ELS 2202 Electronics I

Week 2.i
1.1 The Ideal Diode

INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI DEL

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Semiconductor diodes

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 Discrete Semiconductor Devices
 Semiconductor Materials
 Conductor and Insulators.
 N-type, P-Type, electron, and hole current
 PN junction, depletion region, potential
barrier.
 Diodes

 Forward Bias, reverse bias

 Diode applications
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Zener Diodes
 Photo Diodes

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 Conductor and Insulators.
Atomic Model

the gap can be crossed

only when breakdown
conditions occur the gap is smaller
and can be crossed the conduction band
when a photon and valence band
is absorbed overlap, so there is no gap

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Silicon and Germanium

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Conduction Electron and Holes.

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room

temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the
valence band into the conduction band, becoming
free electron called ‘Conduction Electron’

It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.

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 Electron Hole Current.
In conduction band : When a voltage is
applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,
the thermally generated free electrons in
the conduction band, are now easily
attracted toward the positive end.

This movement of free electrons is one

type of current in a semiconductive
material and is called electron current.

In valance band: In valance band holes generated due to free electrons. Electrons
in the valance band are although still attached with atom and not free to move,
however they can move into nearby hole with a little change in energy, thus
leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from
one place to another in the crystal structure. It is called hole current.

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Electron Hole Current.

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 N-type semiconductor
Electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band make the semiconductive
material to conduct but they are too limited to
make it a very good conductor..

Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can

drastically increase the conductivity of
material. The process is called doping.

Addition of a penta-valent material icnreases

the number of conduction electrons.
An antimony
Majority carrier: electrons (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the
center. The extra electron from the
Minority carriers: holes Sb atom becomes a free electron.

Material is called N-type semiconductor

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P-type semiconductor.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon

crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity
atom is shown in the center.

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 PN Junction
Although P-type material has holes in excess and N-type material has a number of
free conduction electron however the net number of proton and electron are equal
in each individual material keeping it just neutral.

The basic silicon structure at the instant

of junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers.

Free electrons in the n region near the

pn junction begin to diffuse across the
junction and fall into holes near the
junction in the p region.

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PN Junction

For every electron that diffuses across

the junction and
combines with a hole, a positive charge
is left in the n region and a negative
charge is created in the p region,
forming a barrier potential.

This action continues until the voltage of

the barrier repels further diffusion.

The blue arrows between the positive

and negative charges in the depletion
region represent the electric field.

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Energy band and potential barrier

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 Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is doped
as p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in
between.

 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

Diode symbol
p n

Depletion
region

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 Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is doped as p-
region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in between.
 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

Bulk resistance = Positive R + negative Resistan

p n
Rb = 0 , Rp, Rn <= 1 ohm

Depletion
region

Diode symbol
 It conducts current in one direction and offers high (ideally infinite)
resistance in other direction.

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 Forward Biased
 Forward bias is a condition that allows current through
pn junction.

 A dc voltage (Vbais) is applied to bias a diode.

 Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and
negative side is connected with n-region.
As more electrons flow into the
 Vbais must be greater than ‘barrier potential’ depletion region reducing the
number of positive ions and
IF (mA)
similarly more holes move in
V reducing the positive ions.
+ F–
This reduces the width of
IF C depletion region.
–
Current limiting
R
resistance + VBIAS
+ –
B Knee
A VF
0
0 0.7 V
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 Reverse Biased
 Reverse bias is a condition that prevents
current through junction.
 Positive side of Vbias is connected to the n-
region whereas the negative side is
connected with p-region.
The positive side of bias voltage
 Depletion region get wider with this attracts the majority carriers of
configuration. n-type creating more positive
ions at the junction.
VBIAS VR
VBR 0
0
– + This widens the depletion
Knee
region.
I=0A
R
VBIAS
– +
IR

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 Reverse Current

 A small amount current is generated due to

the minority carriers in p and n regions.
 These minority carriers are produced due to
thermally generated hole-electron pairs.
 Minority electrons in p-region pushed towards
+ve bias voltage, cross junction and then fall in
the holes in n-region and still travel in valance
band generating a hole current.

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Reverse Breakdown

 If the external bias voltage is increased

to a value call breakdown voltage the
reverse current can increase drastically.
 Free minority electrons get enough
energy to knock valance electron into
the conduction band.
 The newly released electron can further
strike with other atoms.
 The process is called avalanche effect.

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 Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for forward bias.
 The current in forward biased called forward current and is IF (mA)

designated If.
C

 At 0V (Vbias) across the diode, there is no forward current.

 With gradual increase of Vbias, the forward voltage and
B Knee
A VF
0
forward current increases. 0 0.7 V

 A resistor in series will limit the forward current in order to

protect the diode from overheating and permanent damage. V
+ F–
 A portion of forward-bias voltage drops across the limiting
IF
resistor. –
 Continuing increase of Vf causes rapid increase of forward R
+ VBIAS
current but only a gradual increase in voltage across diode.
+ –

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 Diode V-I Characteristic

 Dynamic Resistance:
• The resistance of diode is not constant but it changes over the entire curve.
So it is called dynamic resistance.

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 Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for reverse bias.
 With 0V reverse voltage there is no reverse
VBR 0
current. VR 0
Knee
 There is only a small current through the junction
as the reverse voltage increases.
 At a point, reverse current shoots up with the
break down of diode. The voltage called break
down voltage. This is not normal mode of
operation. IR

 After this point the reverse voltage remains at

approximately VBR but IR increase very rapidly.
 Break down voltage depends on doping level, set
by manufacturer.

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 Diode V-I Characteristic

The complete V-I

characteristic curve

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 Diode models

 Ideal Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the

forward dynamic
resistance and reverse
current all are
neglected.

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 Diode models
VF = 0.7V

 Practical Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the forward dynamic

resistance and reverse current all are
neglected.

 Forward current IF is determined using Kirchhoff’s voltage as follows:

VF = Knee Voltage = 0.7V

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Ex 3-1
How to Calculate Bulk Resistance

V2  V1
Rb 
( I 2  I1 )
DC Resistance of a Diode

Vs  VZ
Id 
( Rs  R Z )
Load Lines of a Diode
Equation for the Load Lines of a Diode
Vs  VD
ID 
Rs
2  VD
ID 
100
20
If VD equal zero I   0mA
D
100
2  2v
If VD equal 2 V ID  0
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The Q Point
 Half wave Rectifiers
 As diodes conduct current in one direction and block in other.
 When connected with ac voltage, diode only allows half cycle passing
through it and hence convert ac into dc.
 As the half of the wave get rectified, the process called half wave
rectification.

 A diode is connected to an ac source and a load resistor forming a half wave rectifier.
 Positive half cycle causes current through diode, that causes voltage drop across resistor.

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 Diode as Rectifiers
 Reversing diode.

 Average value of Half wave output voltage:

VAVG = VP / pi

 VAVG is approx 31.8% of Vp

 PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage = Vp

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 Full wave rectifiers
 A full wave rectifier allows unidirectional current through the load
during the entire 360 degree of input cycle.

Full Wave Rectifier

 The output voltage have twice the input frequency.

VAVG = 2VP / pi

 VAVG is 63.7% of Vp

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 The Center-Tapped Full wave
•
rectifiers
A center-tapped transformer is used with two diodes that
conduct on alternating half-cycles.
F D1
+ –
During the positive half-
+
I cycle, the upper diode is
Vin Vout

0
–
0 forward-biased and the
+ +
RL lower diode is reverse-
–
– biased.
– +
D2

F D 1
– +

During the negative half- –

V in V
cycle, the lower diode is +
out

0 0
forward-biased and the – +
RL
upper diode is reverse- + I –

biased. + –
D 2

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 The Bridge Full-wave rectifiers
 The Bridge Full-Wave rectifier uses four diodes connected across the
entire secondary as shown.
F

I
D3 D1
+ +
Conduction path for the
Vin
– – + positive half-cycle.
D2 RL Vout 0
D4 –

I
D3 D1
– –
Conduction path for the
Vin
negative half-cycle. + + +
D2 RL Vout 0
D4 –

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The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

Determine the peak output voltage and current in the 3.3 k load
resistor if Vsec = 24 Vrms. Use the practical diode model.

The peak output voltage is:

F

V p ( sec )  1.41Vrms  33.9 V

D3 D1

V p ( out )  V p ( sec )  1.4 V 120 V V(sec) =

24 Vrms
+
 32.5 V D2 D4
RL
3.3 k W
Vp(out )
–

Applying Ohm’s law,

Ip(out) = 9.8 mA

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 Diode Limiters
• Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are used to clip off portions of signal
voltages above or below certain levels.

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Diode Clampers

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 Zener Diodes Cathode (K)
 A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction that is
designed for operation in reverse-
breakdown region
 When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, Anode (A)
its voltage remains almost constant even
though the current changes drastically, and
this is key to the Zener diode operation.
 Ideally, the reverse breakdown has a
constant breakdown voltage. This makes it
useful as a voltage reference, which is its
primary application.

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 Zener Breakdown Characteristic
 As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the
reverse current(IR) remains extremely
small up to the knee of the curve.

 Reverse current is also called Zener

current(Iz).

 At knee point the breakdown effect

begins, the internal Zener resistance (ZZ)
begins to decrease.

 The reverse current increase rapidly.

 The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage

remains nearly constant.

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 Zener Diode Impedence
 The zener impedance, ZZ, is the ratio of a +

change in voltage in the breakdown ZZ

region to the corresponding change in +

VZ
–
current: –
VZ Practical model
ZZ 
I Z

What is the zener impedance if the zener diode

voltage changes from 4.79 V to 4.94 V when
the current changes from 5.00 mA to 10.0
mA?

VZ 0.15 V
ZZ    30 
I Z 5.0 mA

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 Zener Regulation
 The ability to keep the reverse voltage constant
across its terminal is the key feature of the Zener
diode.

 It maintains constant voltage over a range of reverse

current values.

 A minimum reverse current IZK must be maintained in

order to keep diode in regulation mode. Voltage
decreases drastically if the current is reduced below
the knee of the curve.

 Above IZM, max current, the Zener may get damaged

permanently.

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 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage:

As the input voltage changes, the output

voltage remains nearly constant (I < I < I ).
ZK Z ZM

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 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W

Vin(min) = 10.55V
Vin(max) = 32V

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 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load

It maintains
voltage a nearly
constant across RL
as long as Zener
current is within
IZK and IZM.

VZ = 12 V,
IZK = 1 mA,
IZM = 50 mA.

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 Zener Diode Applications

Zeners can also be used as limiters. The back-to-back zeners in this circuit limit
the output to the breakdown voltage plus one diode drop.

+VZ1 + 0.7 V
D1
What are the maximum positive Vin
0
D2
and negative voltages if the zener
–VZ1 – 0.7 V
breakdown voltage is 5.6 V?

± 6.3 V

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 Optical Diodes
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Diodes can be
made to emit light electroluminescence) or
sense light.

 When forward biased electrons form n-

region cross the junction and recombines to
holes with the emission of photons.

 Various impurities are added during the

doping process to establish the wavelength
of the emitted light.

 The process is called electroluminescence.

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 Light Emitting Diodes
 LEDs vary widely in size and brightness – from
small indicating lights and displays to high-
intensity LEDs that are used in traffic signals,
outdoor signs, and general illumination.

 LEDs are very efficient light emitters, and

extremely reliable, so domain of uses getting
wider.

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 Light Emitting Diodes
o When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the
n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.

• The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to
the energy of visible light.

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 Photo Diode
 A photodiode is a special light
sensitive diode with a clear window
to the pn junction. It is operated with

Reverse current, (I l)
reverse bias. Reverse current
increases with greater incident light.

Dark current
0 Irradiance, H

 The tiny current that is present when the

diode is not exposed to light is called
dark current

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 Varactor Diode
 A varactor diode is a special purpose p n
diode operated in reverse-bias to form
a voltage-controlled capacitor. The Plate Plate
width of the depletion region increases Dielectric
– VBIAS +
with reverse-bias.

 Varactor diodes are used in tuning

applications. The applied voltage
controls the capacitance and hence the
resonant frequency.

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 Refrences
• Electronic Devices by Floyd 9th Edition
– Chapter 1,2,3

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 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W, IZM = 1W / 10V = 100mA

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 Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load
 It maintains voltage a nearly constant across RL as long as Zener current
is within IZK and IZM.

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