Assessment of Student Learning 1 SPECIAL CLASS 2020

CHAPTER 1. NATURE OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT

OVERVIEW
You might have learned from your previous PCK classes that a successful lesson is a
product of a good instruction. A successful lesson, in turn, can be achieved with proper planning
and organization of content, using the most appropriate teaching procedures. But how will
teachers know if their lessons were successful?
The success of a lesson is almost always gauged from the result of an assessment
procedure. But what is assessment? How is learning assessed? How should learning be
assessed? This chapter attempts to give answers to these questions.

OBJECTIVES:
After going over the information and ideas in this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define assessment as applied to learning;
2. Differentiate among the concepts of measurement, testing, assessment, and evaluation;
3. Describe the major types of assessment methods and give an example for each;
4. Distinguish between:
a. assessment of, assessment for, and assessment as learning,
b. high-stakes versus low-stakes assessment or evaluation,
c. norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessments;
5. State the purposes of learning assessment;
6. Discuss the chronology of events in the history of educational assessment;
7. Explain the fundamental principles of assessment;
8. Evaluate the effectiveness of assessment practices.
CONTENT:
1.1. The Language of Learning Assessment: Assessment, Measurement, and
Evaluation
The term assessment has been defined in various ways, to wit:
• An ongoing act of collecting various types of information about individuals or groups
of individuals in order to understand them.
• A process of data collection and the gathering of evidence.
• A process by which a teacher gathers data to determine student achievement in order
to provide constructive feedback to improve learning success.
The act of gathering of information involves some kind of measurement. Measurement
in education can be defined as the process in which we quantify (give numerical values to) the
information gathered in the assessment process.
SAQ1. How are educational measurements done?
One common procedure of quantifying or measuring educational outcomes is testing. A
test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about

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certain characteristics of an individual. However, there are other types of measurement than
tests, and the difference is that a test is designed to obtain a specific sample of behavior.

SAQ1.2. What types or categories of tests are you familiar with? Name five of them.

DQ1.1. Some people tend to use the words test and assessment interchangeably.
Assessment is the newer term and many people prefer its use over testing. Why do you
think is this the prevailing notion of many?

Evaluation, meanwhile, involves the development of a judgment regarding the quality,

value, or worth of assessment data, based upon established criteria. Evaluation procedures are
used to determine whether the subject (i.e. student) meets preset criteria, such as qualifying for
special education services. The result of evaluation may be used for making decision about a
learner’s achievement or potential for learning.
Both assessment and evaluation are necessary components of the process that often is
referred to only as assessment. The two terms are often used interchangeably, and are even
regarded to be synonymous. However, some minute distinctions between the two terms can be
captured in the following definitions:
• Assessment is the process of collecting performance data and evaluation as the process
of bringing meaning to that data.
• Assessment is the “the full range of procedures used to gain information about student
learning (observations, ratings of performances or projects, paper-and-pencil tests) while
evaluation is “the formation of value judgments concerning learning progress” (Linn &
Gronlund, 2000, 31, Cited in Parkay & Stanford, 2007).

1.2. Methods of Assessment

1.2.1. Major Assessment Methods
For a classroom assessment program to be effective, a variety of procedures should be
exploited. Some of these procedures may be informal observations while others may be more
structured and systematic procedures. The following are commonly used procedures used in
assessments.
1. Informal observation during instruction. Classroom observation during instruction alerts
the teacher to many specific ways to guide student learning.

SAQ1.2. Formal versus informal assessment: Determine if the following are

characteristics of informal or formal assessment:
1. Planned in advance of their administration
2. More spontaneous; less obvious
3. Typically occur at the end of instruction
4. Examples include teacher observations and questions
5. Typically occur during instruction

DQ1.2. Name two ways by which informal observation during discussion can improve student
learning. (4 points)

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2. Classroom Achievement tests. These tests provide a systematic procedure for

determining the extent to which intended learning outcomes have been achieved.
3. Process – Oriented Performance-Based assessment. These are observations and
judgments of an ongoing performance skill. Certain tools or devices are used in assessing
process-oriented performances. The purpose of the assessment device is to direct the
observation towards the most important element of the performance and to provide a place
to record the judgment.

SAQ1.3 Name three tools or devices that are used in process-oriented performance-
based assessment. Describe each of them and come up with an example for each. (15
pts.)
SAQ1.4. Give five specific activities (in different subject areas) that are measured in terms
of process-oriented performance-based assessment. (5 pts.)

4. Product – Oriented Performance-Based assessment. Some types of performance result

in a product that becomes the focus of the assessment. A written essay, a graph, a map,
a painting, a model, etc. are all examples of products that can be assessed directly.

SAQ1.5. Give three other examples of products that are assessed directly. (3 pts.)
SAQ1.6. What three devices can be used to assess products? (3 pts.)

5. Portfolio assessment. A portfolio is a collection of student work used to show learning

progress over a period of time or to show the student’s best work. The students typically
participate in selecting the portfolio entries in terms of their learning progress.

SAQ1.7. What examples of students’ works are typically entered in a portfolio? Name five.
(5 pts.)

1.2.2. Assessment of Learning, Assessment for learning, and Assessment as Learning

How are assessments of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning
different? What does each imply? The table below distinguishes the meaning of the three ideas.

TABLE 1.1. Descriptions of Assessment of, for, and as learning

Assessment of This assessment is summative in nature. It basically measures the

Learning student’s attainment of standards
Assessment for This assessment is more formative. It determines student’s background
Learning knowledge and skills, and tracks student’s progress in understanding.
Assessment as In this assessment, the students reflect on the results of assessment,
Learning chart their own progress, and plan the next steps to improve their
performance. This assessment builds metacognition as it involves the
students in setting and monitoring own learning goals.

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1.2.3. High Stakes and Low Stakes Assessment/Evaluation

High-stakes evaluation refers to assessment results that have real consequences for the
participants or other stakeholders. Examples of high-stakes assessments include tests that
determine eligibility for special services such as special education resources and gifted and
talented programs.
Low-stakes evaluation refers to assessment results that are useful primarily in local and
informal ways. An example is a classroom attitude survey that measures students’ interest in
reading.

1.2.4. Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Assessment

Assessment or evaluation can also be norm-referenced or criterion-referenced. The
table below compares these two types of assessment.

TABLE 1.2. Comparison between norm-referenced and criterion referenced testing

Basis of Comparison Norm-Referenced Testing Criterion-Referenced Testing
Principal Use Survey testing Mastery testing
Major Emphasis Measures individual Describes tasks students can
differences in achievement perform
Interpretation of Compares performance to that Compares performance to a clearly
Results of other individuals specified achievement domain
Content Coverage Typically covers a broad area of Typically focuses on a limited set of
achievement learning tasks
Performance Level of performance is Level of performance is determined
standards determined by relative position by absolute standards
in some known groups (e.g. (demonstrates mastery by defining
ranks fifth in a group of 20) 90% of the technical terms)
Grade reporting As percentile ranks As percentages
Score report Only scores returned to Scores and answers returned to
strategies students students
Underlying purposes Classify/group students Foster learning
Student expectations Do not know what content to Know content to expect
expect
Test length and time More questions, longer time Fewer questions, shorter time
allocation

DQ1.2. Between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests, which do you think will better
promote learning? Why?

1.2.5. Traditional and Modern Assessments

Modern assessment reforms are pushing for more alternative or authentic assessments
in schools. They do not mean, however that traditional paper-and-pencil tests should be replaced
with these less-traditional assessment methods. Teachers should consider all forms of
assessment – traditional or otherwise. At times, paper-and-pencil testing is more practical and
accurate than oral presentation. Teachers should use a variety of assessment instrument to
determine student achievement.

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Do the exercise on the difference between traditional and non-traditional assessment

tasks.
1.2.6. Looking Specifically at Tests
You have taken tests of various kinds in your life as a student. And for sure, you will take
more as you progress through your years as a student, and perhaps, even if you have already
graduated.
Tests come in many forms – oral, practical, written, objective, essay, diagnostic,
achievement, etc.

SAQ1.8. Describe an oral, written, and practical test.

Try completing Table 1.3 below by naming the type of test based on the descriptions
provided. Use the word bank for your answers.
TABLE 1.3. Types of Written Tests
Type Description
1. Emphasizes reading, writing, or speaking. Most tests in education are of
this type.
2. Does not require reading, writing, or speaking ability. Tests composed of
numerals and drawings are examples.
3. Tests constructed entirely by teachers for use in the teachers’ classrooms.
4. Tests constructed by measurement experts over a period of years. They
are designed to measure broad, national objectives and have a uniform set
of instructions.
5. Tests with liberal time limits that allow each student to attempt each item.
Items tend to be difficult.
6. Tests with time limits so strict that no one is expected to complete all items.
Items tend to be easy.
7. A test which is designed to show which skill or knowledge a learner know or
does not know.
8. A test that predicts how well a person is likely to do in a certain school
subject or task.
9. A test which measures how much a learner has learned with reference to a
particular course of study of program of instruction.
10. A test which measures someone’s general level of mastery.
11. A test whose results will be used to assign a particular learner to an
appropriate level in a program or course.
12. A test which measures a student’s performance according to a particular
standard or criterion which has been agreed upon.
13. A test which is designed to measure how the performance of a particular
student or group of students compares with the performance of another
student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm.
ANSWER BOX
Achievement Criterion-referenced Diagnostic
Nonverbal Norm-referenced Placement
Power Proficiency Prognostic
Speed Standardized Teacher-made
Verbal

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1.3 Purpose of Assessment (and/or Evaluation)

What do you usually feel when you take tests or any form of assessment? Have you
ever wondered why teachers and other stakeholders need to assess learners?
You may believe or not, but the sole purpose of assessment is to promote and improve
learning! How is that possible?
Students learn more in classes in which assessment is a regular part of classroom
routines, particularly when assessments are frequent and provide feedback to learners. Practice
and feedback are essential components of effective teaching, and assignments, quizzes, and
tests, and alternative assessments give students opportunities to demonstrate and receive
feedback about their understanding. This feedback is helpful both to them and to other interested
parties, such as their teachers, parents, and school and district administrators.
The other functions of assessment are categorized as instructional, guidance, and
administrative. Read through the next sections for you to understand each of these functions.
a. Instructional function
i. Determining the learner’s level of achievement
ii. Determining of the effectiveness of the teacher, teaching method, learning situation
and instructional materials
iii. Motivating the child by showing him his progress, i.e., success breeds success.
iv. Predicting students’ performance in novel situations.

(b) Guidance functions

Assessment procedure can give the teacher diagnostic data about individual pupils in
his/her class. These will show the pupils’ strength, weaknesses and interests. It can also help to
decide on which method to use or what remedial activities that are necessary. Parents and pupils
can also be rightly guided in terms of career choice.
(c) Administrative functions
i. Serves as communication of information when data collected are used in reports to
parents
ii. Forms the basis upon which streaming, grading, selection and placement are
based.
iii. Allows stakeholders to make appropriate decisions and recommendations on curricula
packages and curricula activities.
For any form of assessment to be able to serve the above functions, it cannot be a one
shot kind of assessment. It has to be an on-going exercise throughout the teaching and learning
processes. This is why continuations assessment is advocated in the classroom.

1.4. A Bit of Assessment History

Early in the 20th century, assessment procedures in schools served primarily a sorting
function: Teachers’ assessments separated students who knew much from students who did not.
The testing movement began to flourish in the early 20th century, prompted by the work of Alfred
Binet and his colleagues. Their efforts led to the creation of the Binet-Simon Scale, considered
the first modern intelligence test. With the advent of standardized testing in the 1930s, instruction
was divorced from assessment: Teachers taught and ranked students; assessors checked
learning. In the 1970s and 1980s, society voiced two concerns: (1) Students sorted to the bottom

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of the stack had no means to contribute to the economic vitality of a nation and (2) Businesspeople
asked for influence over the quality of their potential workforce. Those two forces gave rise to an
expanded set of outcomes to be measured through school’s assessment procedures.
Table 1.4 below presents a chronology of the major events in the history of education
assessment.
TABLE 1.4. A chronology of major events in the history of educational assessment
Period Major Trend Noteworthy Events
Before 1850 Extensive use of oral tests >Weakness of oral examinations documented
by Horace Mann
>Earliest reported use of objective educational
tests by George Fisher
1875 Oral tests large replaced >Interest in measurement of individual
by essay tests differences stimulated by Francis Galton
>First systematic empirical study of education
by Joseph Rice
>Concept and use of grade norms introduced
by Rice
1900-1925 Classic studies of >First measurement textbook by Edward
unreliability of essay tests Thorndike
>First standardized achievement tests
>First large-scale testing programs in New York
>Teachers introduced objective tests by
William McCall.
>First battery of standardized achievement
tests, the Stanford Achievement Tests
1925-1950 Many standardized >First large-scale evaluation of education
achievement tests are programs.
developed and become >Publication of the first Mental Measurement
widely used in education. Yearbook
>Educational Testing Service established.
1950-1970 ▪ Emphasis on >Publication of the Taxonomy of Educational
assessment of Objectives: Cognitive Domain by Bloom, et al.
affective objectives > Publication of the Taxonomy of Educational
▪ Emphasis on Objectives: Affective Domain by Krathwohl, et
accountability in al.
education >National Assessment of Educational Progress
begins.
1990s The birth of authentic >The emergence of performance and portfolio
assessment assessment.
2000s Assessment and >Society is beginning to see the issues of
accountability in education educational accountability

1.5. Some Fundamental Principles of Assessment

The following principles should be considered when planning and implementing
assessment procedures:
1. Teachers need to know about assessment because they need to monitor their
students’ progress.
• Without assessment, a teacher would not know that after a lesson a particular
student was experiencing learning difficulty.

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SAQ1.9. For what other reasons should teachers know about assessment?

2. The relationship between instruction and assessment is vital.

3. Paper-and-pencil testing should not be replaced with more realistic and meaningful
performance assessment. Rather, teachers should consider all forms of assessment to determine
student progress.
4. Teacher should be skilled in choosing and in developing assessment methods
appropriate for instructional decisions.
5. Teacher should be skilled in administering, scoring, and interpreting the results of both
externally produced and teacher-produced assessment methods.
6. Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making decisions about
individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement.
7. Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading procedures that use pupil
assessments.
8. Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to students, parents,
other lay audiences, and other educators.
9. Teachers need to know the validity and reliability of a test. Validity and reliability are
two of the most important characteristic of assessment procedures. The two most important
questions to ask about a test or other assessment procedures, according to Gronlund (2003, p.
201), are: (a) To what extent will the interpretation of the result be appropriate, meaningful, and
useful? (that’s validity), and (b) To what extent will the results be free from errors? (that’s
reliability).” We will allot a chapter for the discussion of validity and reliability.

1.6. Characteristics of Effective Assessment

1. Effective assessment requires a clear conception of all intended learning outcomes.
➢ There is a need to specify all intended learning outcomes (simple and complex) in
terms of student performance and make plans to assess them all.

2. Effective assessment requires that a variety of assessment procedures be used.

➢ The vast array of possible learning outcomes in any particular area of instruction
means that various types of assessment must be considered in planning for
assessment.
3. Effective assessment requires that the instructional relevance of procedures be
constructed.
Instructionally relevant assessment means that the intended outcomes of instruction, the
domain of learning tasks, and the assessment procedures will all be in close agreement,
as shown in the figure below.

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INSTRUCTION
Indicates the learning outcomes to be attained by the
students
Is there close ACHIEVEMENT DOMAIN
agreement? Specifies the particular set of learning tasks to be attained

ACHIEVEMENT ASSESSMENT
Provides a procedure designed to measure a representative
sample of the instructionally relevant learning tasks specified
in the achievement domain

FIGURE 1.1. Sequence in Preparing Instructionally Relevant Assessment (From Gronlund &
Waugh, 2009).

4. Effective assessment requires an adequate sample of student performance.

➢ All topics taught should be represented in the assessment tool to be provided.

5. Effective assessment requires that the procedures be fair to everyone.

➢ An assessment program is fair when:
• It makes the intended learning outcomes clear to students;
• it uses assessment procedures that are instructionally relevant and
adequately sample student performance;
• It uses assessment results to improve learning.
6. Effective assessment requires the specifications of criteria for judging successful
performance.
➢ Students should have a clear notion of what is expected of them and clearly
specified criteria of successful performance can be used to clarify the learning
tasks.
7. Effective assessment requires feedback to students that emphasizes strengths of
performance and weaknesses to be corrected.

8. Effective assessment must be supported by a comprehensive grading and reporting

system.
➢ The grading and reporting procedures should reflect and support assessment
procedures, and be made clear to students at the beginning of instruction, and
provide for periodic feedback to students concerning their learning progress.
____________________________________________________________________________

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CHAPTER EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1.1. Assessing or not assessing?

Read the following classroom scenarios and determine if each involves assessment of learning
or not.

1. In geography class, students are studying climate and each student has two items of
clothing, one for hot weather and one for cold weather. When the teacher directs them
during the class discussion, students must hold up the item of clothing that would be
appropriate for: New Zealand in May; Aruba in September; Mongolia in August.

2. For the first five minutes of each class, the teacher provides basic math operations that
students must answer orally. For this activity, the teacher uses index cards with individual
student names written on them and randomly calls on students.

3. In a language class, the students silently read a short story which they will discuss the
following day. They are responsible for reading the discussion questions as homework in
preparation for the following day’s large-group discussion.

4. For social studies, students are reading a section of the chapter and taking notes which
they’ll hand in the following day. The teacher monitors students for on-task behavior.

5. In math class, students are asked to select and answer three of the five problems sets
provided in the textbook. After fifteen minutes, they exchanged papers to correct another
person’s work. The scores were recorded for reference. The more difficult problems were
identified and were further explained.

6. When students walk into their science class, they notice that the teacher has drawn a large
diagram of the human eye. He instructs them to get a piece of paper, number it 1-10, and
identify the parts (labeled 1-10). When students finish, they are to compare their answers
to a classmate’s, and star any questionable answers. During the ensuing discussion, the
teacher checks the status of the students’ answers and then they hand in this mock quiz.

7. In a kindergarten lesson, the teacher aims that the learners will correctly write the upper
case letter M. She started demonstrating the patterns or strokes in writing the said letter.
The pupils observed. Then the teacher asked the pupils to practice writing the letter M on
their papers.

8. In a PE class, the teacher presents a video on the different swimming strokes. He

instructed his students to focus their attention on the differences in hand and leg
movements in these strokes.

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EXERCISE 1.2. Assessment versus evaluation.

Decide if the teacher is assessing her students or evaluating them.

1. In preparation for a test, the teacher provided an optional review study guide. Before
students take the test, those who completed the study guide hand it in to the teacher who
makes a note of it in her gradebook.

2. At the beginning of the year, the teacher is given information about students with special
needs. She makes a note about each child on her seating chart.

3. The social studies teacher uses a checklist for the project her students are in the midst of
completing. Each day several students bring their checklist and project to her. She looks
at a student’s project and then circles “excellent” and “needs more work” by several items
on the checklist and hands it back to the student.

4. In English class, students are used to a routine for checking homework completion. They
got out their homework assignment and place it on their desk so the teacher can check it.
While they’re reading a novel, the teacher checks students’ assignments and initials their
answers to document how much they had completed before the assignment is discussed.
Later the teacher will note the students who had incomplete assignments.

5. Students have been engaged in group work for about ten minutes when the teacher takes
a “status” check. She tells those groups who need more time to raise their hands and all
groups raise their hands, so she says that she’ll extend their time an extra five minutes.

6. The teacher is curious about her students’ learning styles, so she keeps track of student
participation during class discussions by putting a check mark next to a student’s name
on the seating chart each time that student volunteers an answer.

7. Students receive their unit test back in math class. Many are happy with their grades but
for those who are not, the teacher has provided extra study sessions and an opportunity
for a retake.

8. Before students begin their math homework assignment, the teacher assigns them
problems 1, 2, and 5 to complete. While students are solving these problems, she walks
by the desk of each student to check progress and answer questions. She realizes that
most students are confused by problems 2 and 5 so she stops the class, reteaches the
concept, and then modifies the homework assignment.

HINTS:
Assessment is the process through which teachers gather information about how much or how
well their students are learning.

Evaluation is making a judgment, taking action, and placing value on the information gathered.

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EXERCISE 1.3. Determine whether the following descriptions/features are true for Assessment
of Learning (AOL), Assessment for Learning (AFL), and Assessment as Learning (AAL):
1. Pertains to formative assessment.
2. Pertains to summative assessment
3. Provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make adjustments
to their learning
4. Develops and supports students' metacognitive skills.
5. Crucial in helping students become lifelong learners.
6. Provides useful reporting information, but it often has little effect on learning.
7. Continual evaluation of instructional choices which act as the heart of improving our
teaching practice.

EXERCISE 1.4. Purpose of Assessment

Classify the following purposes as instructional, guidance, or administrative
1. Determining student’s prior knowledge – can be performed dynamically, in the context of
teaching, or more formally, based on specially designed tests that identify students’
strengths and weaknesses in specific areas. It provides a basis for curricular planning
and change. Examples are brainstorming and curriculum webbing.
2. Providing data for curricular revisions. Evaluation is a feedback mechanism for
educational improvement. When student performance is viewed as an indicator of
program effectiveness, the likelihood of curriculum improvement increases, and a major
contribution is made to improving the quality of education. Curricula are informally
revised by the teacher on a moment-by-moment basis, as the lesson or activity emerges
in the classroom context. It is also important that curricula can be officially revised,
based on program evaluation data.
3. Offering constructive feedback to students. Students learn most effectively when they
receive feedback that facilitates and motivates their learning. This feedback may come
from their teachers, form other support professionals or from their peers. It’s a continual
challenge to stretch students without breaking them.
4. Allowing learners to show what they know. As you know, students bring with them to the
teaching/learning process a variety of strengths and types of intelligences.
Consequently, it’s the teacher’s responsibility to promote students’ ability to perform and
share their abilities in a variety of context.
5. Anticipating learners’ educational needs. Educational needs are the products of
judgments about what counts in educational matters. It’s important to remember that
your values – both cultural and educational – will influence the decisions you’ll make
regarding the future educational needs of your students.
6. Determining if curricular objectives have been achieved. Educational programs should
be driven by clearly formulated objectives. Objectives are the criteria for determining
whether the program has been effective.

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EXERCISE 1.5. Selecting Assessment Instruments: General Criteria to be considered. Use

the word box as guide to determine what is described in the sentences that follow:

WORD BOX
Balance Ideal difficulty Discrimination Efficiency Fairness
Objectivity Relevance Reliability Specificity Validity

1. This is a characteristic of an assessment instrument where the test items and the learning
objectives match. ___________________________

2. This means that in an assessment tool, the learning objectives are well distributed to the
items. It may also involve the proper distribution of simple recall questions, and questions
that measure creative and critical thinking. ___________________________

3. An assessment device in which the administration and scoring entail the least cost to the
school. ___________________________

4. The scoring and interpretation of assessment results must be free from bias.
One way to lessen the tendency of the teacher to be subjective in scoring authentic
assessment is to employ multiple scorers. ___________________________

5. The assessment instrument should promote equality. The criteria set, and the
questions asked, must be applicable to everybody. ___________________________

6. The behavior indicators to be assessed must be spelled out specifically. Vague

items should be avoided. ___________________________

7. The items should neither too easy nor too difficult. The ideal index of difficulty is 0.50,
which means that 50% of the high performers got the item right, and 50% of the low
performers got the item wrong. ___________________________

8. An assessment tool where an item can distinguish between high performers from
low performers. ___________________________

9. An assessment instrument possesses this characteristic if it yields consistent results.

____________________________
10. An assessment tool can satisfy this criterion by its ability to measure what it intends to
measure. ___________________________

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a. Between what sets of scores do 68.26%, 95.44%, and 99.74% of the scores fall?

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