop waiting for “inspiration.” not to the man to whom the idea first occurs."
• Accept that writing is hard for everyone. --Sir William Osler
• Revise. Nobody gets it perfect on the first try.
• Learn how to cut ruthlessly. Never become too attached to your words.
• Find a good editor!
"Writing is an art. But when it is writing to inform it comes close to
being a science as well."
--Robert Gunning,The Technique of Clear Writing

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