Science Online Lesson - Periodic Table (Task 1)

Hwa Chong Institution
Secondary 2 Lower Secondary Science

Science Term 2 ACE Assignment
Online Lesson – Periodic Table
Name: Keven Loo Yuquan (14) Class: 2I1 Date: 14 January

2011
1. Scientists have created all the elements beyond element 92. Find out how
they have been made.
Currently, scientists have been able to artificially create all the

elements from atomic number 93 to atomic number 118 (the latest, an
isotope of element 118, ununoctium, was created in 2006 by firing the
protons of 48Ca into the nucleus of 249Cf) in the laboratory. However,
neptunium (atomic number 93) and plutonium (atomic number 94), can also
be found in trace amounts in uranium-rich rock.
Elements over atomic number 93 mostly have isotopes, which differ in
the number of neutrons, but still have the same number of protons. Thus,
they can be differentiated by their characteristics, for example, the kinds of
radiation they release (alpha, beta, the element isotope that they decay into),
their half-lifes, their stability, et cetera. Often however, due to their
radioactivity and cost, they are rarely used for commercial purposes.
It is commonly known that the atomic number of an element is defined
by the number of protons that are present in its nucleus. Therefore, in order
to create elements of a higher atomic number, they would have to figure out
a way to increase the number of protons present in the nucleus. However,
they had already earlier realized that the more protons there were in the
nucleus, the more radioactive the element would be, and the shorter the half-
life of the element would be (the half-life refers to the amount of time it takes
for an element undergoing decay to decrease by half), making studying the
element difficult, as they could easily decay into other elements within a
short period of time.
In the early 1930s, Ernest Lawrence at the University of California at
Berkeley invented the cyclotron, which could speed up protons or ions
(charged atoms) of specific elements to high energies and fire them at the
atoms of uranium (or any other chosen element) like machine-gun bullets at
a target. In the resulting nuclear reaction, some of the protons from the bullet
nuclei would stick to the target nuclei, transforming them into nuclei of
higher atomic numbers. Shooting light atoms at heavy atoms has turned out
to be one of the main methods for producing even heavier atoms far beyond
uranium.
Now however, the cyclotron is no longer commonly used and particle
accelerators and nuclear reactors replaces its’ job. The particle accelerator is
a device that makes use of electromagnetic fields in order to propel charged
particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams.
2. It is said that the stars are the ‘element factories of the universe’, that is,
stars make the elements. Do some research and find out how the stars make
elements.
The method in which stars make virtually all the natural elements is
through a process called nucleosynthesis. However, to understand how this
works out, we would have to first understand a bit of history of elements in
the universe.
After the Big Bang, when the first stars began to form and the galaxies
took shape, the only three elements in the universe were hydrogen, helium
and some lithium. However, through a process of nuclear fusion, the stars
consumed hydrogen and slowly created heavier elements, and as more
generation of stars passed, the elements created became heavier and
heavier. This process of making the heavy elements and then ejecting them
into the Universe takes place over the lifespan of a star, and it could range
from 2 billion to 13 billion years. The heavier elements we see in the world
today were all ejected from stars that had reached the end of their lifespan
and exploded into supernovas before settling into old age as a white dwarf, a
neutron star or a black hole.
For nuclei to fuse, even of those of hydrogen, it requires a huge
amount of energy. The reason for this is because all nuclei have a positive
charge due to their protons, and since like charges repel, they strongly resist
being put too close together.
The way in which stars create heavier elements is through the nuclear
reactions that happen in them. These nuclear temperatures release large
amounts of thermal energy, which accelerates the atoms to high speeds.
Thus, they can overcome this electromagnetic repulsion and get close
enough for the nuclear force to be sufficient to result in fusion. Additionally,
the fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy, production of
elements heavier than iron however, absorbs energy, as it requires more
energy to force the nuclei together. For nuclei to react, conditions are
estimated to be a minimum of 10 million degrees Celsius.
Also, in our universe, these temperatures existed in the very early
stages of the Universe (just after the Big Bang, which released a huge
amount of energy that was changed to thermal energy, eventually it is still
the same method in which stars create elements).
3. Choose an element and research the following information about it: When
it was discovered, by whom it was discovered, how it is found in nature, its
properties and uses.
The element that I have chosen to research and compile information

about is chlorine, the element with an atomic number of 17.
Chlorine was discovered in 1810 by Sir Humphry Davy, who repeated a
failed experiment earlier to determine if it was an element, and eventually
succeeded in proving that it is an element and not a compound. He named it
from the Greek word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow.
In nature, Chlorine is rather abundant and is found primarily as the
chloride ion, a component of the salt that is deposited in the earth or
dissolved in the oceans, and approximately 1.9% of the mass of seawater
consists of chloride ions. Higher concentrations of chloride ions can be found
in the Dead Sea and in underground brine deposits. Most chloride salts are
soluble in water, thus, chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in
abundance in dry climates or deep underground.
The properties of chlorine are that it is a pale yellow-green gas that
has a melting point of -101.5 °C and a boiling point of -34.04 °C. It is a
halogen, denser than air (and thus tends to accumulate at the bottom of
poorly ventilated spaces) and it is also highly reactive. It is a toxic gas that
causes irritation to the respiratory system, and at 1000 ppm (parts per
million) inhaling it is fatal to humans. However, in its’ chloride ion form, which
make up salts, it is necessary to most forms of life, including humans.
Probably, its’ most important property that is utilized for commercial
purposes is that it is a powerful oxidant.
Chlorine's principal applications are in the production of a wide range
of industrial and consumer products. For example, it is used in making
plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles,
agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, household
cleaning products, etc. Chlorine is also used in the manufacture of numerous
organic chlorine compounds, and also in the production of chlorates and in
bromine extraction.
As it is a powerful oxidant, it is also used in the making of disinfectants
and in bleach, and also to purify water. Chlorine itself in water is more
effective than an equivalent concentration of bromine or iodine. Chlorine is
usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other
microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools. However,
since it has so much potential, it has also been abused by humans. For
example, in both World War I and in the Iraq War, chlorine gas was used as a
chemical weapon, and from the descriptions of the soldiers who were
affected by it, chlorine gas “had a distinctive smell of a mixture between
pepper and pineapple, and tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat
and chest.” On certain occasions, it can also be lethal.

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Hwa Chong Institution

Secondary 2 Lower Secondary Science

Name: Keven Loo Yuquan (14) Class: 2I1 Date: 14 January

Currently, scientists have been able to artificially create all the

The element that I have chosen to research and compile information

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